POLITICAL CONCEPTS

Medieval Europe

● Socially -
○ Religion Dominating
○ Not Scientific
○ No Progress
● Politically -
○ Religious Wars
○ No Concept of Nation State
● Economic Stagnation -
○ Feudalism - Land is the Only Wealth

Solutions :

● Secularism
○ Complete Separation of State and Religion
● Sovereignty
○ Nation State
● Classical Liberal ( Negative Liberal ) -
○ Capitalism

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Secularism :

● Western Concept
● Separation of State and Religion
● Separate Sphere - No Intervention

Sovereignty :

● One authority whose Order is Final

● In 3 Sphere - L/E/J

Nation :

● The Feeling of "We"

● India become the Nation First

State :

● Population
● Territory
● Sovereignty
● Govt

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Story of Liberalism :

● Liberty is the Core Value

● Meaning of Liberty
● Example Given by Amartya Sen
○ Negative Liberty ( Earlier Phase )
■ "Absence of Restraint "
■ Law is against Liberty
■ State must have only Limited Role - Laissez Faire - Intervention only for
Law and Order + Contract Enforcement
■ State is Necessary ( Must for above Role ) Evil ( Curb Liberty )
■ Classical Liberal
■ Relation with Equality - Negative

○ Positive Liberty ( Modern Phase) - Indian Constitution

■ “ Presence of Conditions which are essential for Fuller development of
Oneʼs Personality "
■ Who will Create these Conditions ?
■ State
■ State is Positive Good
■ State hinders the Hindrances in the Path of Liberty
■ Law is essential for Liberty
■ Relation with Equality - Complimentary

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Capitalism :

● Free Market ( Liberty in Economic Sphere )

● Private Player - reinvesting for more Profit

New Problems :

● Secularism -
○ What if Religion is too much integrated in individual life - Western Model of
Secularism , not valid for Eastern societies
● Sov- Nation State -
○ Absolute Rulers - Authoritarianism
● Capitalism -
○ Negative liberty
○ Inequality and Exploitation of Worker

Solutions :

● Indian Model of Secularism

● Constitutional Form of a Govt and Parliament for Traders
● Rise of Socialism

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Indian Model of Secularism :

● No Strict Separation
● State and Religion not two different sphere
○ State can intervene in Religious Matter
■ In democracy and diversity -
● Minority culture might be suppressed -
● To protect it from majority Onslaught - State Intervention
■ For Gender Justice - Sabrimala , Tripple Talaq
■ For Caste Justice - Temple Entry
○ Religion is Publicly Recognised
■ Holiday at all festival
■ Amarnath Yatra and Haj Yatra
■ However No discrimination is allowed
● Pseudo Secular
● Minority appeasement
● Communalism and Casteism
● Principle Distance Model - Rajeev Bhargav

Constitutional Form of a Govt and Parliament for Traders :

● Constitutional Form
○ Constitution which protect individual from the absolutism of State - Limited
State
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 ○ Certain Rights which are Sacrosanct - Fundamental Rights - Protection for
Individual against the Tyranny of State
● Parliament
○ Elected body who has limited Power
○ Democracy
○ Separation of Power
○ Monarchy Vs Republic

Story of Socialism :

● "Socialism is a hat which has lost its shape because everyone wears it "
● One Common Thing -
○ Oppose Inequality and exploitative nature of capitalism
○ Emphasis on Equality
● Types
○ First Category
■ Utopian Socialist -
■ Impractical means to achieve the goal of socialism
■ Scientific Socialism
■ Given by Karl Marx
■ Scientific analysis of Society
■ Communism - a type of Socialism

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 ○ Second Category
■ Evolutionary
■ Gradual achievement
■ Democratic Socialism
■ Nehru
■ Achieving the goal of Socialism through Democratic
Means
■ Revolutionary
■ Through Revolution
■ Karl Marx
■ Mao

● Communism of Marx
○ No Private Property
○ No State ( State is the capitalist instrument )
○ Means of Production Socially Controlled - Voluntary organization delivering
Social goods
○ No Religion - Religion is the Opium of Masses
■ Result
■ Dictatorship of Communist Party
■ Lenin in Russia

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1. Monarchy and Republic

● Monarchy
○ Head of the State is Hereditary - The Post is not Open to all
○ Head of the Government may be elected
○ Aim is Continuity and Stability
○ Britain
○ Can Monarchy and Democracy Coexist
■ Yes
■ Democracy is about government
○ What if Head of the government is also not elected
■ Dictatorship
■ Saudi Arabia
■ If Rulers ruling in interest of People
■ Benevolent Dictatorship
■ If not
■ Authoritarianism
● Republic
○ Head of The State is elected - The post is open to all
○ President of India

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2. Federalism Vs Unitary

● Federalism
○ Essential Feature -
■ Dual Government
■ Provincial level drive its power from Constitution not from National
○ Other Features
■ Written Constitution - So That Power of Provinces is not questionable
■ Independent judiciary - To resolve any dispute between Federal Units
○ Why federalism
■ Good Governance - Principle of subsidiarity
■ Diversity accommodation
■ Promoting Local participation in governance
● Unitary feature
○ All India Services
○ UT
○ Power to make law over State list
○ Overriding power over Concurrent list
● Is India a federal Country :
○ Yes
● Federalism is part of Basic structure
● Cooperative Federalism
○ Centre and State Cooperate with Each other
○ Contrast with USA - Water Tight Compartment - No Cooperation
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 ○ But in India
■ Centre depends on State for implementation of its policies
■ State depends on Centre for Funds
● Competitive Federalism
○ Federal Units Competing
○ State competing with each other
■ For Centre Fund
■ For Private fund
● Asymmetric Federalism
○ 370
○ RS seats
○ 371

3. Parliamentary vs Presidential

● Concept of Separation of Power

○ Talked about by John Locke
○ No concentration of Power - to avoid authoritarianism
○ 3 Branches of Govt
■ Law making : Legislature
■ Law Execution : Executive
■ Law adjudication : Judiciary
○ Gradually Independence of Judiciary become a norm
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 ○ Independence of judiciary is part of BS as well in India
○ Separation of Executive and Judiciary is also part of DPSP
○ Wrt Legislature and Executive - Two forms of govt evolved
■ Presidential - Complete separation of executive and Legislature - In USA
■ Parliamentary - No complete Separation - System of Checks and
balances - India
○ Why India adopted Parliamentary form
■ Responsible govt - where legislature can have a certain control over
Executive is preferred
○ Instrument of Control
■ Budget - Cut Motion
■ Adjournment Motion
■ Parliamentary Committee
■ Etc

4. Rights :

● Rights also have two phases - Negative and Positive

● Story evolved from Authoritarianism where Individual do not have any protection
against State
● Rights evolved as a sphere where State can not Intervene eg: Right to Life
● Negative theory of Rights
○ Some area of Individual activity

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a) Equality

● Negative Concept
○ Absence of Discrimination
○ Thus reject affirmative action - No Reservation
● Positive Concept
○ Presence of those Conditions which are required for Fuller Development of
Oneʼs Personality
○ Permit affirmative action - Reservation
● Equality of What ?
○ Outcome -
■ Communist Support this
■ From each according to his capacity to each according to his needs
■ Undermine Liberty - because in order to maintain same Outcome , Liberty
of few will be compromised
○ Opportunity -
■ Amartya Sen Support This
■ Accept natural inequality
■ Better Coherence with Liberty
■ Create Conditions which are equally accessible to all
● In India we follow Positive Concept

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b) Justice :

● “Jus” - Synthesis of Liberty and equality

● What should happen
● Many Scholar as per his/ her opinion
● Most Common is John Rawls and Amartya Sen
● Procedural Justice Vs Substantive Justice
○ Procedural
■ If Procedures are just then Outcome will also be just
■ EG : If we have made constitution on just principle and laws according to
constitution , then Social Justice is realised
■ Procedure established by Law
○ Substantive Justice
■ Outcome has to be Just , mere procedures will not Suffice
■ Due Process of Law - Maneka Gandhi case , 1978
● Distributive Justice vs Criminal Justice
○ Criminal
■ If any Crime is done , then what should happen
○ Distributive Justice
■ How the benefits and Burden has to be distributed in the society
● Rawlsian Theory
○ Procedural theory
○ Distributive Justice
○ "Justice is Fairness"
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 ○ Three Principal of Justice by Rawls
■ Maximum Liberty
■ Equality
■ Difference Principle
■ In Case of any unequal treatment - it has to be in favour of
disadvantageous one
○ Constitution based on above principal - Laws - Justice is done
● Amartya Sen
○ Justice is Subjective , thus it cant be defined
○ We should focus on eliminating what is Injustice
○ Substantive justice
○ Capability approach
■ Improve capacity of people so that they can live life as per Own priority

c) Rights and Duties Relationship

● Rights are more Important

○ Classical liberals
● Duties are more important
○ Socialist
● Rights and duties are Correlated
○ Gandhiji
○ Two Parts of same Coin

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 ○ If You fulfil your Duty , rights will be automatically ensured

d) Democracy :

● Rule of the People , by the people , for the people - AL

● Popular Sov - Ultimate Power Lies with People
● Two Types
○ Direct
■ Direct exercise of power
■ Switzerland
■ Four devices -
■ Referendum - Take opinion of people on law
■ Initiative - Law initiative by people
■ Plebiscite - Public importance
■ Recall - Calling back before the end of term

○ Indirect
■ Representative of people take the decision
■ Representative Democracy
■ Two Kinds
■ Parliamentary - Executive responsible to legislature
■ Presidential - Not responsible

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Gandhi -Ambedkar- Marx
a) Gandhijiʼs Core ideas

● Truth
○ Speak Pleasant as well
○ Need Courage
● Non-Violence
○ Towards environment as well
● Satyagraha
○ Heart change of opponents
● Bread Labour
○ Everyone must do some basic physical work to understand its importance
● Doctrine of trusteeship
○ People with Wealth are not its Owner rather they are the Trustees . They should
use this wealth for the welfare of all .
○ So we don't need abolition of private property
● Materialism vs Spiritualism
○ Spiritualism must be given more importance
○ Vivekananda - Both are important
● Service to the people
● Gandhijiʼs Talisman
○ Look to the face of poorest of the poor while having ethical dilemma

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 ● Seven Sin
○ Wealth without work.
○ Pleasure without conscience.
○ Knowledge without character.
○ Commerce without morality.
○ Science without humanity.
○ Religion without sacrifice.
○ Politics without principle.
● View about State
○ View about State
■ State is necessary Evil
■ Necessary - for law and Order and Contract obligation
■ Evil- Curbs individual liberty
■ Classical Liberals like John Locke
■ State is Positive Good
■ Positive liberal
■ State Create the conditions for the fuller development of ones
personality
■ Amartya Sen
○ State is an instrument of Violence - Essential Evil
■ Anarchist -
■ doesnʼt mean lawlessness
■ Only means rejection of authority

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 ■ Gandhiji and Karl Marx
■ Both Consider State as essential Evil
■ Gandhiji thinks it is an instrument of Violence
■ Marx thinks it is instrument of exploitation in the hands of capitalist
■ Thats why both supported Stateless , classless society
■ Ramrajya of Gandhiji
● Sarvodaya
○ Development of all
○ Development
■ Material
■ Spiritual
○ All
■ Poor
■ Rich
● Issue of Caste Discrimination
○ Varna is good - B/V/K/S
■ Division of labour
■ Limiting unnecessary competition
■ More time for spiritualism
■ Varna ashram dharma - Duty -Geeta
○ Untouchability is not Original , rather it is corrupted form of Varna system
■ Thus must be eliminated
■ Gandhiji made many attempts to eliminate untouchability

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 ■ Heart Change - appeal to conscience
■ Hindu who practice untouchability is not a real hindu
○ Caste discrimination is also Wrong
■ How remove caste discrimination
■ No need to abolish Varna system
■ Bread labour
■ Heart Change
■ Cleanliness by Lower Caste
■ Evolutionary approach - gradual
■ Here Comes Main point of Conflict between Gandhiji and Ambedkar
■ Ambedkarʼs approach to eliminate Caste discrimination
■ Open Competitive exam for the post of Priest
■ Abolish Varna system and rejecting text which justify it
■ Ambedkarʼs Reply to Gandhijiʼs Justification
■ Unscientific Division of labour
■ Competition brings productivity
■ Promote Intercaste dining and marriage
■ Reservation - Lower caste must take education and
employment
■ Revolutionary approach
■ Other Key Elements of Ambedkarʼs thought
■ Origin of Untouchability

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 ■ Original member of Hindu Community who started
eating Non-Veg
■ Without Socio-economic Democracy , Political democracy is
meaningless
■ Idea of State Socialism - State as an instrument which helps in
achieving the goals of socialism
■ India at the time of Independence is not a Nation , rather “
Nation in Making “
■ Local Self Govt - another Instrument of Caste exploitation as
casteism is more deep in Rural area
■ Rural areas are the dens of ignorance
b) Karl Marx
● Dialectical Materialism
○ Dialectics - Thesis -antithesis
○ Not of Idea , but of material Forces
● Historical materialism
○ Application of the concept in History
○ Slave - Lord ……….. Capitalist - Labour
● Class Concept
○ Class Struggle is inevitable if Class Concept exist
○ That's why suggested Classless Society

● Economic Determinism
○ Economic forces are the base
○ Other political , Social , Art , Culture are superstructure
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 ○ Those who Control Economic forces will Control all other
○ That's why Suggested abolition of Private Property
● Concept of Surplus Value
○ Basic of exploitation
○ Value extracted by Capitalist - accumulated as a profit - use it for further
exploitation
● View On State
○ Stateless Society
● Communism
○ Revolution - “ Violence is unavoidable “ - Contrast with Gandhiji
○ Two Classes - Capitalist ( Bourgeoisie ) vs Labour ( Proletariat )
○ Revolution by Labour Class - Dictatorship of Proletariat
○ Final stage is communism
○ Classless
○ Stateless '
○ No Private property
○ From Each according to his capacity to each according to his needs
● Concept of Alienation
○ From Society
○ From his own Production
○ From himself
● In Communism - True Freedom - No Alienation

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