Maps and projections

Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

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 Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

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 Plane (2D) Coordinate Systems

Plane (Cartesian)
Rectangular
Coordinate System

Plane Polar
Coordinate System

Geographic Coordinate Systems

of Earth
• Graticule – Network of latitude and longitude to locate
places on Earth

• North and South geographic poles are the primary

reference points

• Two orthogonal planes – Plane of the equator and Prime

meridian (Greenwich)

• Two angles – Latitude (vertical) and Longitude

(horizontal)

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 Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

Map Projection - Basics

• Transformation of Earth graticule of geographic

coordinates from 3D to 2D
• Perspective (viewpoint), surface of projection (plane,
cylinder, or cone) and non-perspective (modifying the
perspective projection to maintain certain desired
properties (equal area, equal distance, correct shape)

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 Map Projection - Properties

• Area (Equal area)

• Shape (Conformal or Orthomorphic)
• Distance (Only possible to preserve in certain
directions)
• Direction (Preserved with conformal
projection)

• For a spherical Earth, all four properties are

correct. However, after transformation onto a
plane, only some of these aspects can be
maintained

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Gnomonic Projections (Center of the Globe

Orthographic Projections (Infinity)

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Stereographic Projections (Surface at the far side of the globe)

Map Projection - Classification

• Classification based on the type of

the developable surface onto which
the graticule is projected
–Cylindrical
–Conical
–Planar or Azimuthal

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Cylindrical Mercator projection

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 Map Projection - Aspects

• The developable surface may be

placed in three different ways
relative to the globe:
–The Normal aspect
–The Transverse Aspect
–The Oblique Aspect

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 Map Projection - Viewpoints

• Gnomonic Projections (Center of

the Globe

• Orthographic Projections (Infinity)

• Stereographic Projections (Surface

at the far side of the globe)

Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

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 UTM Coordinate System

• Aspect – Transverse: Placing true poles of

Earth to lie on the equator of basic projection
• Developable surface – Cylinder
• Distances are true only along the central
meridian – Cylinders touch the surface or the
Earth in different locations
• Distances, directions, shapes and areas are
preserved close to the central meridian
• Shapes and angles are true

UTM Coordinate System

• Multiple cylinders touches the globe at 6
degrees intervals – 60 projections zones each
6 degrees of longitude wide

• Limited to 84N and 80S to avoid extreme

distortion in polar regions

• To compensate for scale distortion along the

central meridian scale factors (0.9996;
1.0004) are applied to all measurements

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 UTM Coordinate System

• The UTM coordinate system is formed by superimposition of a

regular square grid on each UTM projection zone of 6 degrees
longitude width – The UTM zones are numbered 1-60 starting at 180
degrees W (180 degrees W to 174 degrees W; Central meridian = 177
degrees W)

• Each UTM zone is divided into 8 degrees horizontal bands of latitude

identified by letters beginning at 80 degrees S with the letter C and
ending with the letter X at 84 degrees N. the letters I and O are
skipped to avoid confusion with the numbers 1 and
0. Zone X spans 12 degrees instead of 8 degrees

• The UTM system are expressed as distance in meters to east

(easting) and north (northing).

• Central meridian = 500,000 m

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 UTM on equidistant cylindrical projection

UTM Zones in North America

180 174 168 162 156 150 144 138 132 126 120 114 108 102 96 90 84 78 72 66 60 54 48

Source: www.nps.gov

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 Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

Georeferencing

• Spatial Reference System

• Geographic Referencing or Georeferencing – The

representation of the location of real-world features within
the spatial framework of a particular coordinate system

• Progressive transformation from irregular surface of Earth

to a flat surface of map

• The Ellipsoid and Geoid Models

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 The Shape of the Earth

• The irregular shape of Earth makes it impossible to

transform geometric relationship from 3D Earth to 2D map
surfaces
• Assumption – Conceptualizing the Earth as simple, solid
shape that can be represented mathematically
• The Ellipsoid-Geoid Model

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 Details of Features Displayed:
North Atlantic Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Puerto Rico Trench / Lesser Antilles Region
Andes Mountain
Himalayan / Tibetan Plateau Region
Mariana Arc-Trench Region
Tonga / Kermadec Region

The Geoid - Earthlike

• Single undisturbed sea level covering the entire Earth

surface and adjusted to gravity
• Equi-potential surface – the gravity potential is
everywhere constant and the gravity direction is
vertical
• Geoid rises over continents (thicker crust) and
depressed over ocean (thinner crust)
• Difference between Ellipsoid and Geoid = Geoid
undulation, separation, height
• The angle between the perpendicular to the Ellipsoid
and Geoid = Vertical Deflection

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 Geoditic and Vertical Datums

• The Geoid coincides with the Mean Sea Level (MSL)

in open oceans

• Datum – A model describing the position, direction and

scale relationships of a reference surface to positions on
Earth surface

Geodetic Datum

• Surveying and mapping large geographic areas – country,

continent, world
• Datums are defined by:
– Reference ellipsoid
– Datum origin
– Longitude origin
– Azimuth orientation
– Adjustments
• Network of Geodetic control points through triangulation and
trilateration – Horizontal Geodetic reference system – North
American Datum (NAD)
• Global and local datums
– Global geodetic datums – Georeferencing based on a single point
at the center of Earth – World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)
– Local geodetic datums – Based on ellipsoids that best fit Earth
surface in a particular area

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 Comparison Between Datum
Elements

Latitude datum shift (m) between NAD 83 and NAD 27

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Longitude datum shift (m) between NAD 83 and NAD
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Vertical Datums

• A zero surface from which all elevations or

heights are measured – Mean Sea Level
(MSL)
• Global and Local Datums
– Global – National Imaging and Mapping Agency
(NIMA) – 1 m accuracy; The Global Sea Level
Observation System (GSLOS) – 300 sea level
observation stations
– Local – National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
(NGVD 29); North American Vertical Datum of
1988 (NAVD 88)

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Vertical datum shift between NAVD 88 and NAVD 29

Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

6. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

7. UTM convergence

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 Relationship Between Coordinate
Systems and Map Projections
• Map projections – Define how positions on
the Earth’s curved surface are translated onto
a flat map surface
• Coordinate Systems – A network
superimposed on the flat map surface to
provide the referencing framework by which
positions are measured and computed

Main systems is in use today

– The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

– The State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

– Townships and ranges

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 Outline
1. Maps and map scale

2. Coordinate system of the earth

3. Map projections

4. UTM

6. Georeferencing

7. Relationship Between Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

8. UTM convergence

UTM Convergence and Hemispheres

Central Meridian
1. True North at any point
Grid True True Grid aligns with the longitudinal
line through that point

2. In the Northern Hemisphere

– True North points inward
to the Central Meridian
True Grid Grid True

3. In the southern hemisphere

– True North points outward
from the Central meridian

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