University of Nueva Caceres

City of Naga
College of Engineering and Architecture

Research Paper on:

Climatic Design factors, Prevailing Winds,

Climatic Data and Analysis, Comfort: concepts, indices, and analysis, Climatic
concepts, elements and factors

Submitted by:

Aguilar Diether R.

Submitted to:

Ar. Janine Lizette Obias

(Instructor)
Climatic Design Factors
The design of buildings that respond to the environment involves the use of principles of
solar design as also a detailed understanding of the complex interrelationship between
architectural design, building materials, human behavior and climatic factors. This kind
of design, not restricted just to the use of solar energy but including the utilization of all
forms of natural energy to provide required comfort conditions within the built-up space
may be defined as climatic design.

Fig.1. Climatic Design of a Traditional Malay House

There are different climate factors that must be considered in civil operations, building
constructions and building designs. The most significant climate factors are as follows:
weather temperature, soil temperature, angle and intensity of sunlight, relative humidity,
direction and wind speed, rainfall and sunlight. Climate factors cannot be reduced in
these items. Rather barometric pressure and such are also considered as climate
factors but they don’t play a big part in designing and civil operations. Besides, the
changes of some climate parameters are not high over the year so it does not make a
big difference knowing about their time changes. Now, we’ll be dealing with each of
these factors.
1. Weather Temperature
Perhaps weather temperature is the most important climate factor affecting climate
designing. The intended dimensions in designing various points of a building and also
the material in use are determined by the maximum and the minimum temperature of
the region. Therefore, the quantity and quality for constructing a building are different
depending on the type of the region: tropical, cold and moderate. Glacial region would
require taking special decisions on the choice of materials. In order to prevent energy
dissipation in tropical and cold regions in summer and winter time, body insulation of the
buildings must be considered whereas this issue might not be of priority in moderate
regions.

2. Soil Temperature
Soil temperature and its changes are of importance over the year. The soil surface
experiences the most changeability of temperature during the year which is caused by
proximity with air and its changes. The more we go to the depth of the soil, the less
changes of temperature we have so that in a specific depth called depth or attenuation
depth temperature, annual changes of soil temperature is caused. Given the fact that
building foundation lies in the soil, knowing about soil temperature, especially glacial soil
and its depth, is of high significance in the selection of the materials and determining the
foundation of a building. Moreover, knowing about the depth of glacial soil can be
effective in the installation of gas, water... pipes. The depth of glacial soil is a point
where the soil does not freeze in the coldest time of the year. It is clear that in cold
regions the depth of installing such equipment must be lower than the depth of glacial
soil so that they become immune of any frozen state. In order to know about the depth
of glacial soil in any region, one shall refer to long-term climate data provided by
meteorological stations. Now that the question of constructing urban common tunnels is
around, this issue’s importance is doubled.

Figure. 2. A soil profile showing thermometers at

Different depths on a summer day

3. Sunshine
The rate of receiving sunshine is a function of several factors which include: latitude
(angle of sunshine), the amount of cloud, and sunshine hours. The less the latitude, the
less the angle of the stretch of sunshine with the vertical line to horizon and the more
the receiving sunshine. Sunshine hour is irrelevant with the amount of cloud, when one
increases the other decreases. In areas where the rate of receiving sunshine by the
earth surface is high, temperature is high too. If the goal is to reduce the amount of
sunshine entering the earth surface (this method has recently been noticed by
climatologists and it is one of the strategies for reducing global warming and earth
engineering), we can use reflexive mirrors.

Fig. 3. Passive solar design diagram

4. Relative Humidity
By definition, relative humidity refers to the proportion of the existing amount of humidity
in the air to the maximum amount of acceptable humidity in terms of percent. The more
the rate of relative humidity, the more the possibility for the formation of water drops on
physical objects on the earth surface (including buildings and other constructions such
as bridges, streets,etc.). This means the acceleration of the effect of humidity on
equipment and their rust chemically (corrosion of metals, oxidation of metals, etc.) and
physically (freezing water and causing crack in building design. In the regions where
there is more relative humidity of weather such as coastal areas and islands, designing
and construction of the buildings take place according to high adverse effects of water.
They must be designed and constructed in a way that physical and chemical adverse
effects of water decrease to the minimum level or even zero. This need is met through
the selection of water and corrosion-resist materials and equipment.

5. Wind Direction and Speed

Wind direction is a way from which it is blowing. Knowing about the wind direction of
each region, bearing the most frequency from that direction (prevailing wind), is an
important factor in setting the direction of building construction aerodynamically so that
in the state of heavy winds, light buildings wouldn’t be hit. In ancient times, in order to
design the direction of wind wards especially in tropical regions (Yazd and Kerman), the
length of wind ward vents was built in the direction of prevailing wind so that wind could
be used in the best way possible to cool the building.
Wind speed is also important because in the case of high speed winds, there is the
possibility for the detachment and physical damage to different parts of building
especially light ones. Knowing about the mean of wind speed at the project site and
seasonal and annual distribution of wind speed are important factors for strengthening
against wind power. The more the mean of wind speed in the region, the more powerful
the building must be.
In projects where there are several choices in terms of region, it is a good idea to pick
up the one in which wind speed is lower than other regions. These regions are identified
through wind pattern plans and measuring wind speed in different points of a region. If
the goal is to use wind power such as establishing wind power plants, the place of the
construction shall be chosen in a way that there is high-speed wind around. It is clear
that, in this case, permanent high-speed wind for most of the year or even all the year is
an upward.

Fig. 4. Sun and Wind path

6. Rain fall
The amount of rainfall is one of the most determining factors that shall be considered in
building design, especially ceiling design. In rain areas, the ceiling of buildings must be
designed as gable roof so that water erosion is reduced, due damages are minimized
and there would be no water left on the roof. Otherwise, adverse effects of rain and its
penetration into buildings would rise.
Knowing about the rate of rainfall, especially for designing structures like dams
(estimation of the maximum probable rainfall) is necessary so we can determine
spillway dimension, etc. moreover, in order to design surface water disposal system
across cities when it rains, knowing about the maximum urban flood relevant to return
period sounds like essential.

Fig. 5. Gable Roof

7. Weather Detrimental Phenomena

It refers to so high or so low rate of meteorological factors. For instance, flood or
draught shows very high or low rate of rainfall. What matters about weather detrimental
phenomena in civil operations is so high rates of meteorological factors. For example,
concerning rainfall, its high rate which is flood or heavy showers is important and
draught is unimportant. High warm and cold waves happening recently in different parts
of the world due to climate change are considered to be important disasters. Tsunami
receives high attention in coastal areas and islands. Dust storm makes limitations in the
areas prone to wind slide. Limit values of weather and climate factors also happen in
local conditions which require local studies and must be analyzed before starting the
project.
8. Weather Forecast
It is essential to know about weather conditions of some days ahead so that you can
adjust civil operations and plan doing different steps of building operation. The most
important example is to know about rainfall occurrence during working days ahead.
Rainfall occurrence would challenge building operations especially in primary stages of
the project and can even strand it. This limitation in later stages when building
constructions take place indoor is by far reduced.
Forecasting the amount of rainfall in the upper land and estimating the potential amount
of the time of flood discharge, one can inform the workshops appropriately and prevent
financial loss and human death.
Wind forecast can also play a big role in doing civil operations and construction
especially about sky scrape buildings. Wind speed goes up with height increase and the
increase in wind speed is logarithmic. Working in heavy wind conditions especially in
highlands would cause damage to equipment and personnel. That is why it matters.
Non-liquid rainfall such as snow, hail, etc. brings about their own special problem.
Forecasting this condition beforehand would help us adjust civil operations and timing
for days ahead.
It is worth noting that weather forecast is not always true and it can be different in terms
of precision and correctness according to various conditions and factors. So, it is
possible for weather forecast to go wrong. In this case, ceasing the administrative
operations for a while would put the project off and cause financial loss. Considering
risk management conditions, the amount of this potential financial loss comparing to the
loss coming from weather detrimental conditions and also human loss is negligible. Of
course, taking all scientific forecast principles, the total amount of forecast would reduce
to less than 10% in a period. Again, compared to relative potential material damages,
the total potential material loss is lower.

Prevailing Winds
Prevailing winds are winds that blow consistently in a given direction over a particular
region on Earth. Due to factors such as uneven heating from the Sun and the Earth's
rotation, these winds vary at different latitudes on Earth. Prevailing winds are important
for determining locations of wind farms in order to generate electricity.
Prevailing winds also determine the amount of rainfall that different regions get. In
Southeastern Asia, these winds result in the formation of monsoons and deserts. The
West coast of South and North America receives abundant rain during the winter due to
these winds.

How they Form?

The equator receives the most direct sunlight, resulting in the planet's warmest
temperatures being near the equator. As seen in Figure 6, heat expands the air, making
it less dense which leads to rising air. As the air rises, it cools, making the air lose its
water vapors as rain. This air then circulates around to roughly 30 degrees north or
south. The wind doesn't flow directly up, because the Earth rotates. This rotation causes
the wind to have a higher speed in the Eastern direction relative to the ground at high
latitudes, which results in a variety of prevailing winds.

Fig. 6. Prevailing Winds and their Corresponding Cells

The trade winds seen in Figure 6 are created by hot air flowing up and away from the
equator, where it gradually cools until it gets to latitudes of about 30 degrees. It then
sinks down towards the surface and flows back towards the low-pressure zone at the
equator. These flows are known as Hadley cells, named after George Hadley who first
described them in 1753. They are responsible for the dry weather patterns at the 30
degree latitudes, where the majority of the Earth's deserts lie.
Not all of the air moves back towards the equator though. When the air reaches
approximately 60 degrees latitude (North or South), it meets cold air from the poles.
These winds are known as the Westerlies. At this point, the warm air rises and most of it
flows back towards the 30 degree latitude mark. This creates the Ferrel cells of Figure
6.
The final regions are at the poles, from 60 degrees latitude to 90 degrees latitude. This
wind cools towards the poles and sinks to the surface, and recirculates. This creates
what is known as the Polar Hadley cell or Polar cell.
Climate Concepts
The climate is a concept used by most people, but its definition is not always well
known. In simple terms, the climate is the average weather conditions of an area during
a long time, which are the result of several factors present in that zone. The climate
varies from one region to another but must follow a fairly consistent pattern.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the climate is the

statistical description of the mean and variability of the weather over a span of time
ranging from months to thousands or even millions of years. All this means, the average
weather during a long time.

Fig. 7. Observing Earth’s Global Climate

The UK Meteorological Office’s glossary mentions that the climate of a locality is the
synthesis of the values of the day-to-day weather elements affecting that place. The
word climate comes from the Greek word “klima” which means “area.”

The climate factors measured are rainfall, maximum, and minimum temperatures during
a season, humidity, sunshine time, and so on.

Factors affecting Climate

Latitude, altitude, topography, water bodies and other factors determine the climate of a
geographic region. The angle of the sun’s rays, for example, affects how warm the
environment is. People living in the tropics knows that certain days of the year the sun is
positioned directly above his head at noon, causing a hot climate with small temperature
changes between summer and winter.

Fig. 8. The Angle of the Sun’s Rays

The UK Meteorological Office lists the following influence factors of the climate of a
zone: altitude, prevailing wind, and distance from the sea, oceanic currents, topography,
vegetation, and type of area (urban or rural).

Elements of Climate

Temperature
Temperature is the amount of heat energy that is in the air. Its measure unit is Celsius
degrees or Fahrenheit degrees in some countries. Heat is the energy radiated from the
Sun to the Earth in the form of light. Clouds, water vapor, and atmospheric dust deflect
about half of the solar energy back into space, while the rest is absorbed by the soil and
water and becomes heat.

The temperature is characterized by its variation during a day due to Earth’s rotation
and during the annual seasons due to the translational motion of the Earth around the
sun.

Wind
Air may not seem like anything at all; in fact, we look right through it all the time, but
during a windstorm, air really makes its presence known. Wind is able to lift roofs off
buildings, blow down power lines and trees, and cause highway accidents as gusts
push around cars and trucks.

Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our atmosphere.
Air under high pressure moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference
in pressure, the faster the air flows.

Solar Radiation
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful
forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However,
the technical feasibility and economical operation of these technologies at a specific
location depends on the available solar resource.

Fig. 9. Solar Radiation Illustration

Precipitation.
It is a process that ends with the fall of water, in liquid or solid form, to the earth’s
surface. A large percentage of rainfall drains into lakes and rivers while the rest
evaporates from the earth’s surface or passes through plants. The latter process is
known as evapotranspiration and is part of the water cycle. (Refer to figure 9.)

Humidity
It is the water vapor contained in the air. Its amount varies according to to the amount of
rainfall and solar radiation in a zone. Water vapor is present in any region of the world,
even the hottest ones. As the temperature increases, so does the possibility of having
water vapor.
 Fig. 10. The Water Cycle

Comfort: Concepts, Indices, and Analysis

1. Concept
Comfort has been defined as 'the condition of mind which expresses satisfaction
with the environment’. The indoor environment should be designed and controlled so
that occupants' comfort and health are assured. Most of the time of people now is
spent in buildings or urban spaces. Although comfort models mostly talks about
indoor climate but both indoor and outdoor climate should be taken into
consideration not only in urban design but also in buildings. So both indoor and
outdoor comfort is a matter of attention for architects and urbanists.

Fig. 11. Human Thermal Comfort in Buildings

The aim of design with climate is to maintain comfort within buildings. An analysis is
usually carried out to ascertain how these external conditions compare with the
required conditions. It is essential in this respect to define the limits within which
people are likely to feel comfortable. A knowledge of these limits will be used to
determine the degree of discomfort and the conditions sulci as the humidity and the
temperature range which are experienced simultaneously with uncomfortable or hot
temperatures.
The subjective nature of comfort must be stressed. It is not possible to achieve
conditions in which everybody will be comfortable. The best comfort conditions are
called optimum thermal conditions. Under these conditions about 50 to 75% of
people feel comfortable.

2. Comfort Indices
Measurement of thermal comfort levels are complex and many indices have been
proposed over the years. They are:

 Air temperature
o Initially the air temperature as measured from a dry bulb thermometer was
taken as the indicator of thermal comfort
o But it was found to be a unsatisfactory measure as comfort levels
depended on other factors too
  Air temperature and humidity
o Later air temperature and humidity levels were considered to convey the
thermal comfort levels
o This was also unsatisfactory
 Cooling power
o This takes into consideration the following factors
 Air temperature
 Humidity
 Air movements
o A device called Kata thermometer was devised by Hill to measure cooling
power
o A dry Kata reading of 6 or above and an wet Kata above 20 indicates
thermal comfort
 Effective temperature
o The different factors determining thermal comfort – air temperature,
humidity and air movements are combined together into a single index –
Effective temperature
o Effective temperature is the temperature in an environment with 100%
humidity and no air movements which will induce the same level of
thermal comfort as in the present situation
o For example, if the effective temperature is said to be 30°C, it means that
the thermal comfort is equivalent to one is an environment with
temperature 30°C, 100% humidity and no air movements
o But effective temperature does not take into consideration, the effect or
radiant heat energy
 Corrected effective temperature
o The effective temperature is adjusted by considering the loss or gain of
heat by radiation to arrive at a corrected effective temperature (CET)
o Thus CET is determined by 4 factors
 air temperature
 humidity
 air movements
 radiant heat
o Corrected effective temperature is measured using a combination of
 globe thermometer – to measure air temperature adjusted for
radiant heat
 wet bulb thermometer – to measure humidity
 air speed measurement

3. Comfort Analysis
The natural ventilation is an important strategy to improve thermal comfort in
buildings that are located in hot and humid climates. The air velocity at certain limits
can provide the sensation of cooling by decreasing the rate of evaporation from the
skin surface. Also, natural ventilation may improve the indoor air conditions.

Gratia et al. (2004), based on a study for office buildings, stated that natural
ventilation may be sufficient to guarantee the thermal comfort of users, although
some strategies to decrease internal heat gains may be necessary.

Raja et al. (2001) showed that infiltration and natural ventilation can be used to
improve thermal comfort in some buildings, but their efficiency depends on the
climate conditions. They also state that manual opening control is an alternative to
reach internal comfort temperatures in the building. Natural ventilation has been
used in buildings as a main strategy to reduce the internal heat gains and also the
energy consumption related to air conditioning systems. ECG19 (1993) stated that
 the final energy cost of a naturally ventilated building is 40% less than a conditioned
building. During summer conditions, buildings become a heat source. Therefore,
using natural ventilation to dissipate the internal heat gains and reduce energy
consumption is an efficient strategy (Woods et al., 2009).

Comfort levels are influenced by three main factors:

 Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT)
 Humidity
 Air Movement

Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT)

Temperature is one of the main parameters on which comfort of the inhabitants
depends. In summer the acceptable temperature is considered to be 24-25 degrees C
while in winter/cold season it is 22-23 degrees Celsius. Maintaining a temperature of 24
degrees Celsius within the structure when the outside temperature is 35-37 degrees
Celsius puts a huge strain on the HVAC system leading to huge energy costs.
Therefore, it would be wise to revise our criteria for thermal comfort and accept a
standard for thermal neutrality instead, i.e. the person feels neither too hot nor too cold,
nor feels any local discomfort due to asymmetric radiation, drafts, cold floors and
furniture, non-uniform clothing, etc. At same time there has to be a willingness to adapt
to the local weather conditions so as not to make unrealistic demands from the air-
conditioning system. We should realize that the days of wasteful spending are now over
and a measure of austerity has to be there in our energy spending.
Humidity
The moisture content present in the air is called ‘humidity’. The level of humidity greatly
influences evaporative cooling. Greater the moisture content in the air lesser is the
effect of evaporative cooling. Therefore efforts to reduce humidity levels within a space
result in better conditions.
In the design of HVAC systems humidity level of 40-50% is considered acceptable, but
one should also remember that this standard is not a law and human adaptability can be
stretched to farther limits.
Air Movement or Ventilation
Air movement over the skin results in Evaporative cooling- as the air moves over the
skin, the perspiration on the skin surface evaporates leading to cooling of the
surrounding area.
Air movement also affects conductive-convective heat transfer between skin and air.
The velocity of the air is also important as stagnant air creates a suffocating effect as
the air turns stale due to respiration, foul odors, smoke, etc.
Therefore removal of this air and its replacement with fresh air is very important which
directly depends on adequate cross ventilation of the spaces, which results in proper air
movement and velocity.
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