REINFORCED CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS

Story Case

Reinforced concrete foundations are generally cheaper and easier to construct than
equivalent mass concrete foundations but will generally require the services of a structural
engineer to formulate an economic design.

Problem

The engineer must define the areas in which tension occurs and specify the
reinforcement required, as concrete is a material which is weak in tension.

Proses

Where buildings are either heavy, or transmit the loadings at a series of points, such
as in a framed building, it is uneconomic to use mass concrete. The plan size of a foundation
is a constant feature, being derived from:

point∨column load
safe bearing capacity of subsoil

For example, if the column transmits a 50 kN load to subsoil of safe bearing capacity
80 kN/m2 , then the square column foundation dimensions are:

50
√ 80
= 0.79 m or 790 mm (800 mm square)

The thickness of a mass concrete foundation for a heavy point load would result in a
foundation that is costly and adds unnecessary load to the subsoil.

Inovation Technology

CELLULAR RAFTS

This form of foundation can be used where a reasonable bearing capacity

subsoil can be found only at depths where beam and slab techniques become
uneconomic. The construction is similar to reinforced concrete basements except that
internal walls are used to spread the load over the raft and divide the void into cells.

PILED FOUNDATION

Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender,
columnar elements typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes
timber. A foundation is described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its
breadth. Pile foundations are usually used for large structures and in situations where
the soil at shallow depth is not suitable to resist excessive settlement, resist uplift, etc

Engineering Dictionary

- Foundation

- Reinforced
- Blinding

CONCRETE

Story Case

Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. The
proportions of each material control the strength and quality of the resultant concrete.

Problem

Cement should be stored on a damp-proof floor in the dry and kept for short periods
only, because eventually it will harden as a result of the action of moisture in the air. This is
known as air hardening, and any hardened cement should be discarded.

Process

Produced Portland Cement (Wet process)

Portland cement made from chalk or limestone and clay, and is generally
produced by the wet process. In this process the two raw materials are washed, broken up
and mixed with water to form a slurry. This slurry is then pumped into a steel rotary kiln,
which is from 3 to 4 m in diameter and up to 150 m long and lined with refractory bricks.
While the slurry is fed into the top end of the kiln a pulverised coal is blown in at the bottom
end and fired. This raises the temperature at the lower end of the kiln to about 1400 °C. First
the slurry passing down the kiln gives up its moisture; then the chalk or limestone is broken
down into carbon dioxide and lime, and finally it forms a white-hot clinker, which is
transferred to a cooler before being ground. The grinding is carried out in a ball mill, which is
a cylinder some 15 m long and up to 4.5 m in diameter containing a large number of steel
balls of various sizes, which grind the clinker into a fine powder. As the clinker is being fed
into the ball mill, gypsum (about 5%) is added to prevent a flash setting off the cement.

Produced Portland Cement (Dry process)

The main difference between this and the wet process is the reduction in the amount
of water that has to be driven off in the kiln. A mixture of limestone and shale is used, which
is proportioned, ground and blended to form a raw meal of low moisture content. The meal is
granulated in rotating pans with a small amount of water before being passed to a grate for
preheating prior to entering the kiln. The kiln is smaller than that used in the wet process but
its function is the same – that is, to form a clinker, which is then cooled, ground and mixed
with a little gypsum as described for the previous process.

MIXING CONCRETE

Concrete can be mixed or batched by volume and by mass. A 25 kg bag of cement

has a volume of approximately 0.02 m3.

Batching by volume
 This method is usually carried out using an open bottom box (of such
dimensions as to make manual handling possible) called a gauge box. For a
1:2:4 mix a gauge box is filled once with cement, twice with fine aggregate
and four times with coarse aggregate, the top of the gauge box being struck
off level each time. If the fine aggregate is damp or wet its volume will
increase by up to 25%, and therefore the amount of fine aggregate should be
increased by this amount. This increase in volume is called bulking.

Batching by mass

This method involves the use of a balance that is linked to a dial giving
the exact mass of the materials as they are placed in the scales. This is the
best method, because it has a greater accuracy, and the balance can be
attached to the mixing machine.

Hand mixing

This should be carried out on a clean, hard surface. The

materials should be thoroughly mixed in the dry state before the water
is added. The water should be added slowly, preferably using a rose
head, until a uniform colour is obtained.

Machine mixing

The mix should be turned over in the mixer for at least 2

minutes after adding the water. The first batch from the mixer tends to
be harsh, because some of the mix will adhere to the sides of the
drum. This batch should be used for some less important work such as
filling in weak pockets in the bottom of the excavation.

Ready mixed

This is used for large batches with lorry transporters up to 6 m3

capacity. It has the advantage of eliminating site storage of materials
and mixing plant, with the guarantee of concrete manufactured to
quality-controlled standards. Placement is usually direct from the lorry:
therefore site-handling facilities must be coordinated with deliveries.

Handling

If concrete is to be transported for some distance over rough

ground the runs should be kept as short as possible, because
vibrations of this nature can cause segregation of the materials in the
mix. For the same reason concrete should not be dropped from a
height of more than 1 m. If this is unavoidable a chute should be used.
 Placing

If the concrete is to be placed in a foundation trench it will be

levelled from peg to peg (see Fig. 1.4.2), or if it is to be used as an
oversite bed the external walls could act as a levelling guide. The
levelling is carried out by tamping with a straight-edge board; this
tamping serves the dual purpose of both compacting the concrete and
bringing the excess water to the surface so that it can evaporate.
Concrete must not be over-tamped, as this will bring not only the water
to the surface but also the cement paste that is required to act as the
matrix.

Inovation Technology

HIGH-ALUMINA CEMENT – BS 915-2

This is made by firing limestone and bauxite (aluminium ore) to a molten state,
casting it into pigs, and finally grinding it into a fine powder. Its rate of hardening is very
rapid, and produces a concrete that is resistant to the natural sulphates found in some
subsoils. It can, however, cost up to two and a half times as much as ordinary Portland
cement.

Engineering Dictionary

- Concrete

- Slump Test

- Aggregates