ARCH543 - EVALUATING ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS

ARCH543 - EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
MODULE 4
Evaluation based on Periodical Manner of Construction
Specific Learning Objectives

1. Analyze local current buildings or projects through the use of innovative design solutions in the
engineering and architecture.
Topics and Activities
1. State one example of great buildings and elaborate it.
a. Egyptians
b. Greek
c. Early Christian
d. Byzantine
e. Romanesque
f. Gothic
Features Architectural period
Columns Greek Architecture – TEMPLE OF HERA (OYLMPIA)
The temple measures 50.01 x 18.76m at stylobate level; such elongated

proportions are a common feature of early Doric architecture. It has a peripteros
of 6 by 16 columns. These were originally wooden and were only gradually
replaced with stone ones. As the replacements took place at widely differing
periods between the Archaic and Roman periods and were carved under the
influence of their respective contemporary styles, they differ considerably in
proportions and detail.
Temples are one storey high, and columns, with their entablature, comprise the
entire height of the buildings except in some interiors, as the Parthenon and the
Temple of Poseidon, Paestum, where an upper range of columns was
introduced into the naos to support the roof.
Romanesque Architecture – BASILICA DI SAN CLEMENTE
The atrium at San Clemente in Rome, may have an odd assortment of columns in
which large capitals are placed on short columns and small capitals are placed on
taller columns to even the height. Architectural compromises of this type would
have been unthinkable to either Roman or Gothic architects. Salvaged columns
were also used to a lesser extent in France.
In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, as they supported

thick upper walls with small windows, and sometimes heavy vaults.
Columns were either cylindrical and of stumpy proportions or formed as massive

piers, and the shafts were treated with flutings of vertical, spiral, or trellis form, or
MODULE 4
sometimes carved with ornament. Variations of Corinthian or Ionic capitals are

used, as in S. John's Chapel, Tower of London, and elsewhere, and in later
times the capital was often of a cushion (cubiform) shape, as also in S. John's
Chapel, Tower of London, and Winchester, and is sometimes richly carved and
scalloped
Early Christian Architecture – OLD ST. PETER’S BASILICA
The altar of the Old St. Peter's used several Solomonic columns. It is a helical
column, characterized by a spiraling twisting shaft like a corkscrew.
Byzantine Architecture – HAGIA SOPHIA
Hagia Sophia was built by order of Justinian by the architects Anthemius of Tralles
and Isodorus of Miletus, on the site of two successive basilican churches of the
same name, erected respectively by Constantine (A.D. 360) and Theodosius II
(A.D. 415). It now forms the most important mosque in Constantinople. The noble
atrium forming the approach to the church, now destitute of its marble columns,
leads through the great triple portal to the outer narthex, and beyond is the
imposing main narthex, 200 ft. by 30 ft., which is in two storeys, the lower of which
was used by catechumens and penitents, while the upper forms part of the gallery
to the church.
Columns were used constructively, but were always subordinate features and
generally introduced to support galleries, as massive piers and walls supported
the superstructure. In the first instance, columns were taken from ancient
buildings, but these were not so numerous in the East as in the neighbourhood of
Rome, and therefore the supply was sooner exhausted. This provided an
opportunity for designing monolithic shafts.
Gothic Architecture
The columns or piers which separate nave and aisles support the nave arcades
and the walls which rise above the aisle roofs. Above is the triforium or blind storey,
which is the space beneath the sloping roof over the aisle vault and enclosed on
the nave side by a series of arches.
The internal columns of the arcade with their attached shafts, the ribs of the vault
and the flying buttresses, with their associated vertical buttresses jutting at right-
angles to the building, created a stone skeleton.
Mouldings Romanesque Architecture – LIMBURG CATHEDRAL
The Romanesque period produced a profusion of sculptural ornamentation. This

MODULE 4
most frequently took a purely geometric form and was particularly applied to
mouldings, both straight courses and the curved moldings of arches. The
mouldings of the nave arcade are carved with several layers of the same and the
huge columns are deeply incised with a variety of geometric patterns creating an
impression of directional movement. These features combine to create one of the
richest and most dynamic interiors of the Romanesque period.
Byzantine Architecture – LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
On the much-restored mouldings around the portal of Lincoln Cathedral are formal
chevron ornament, tongue-poking monsters, vines and figures, and symmetrical
motifs in the Byzantine style.
Mouldings were little used because the marble and mosaic wall linings ran
continuously over the surface of walls and arches. Internally, decorative panels of
marble and mosaic were sometimes framed in billet mouldings, probably derived
from the Classic dentil course, and flat splayed mouldings, with incised ornament,
were also used. Externally the simple treatment of walls in flat expanses of
brickwork, with occasional stone banded courses, did not leave the same scope
for mouldings as in other styles. Flat stone bandings flush with the wall surface
were used instead of string courses and cornices.
Greek Architecture - ERECHTHEUM TEMPLE
Greek mouldings were refined and delicate in contour, due first to the fine-grained
marble in which they were carved, and secondly to the clear atmosphere and
continuous sunshine which produced strong shadows from slight projections.
Though the sections of these mouldings were probably formed by hand, they
approach very closely to various conic sections, such as parabolas, hyper-bolas,
and ellipses. As a general rule the lines of the carving on any Greek moulding
correspond to the profile of that moulding and thus emphasise it by the expression
of its own curvature in an enriched form.
Early Christian Architecture
These are coarse variations of old Roman types, and the carving, though rich in
general effect, is crude ; for the technique of the craftsman had gradually declined,
and was at a low ebb during this period. Enrichments were incised on mouldings
in low relief, and the acanthus ornament, although still copied from the antique,
became more conventional in form.
Gothic Architecture
By long narrow windows, vertical mouldings around doors and figurative sculpture
which emphasises the vertical and is often attenuated. There may be much other
MODULE 4
carving, often of figures in niches set into the mouldings around the portals, or in
sculptural screens extending across the facade.
Roofing Egyptian Architecture – GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA
Flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and
the closely spaced columns.
Byzantine Architecture – CHURCH OF THE SAINTS SERGIUS AND

BACCHUS
The central area of this church was octagonal on plan, and the dome is divided
into sixteen compartments; of these eight consist of broad flat bands rising from
the centre of each of the walls, and the alternate eight are concave cells over the
angles of the octagon, which externally and internally give to the roof the
appearance of an umbrella.
The method of roofing was by domes of brick, stone, or concrete, often with no
further covering. In Hagia Sophia the vaults are covered with sheets of lead, a
quarter of an inch thick, fastened to timber laths resting on the vaults. Hollow
earthenware jars were sometimes used in order to reduce the thrust on the
supporting walls, as at S. Vitale, Ravenna.The Byzantines practised the system of
placing the dome over a square or octagon by means of pendentives, which had
only been employed tentatively by the Romans, as in the Minerva Medica, Rome.
Early Christian Architecture – OLD ST. PETER’S BASILICA
It had a gabled roof which was timbered on the interior and which stood at over
100 feet (30 m) at the center.
Timber roofs covered the central nave, and only simple forms of construction, such
as king and queen post trusses, were employed. It is believed that the decoration
of the visible framework was of later date, as at S. Miniato, Florence. The
narrower side aisles were occasionally vaulted and the apse was usually domed
and lined with beautiful glass mosaics, which formed a fitting background to the
sanctuary.
Greek Architecture - TEMPLE OF APOLLO PALATINUS
Early roof tiles showed an S-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece.
They were rather bulky, weighting around 30 kg a piece.
The inclination of the pediments was governed by the slope of the roof, which in
temples was carried by the naos wall and surrounding colonnade, supplemented
MODULE 4
in larger buildings by columns in the naos, as at Paestum. The timber rafters of

the roof were covered externally with thin marble slabs and the marble ceilings of
the peristyle were enriched by lacunaria or panels
Romanesque Architecture
The general employment of vaulting in the eleventh century, especially over side
aisles, may have been due to the desire to fire-proof the building, although the
central nave often had only a simple wooden roof. The form of arch employed in
vaulting as elsewhere was semi-circular, often raised or "stilted". Unmoulded ribs
were first used about A.D. 1100, and later on they were moulded quite simply.
Intersecting barrel or cross-vaults were usual over a square plan, but the difficulty
in constructing these over oblong bays finally led to the use of pointed arches in
the Gothic period.
Gothic Architecture
The roofline often has pierced parapets with comparatively few pinnacles. There
are often towers and domes of a great variety of shapes and structural invention
rising above the roof.
The Gothic vault, unlike the semi-circular vault of Roman and Romanesque
buildings, can be used to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as
trapezoids. The other structural advantage is that the pointed arch channels the
weight onto the bearing piers or columns at a steep angle. This enabled architects
to raise vaults much higher than was possible in Romanesque architecture.
The roofline, gable ends, buttresses and other parts of the building are often
terminated by small pinnacles, Milan Cathedral being an extreme example in the
use of this form of decoration. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture -
cite_note-BF-6
Facade Gothic Architecture - STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL
The famous west front, decorated with thousands of figures, is a masterpiece of

the Gothic era. The tower is one of the first to rely substantially on craftsmanship,
with the final appearance being one with a high degree of linearity captured in
stone. While previous façades were certainly drawn prior to construction,
Strasbourg has one of the earliest façades whose construction is inconceivable
without prior drawing. The design of the Strasbourg facade, while seeming almost
random in its complexity, can be constructed using a series of rotated octagons.
Romanesque Architecture – LIMBURG CATHEDRAL

MODULE 4
Romanesque church facades, generally to the west end of the building, are usually
symmetrical, have a large central portal made significant by its mouldings or porch
and an arrangement of arched-topped windows. In Italy there is often a single
central ocular window. The common decorative feature is arcading.
Byzantine Architecture
The facades were often thrown into prominence by alternate layers or bands of
brick and stone, reminiscent of the strata of a quarry. This simple device further
accentuated the connection of the building with the ground in which it had its
foundations.
Greek Architecture
Facades of windowless temples, which would otherwise have been monotonous,

were varied by alternation of light and shade, produced by the succession of free-
standing columns and the shadows in the openings between them.
These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using rubble or

concrete, faced with plaster, brick, or stone. Mosaic decoration was added
internally, and sometimes also externally on west facades ; though little regard
was paid to external architectural effect.
Gothic Architecture – NOTRE DAME OF PARIS
The facade of a large church or cathedral, often referred to as the West Front, is
generally designed to create a powerful impression on the approaching
worshipper, demonstrating both the might of God, and the might of the institution
that it represents. One of the best known and most typical of such facades is that
of Notre Dame de Paris.
Central to the facade is the main portal, often flanked by additional doors. In the
arch of the door, the tympanum, is often a significant piece of sculpture, most
frequently Christ in Majesty and Judgment Day. If there is a central door jamb or
a tremeu, then it frequently bears a statue of the Madonna and Child. There may
be much other carving, often of figures in niches set into the mouldings around the
portals, or in sculptural screens extending across the facade.
MODULE 4
In the centre of the middle level of the facade, there is a large window, which in
countries other than England and Belgium, is generally a rose window like that at
Reims Cathedral. The gable above this is usually richly decorated with arcading
or sculpture, or in the case of Italy, may be decorated, with the rest of the facade,
with polychrome marble and mosaic, as at Orvieto Cathedral
Construction materials Egyptian Architecture – GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA
Due to the scarcity of lumber, the two predominant building materials used in
ancient Egypt were sunbaked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also
sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_architecture - cite_note-1
Gothic Architecture – MINSTER CATHEDRAL
Limestone was readily available in several grades, the very fine white limestone
of Caen being favoured for sculptural decoration. England had coarse limestone,
red sandstone as well as dark green Purbeck marble which was often used for
architectural features.
The availability of timber also influenced the style of architecture.
Greek Architecture - TEMPLE OF HEPHAESTUS
The material used is Pentelic marble with the exception of the lowest step of the
krepidoma which is from limestone and the decorative sculptures for which the
more expensive Parian marble was chosen.
Byzantine Architecture
Constantine possessed no good building stone, and local materials such as clay
for bricks and rubble for concrete were employed.
The use of local materials, whether stone or brick, marble or terra-cotta, as well
as of ready-made columns and other features from old Roman buildings, accounts
for many of the varying characteristics in each country over this wide area, with its
different geological formations.
It was natural that early Christian builders should use materials and ornament of
the pagan Romans, and, as these belonged to the better period of Roman art, a
grand effect was obtained though the details of the design were not necessarily
MODULE 4
homogeneous. These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using

rubble or concrete, faced with plaster, brick, or stone.
Construction Methods Egyptian Architecture – GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA
There have been many hypotheses about the Egyptian pyramid construction
techniques. The construction techniques seem to have developed over time; the
earliest pyramids were built in different ways than later ones. Most of the
construction hypotheses are based on the idea that their huge stones were moved
from a quarry and dragged and lifted into place. Disagreements center on the
method by which the stones were conveyed and placed, after being carved using
copper chisels to carve them out of the quarry stone. But a recent hypothesis
claims that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of
"limestone concrete".
Greek Architecture
The Greeks laid their masonry without mortar but with joints cut to great exactness.
Marble was not generally used until the 5th cent. B.C. Where coarse stonework or
crude bricks were used, a coating, composed of marble dust and lime rubbed and
highly polished, was applied to them. Even marble itself was sometimes so
treated.
The method of hollow wall-construction was sometimes used, as in the frieze of

the Parthenon, to lessen the weight upon the architraves, and perhaps to
economise material. The base of a temple was always well defined by a stylobate
of steps, giving real as well as apparent solidity to the structure. Cornices finished
the top of the building or the upper part of the entablature, and in temples, which
were one storey high, there were no intermediate cornices, although string
courses or horizontal bands of moulding were sometimes introduced, as in the
Temple of Zeus Olympius, Agrigentum
Byzantine Architecture – SAN VITALE CHURCH
The system of construction in concrete and brickwork introduced by the Romans

was adopted by the Byzantines. The carcase of concrete and brickwork was first
completed and allowed to settle before the surface sheathing of unyielding marble
slabs was added, and this independence of the component parts is characteristic
of Byzantine construction. Brickwork, moreover, lent itself externally to decorative
caprices in patterns and banding, and internally it was suitable for covering with
marble, mosaic, and fresco decoration.
The domes were frequently constructed of bricks or of some light porous stone,
such as pumice, or even of pottery, as at S. Vitale, Ravenna. Byzantine domes
and vaults were, it is believed, constructed without temporary support or
MODULE 4
"centering" by the simple use of large flat bricks, and this is quite a distinct system
probably derived from Eastern methods.
Gothic Architecture
The mathematical and geometrical nature of the construction is an image of the

orderly universe, in which an underlying rationality and logic can be perceived.
Roman methods of craftsmanship still influenced constructive art in Europe, but

technical skill in general was at a low ebb. Walls were roughly built, and were
relieved externally by buttresses formed as pilaster strips and connected at the
top by bands of horizontal mouldings, or by a series of semicircular arches on
corbels
The later Romanesque style of the tenth to the twelfth century was remarkable for
the tentative use of a new constructive principle. This was the application of the
principle of equilibrium to construction, in strong contrast to that of inert stability
as used by the Romans. This new system, which was accompanied by the use of
dressed stones of comparatively small size connected by thick beds of mortar, led
in the thirteenth century, after many tentative experiments.
1. Modern/ International Architecture
The curtain wall is a development of techniques exemplified in the Crystal Palace (1851) in London. Steel,
unless we include plate glass, was the only truly new building material evolved in the 19th century.
The asymmetrical plan, evident only at first in domestic architecture, the house growing organically out of its
internal requirements seems to have originated with architects later to associated with the arts and crafts
movement in England (1887) whose ideas were also absorbed the young Frank Lloyd Wright in the USA.
The same movement which strongly affected Art Nouveau, played a major part in arousing a new social
conscience among architects, turning their attention to areas neither to largely neglected by the profession,
in particular to the housing of the under privilege and to town planning.
The arts and crafts movement succumbed to the Georgian Revival. ART NOUVEAU, which was never much
more than a fashion in decoration, flourished briefly and flamboyantly at the town of the century, before its
peculiar susceptibility to vulgarization and its essentially transitional character forced it to give place to forms
more appropriate to the emergent age of mechanization. It’s most important manifestation was in Belgium,
and its most distinguished exponents, Victor Horta and Henri Van de Vold both Belgian, born remained faithful
to its principles. Other architects were not so loyal. They designed buildings to geometrical forms and
functionalism in industrial design.
Historical ties, however still held firm and Behrens by now turning to the restrained, monumental classicism
which characterizes his later work. A staunch opponent of this incipient reaction was the young Walter
MODULE 4
Gropius.
Gropius built the Fagus works with Adolf Meyer, and with it created the accepted prototype of modern
architecture. There was nothing original about the structural system, columns in front and load bearing
masonry at the back. The novelty lay in the conception of form: The apparently free standing glass sheath
suspended on a framework across the face of the building. The first true example of this idea, later to be
known as the curtain wall, may well have been the Hallidie Building, San Francisco in 1918.
In 1919 Gropius succeeded Van de Velde as director of the School of Applied Art at Weimar, where he
founded the ‘Bauhaus’ developing a form of training intended to relate art and architecture to technology and
the practical needs of modern life.
Meanwhile progress in steel and reinforced concrete construction continued, Tony Garnier achieved with
steel a span of 80 meters in a half for a cattle market and abattoirs at Lyon (1913)
Max Berg designed the Glazed Dome of 65 meters diameter of the Centennial Hall at Brelau (1912-13) with
reinforced concrete. Eugene Freyssinet used concrete very much more economically in his Parabolic-
Vaulted Air-Ship Hangar at Orly, near Paris. Swiss Engineer Robert Maillart employed the ‘Flat Slab’ method
in his splendidly simple bridge designs.
Other outstanding personalities of the years after the First World War were Mies van der Rohe, Le
Corbusier and J.J.P. Oud. Mies van de Rohe in a competition, 1919 designed a glass-sheathed, twenty
storey Berlin Skyscraper in 1920. He designed a thirty storeys high skyscraper designed as a cluster of
interpenetrating circularly-planned elements sustained by an inner steel skeleton supporting cantilevered
floors, the whole entirely glass-faced. Interior accommodation is organized by freely-disposed light partitions,
interwoven with the inner pillars of the structural frame.
Le Corbusier, of French origin, Swiss birth and later French nationality dominated the European scene for
nearly half a century. His earlier architectural work was domestic and his philosophy at this period may be
summed up in his dictum, for too often quoted and misinterpreted by critic that “The house is a machine to
live in”, by which he implied no more than the program for building a house should be set out with the same
precision as that for building a machine.
He advocated that the structural frame should be separately identified from the space enclosing walls, that a
house should be lifted on pillars (pilotis) so that the garden might spread under it, that roofs should be flat,
capable of use as a garden, as pitched roofs disturbed the cubic or rectilinear form, that the interior
accommodation should be freely planned, each floor according to the need, since all loading should be taken
by the structural frame.
J.J.P. Oud was a representative of Holland. He was a member of the important Dutch “De Stijl” group of
geometric-abstract artists formed in 1917 by Theo Van Doesburg, whose tenets concerned the manipulation
of geometric forms. Architecturally, they rejected the rigid enclosure of buildings in their enveloping walls in
favor of the free interplay of spatial volumes. Oud softened the jagged asperities of the early architectural
ventures of the group and developed a clean, sedate style, markedly horizontal in stress but with emphasis
on the shear wall, rather than upon the banded windows.
Eric Mendhelson a German who left his own country for England in 1933, then spent five years in Israel
before setting in the USA is another considerable figure among the pioneers. His buildings have a dynamic,
sculptural quality and a marked horizontal emphasis.
Since about 1930 the architectural contribution of the Americas has been of great significance. Not only the
USA but also Canada and the countries of Latin America have provided notable buildings with the rise of
Nazism many of the leaders of European Architecture went to the USA, including Gropius, Mies Van der
MODULE 4
Rohe and Mendelsohn. Others were Marcel Brever and Austrians Richard Neutra and Rudolf Schindler
whose glass and white walled architecture has left a lasting imprint on the west coast. Schindler was
associated and influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright, the American-born genius who began his long career in
the Chicago office of Louis Sullivan, an architect of immense originality.
In Britain, two architects of considerable influence upon contemporary thinking and development of Modern
Movement were C.F.A. Voysey and Charles Rennie Mackintosh.
After the Second World War, the new architecture developed rapidly, while under its influence the buildings
still designed on traditional lines tended to shed stylistic ornament and moldings and to share its directness
and simplicity. Steel and reinforced concrete frame became common. Synthetic materials played a large
part in developments in cladding and waterproofing.
The field of structure, “shell” vaulting offered the greatest opportunities for architectural exploration.
Enormous unobstructed spans were at length achieved with the concrete no more than 2 ⅜” or 60 mm thick.
Steel is now used in Spale-Frame arrangements and
wood lamination, glueing together of overlapping layer Chapel of Notre Dame, Ronchamp, Haute Saone
of wood, provided beams and arches with calculable Le Corbusier 1950-55
capacities vastly beyond the range of timber in its
The chapel is compact and massively walled, the south wall battered
natural state. inwards and contain an intriguing pattern of slot windows of varying
dimensions and proportions, some square and some inert, others with
vertical or horizontal trends. Round, soft-contoured angle towers contain
minor chapels, and with the help of a south-eastern great spur-buttress
sustain a billowing roof, sweeping outwards and upwards to form an
enormous canopy.
On the east wall is an outdoor pulpit. Internally the deep set, jewel like
splay-jambed windows send shafts of richly-colored light across the
crespuscular gloom rilule at the top wall top a thin band of light
demarcates wall from roof, which is slightly elevated on metal supports.
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Frank Lloyd Wright. 1943-1959
The building is conceived as a continuous spiral ramp embracing an
open well, the diameter of the spiral increasing towards the dome, a
principal source of light 28 meters above ground.
The gently curving walls, entirely unadorned inside and out, are slightly
inclined towards the interior, a device which Wright believed provided
the ideal surface for showing pictures.
Falling Waters, Pennsylvania

MODULE 4
Einstein Tower, Potsdam

Eric Mendhelson. 1919
An observatory and astrophysical laboratory, is a wholly plastic expression completely devoid of historical
allusions, its forms being symbolic of optional instruments designed for poured concrete, it is actually
executed in cement covered brickwork.
The Post Office Tower, London
Architects: Ministry of Public Buildings and Works. 1966
The Post Office Tower in London was designed in 1966 by the Architects of the Ministry of
Public Buildings and Works. It is 619 feet high and contains telecommunications apparatus.
The sculptural form of the upper part is created by the exposed “horns’ and other equipment.
Advantage has been taken of the height and view to place a revolving restaurant at the top.
Barbican Housing Project, London

Chamberlin, Powell and Bon. 1955
The Barbican Housing Project in the City of London was begun in 1955 by Chamberlin, Powel
and Bon on a 35 acre site almost entirely cleared by a war-time bombing. The medieval
church of St. Giles Cripplegate, remained standing and is now the center of a paved square
flanked by a school and a lake. Across the lake is an arts center, with a theater, concert hall
and an art gallery. The project houses 6,500 people.
The horizontal apartment buildings in the Barbican are grouped around sunken grass
quadrangles, planted with trees. The flat tops are relieved by the pattern made by a row of
semi-circular penthouse windows.
United States Pavilion, Expo 67

Montreal, Canada
The United States Pavilion at Expo ’67, Montreal, with an advanced and
experimental building in the form of Buckminster Fuller’s pre-fabricated
geodesic dome.
MODULE 4
MODULE 4
How modern architecture differs from classical

architecture
anonymous
There are two ways one could understand this question, both
of which will be addressed here. First, modern and classical
architecture (with a small 'm' and a small 'c') can be
understood as new architecture versus old architecture.
However, Modern and Classical architectural (capitalized)
refer to specific movements or styles, and mean something
else entirely. Each comparison yields interesting results,
though of quite different natures.
In terms of the first comparison, the primary difference is the
mode of construction - prior to the 19th century, essentially
all large-scale commercial and civic architecture was done
with load-bearing construction. In other words, bricks were
stacked, formed into arches, and so on - but the load (weight)
was always carried down by the shell of the building. The
Pantheon is a good example of an amazing building that tests
the limits of this approach. With the advent of reinforced
concrete and steel construction methods, we now primarily
build with frame-and-cladding techniques. In other words, a
steel building frame (or skeleton) is erected, and the cladding
(glass and siding) are hung from this frame. Even buildings
that appear to be made of load-bearing materials (like brick)
are actually virtually always made of concrete and still with a
thin layer of brick or stone applied to the exterior for the sake
of appearance.
As for the difference between Classical and Modern
architecture, there are many. Classical Greek or Roman
architecture emphasized symmetry and weightiness. Modern
architecture, starting with the Bau Haus and drawing on
abstract art of the time, emphasized dynamic and asymmetrical compositions, and often emphasized
movement and thinness with modern materials. What Classical and Modern architecture (curiously enough)
shared in common, however, was an attitude of perfectionism - the details mattered, and were the ultimate
test of the success of a building.
How modern architecture differs from classical architecture

by Cheryl Drahner
MODULE 4
The greatest distinguishing factor between modern and

classical architecture is in their approach to beauty. Classical
architecture was about creating a beautiful structure. Modern
architecture is about bringing the beauty of the surroundings
into the structure.
Classical architecture, from the time of the Greeks up through
the early twentieth century, was clearly about making a structure
that was beautiful. It strove to serve a function, as does modern
architecture, but it also wanted to be beautiful in and of itself.
Consider the carvings of Notre Dame in Paris, the columns at
the Parthenon. Even the varying colors and carvings on a
Victorian home. Clearly these are meant to create beauty
regardless of a structures surroundings. Driving through many
an old neighborhood one can see that at times this is
advantageous when a beautifully restored, turn of the century home is sitting next to a dilapidated, poorly
modernized, turned into apartments, sorry excuse for a dwelling. In modern architecture we see quite the
opposite approach. Through the use of industrial materials, architects were able to design homes that no
longer needed brick or lots of wood to keep them intact. This allowed for walls of glass that could provide
uninterrupted views. Modern architecture seeks to understand the natural light available in a given
area/terrain and maximize its beauty. The goal is not to make a beautiful structure, though I would argue that
many of them are quite lovely, but to bring the beauty into it, connecting the people to their environment
instead of isolating them from it. Further enhancing this is the use of materials that one would not find in
nature. Glass and steel are hard and slick, and no matter where you build with these items it will never blend
with the environment. The brilliance is that it does just the opposite. By providing contrast it enhances the
beauty, whether it be on the ocean, in the desert, or the middle of a forest. The juxtaposition of hard against
soft, cold against heat, light against dark, enhances the features of both, heightening the experience for the
dweller.
These ideas can be clearly seen if one goes to the Louvre in Paris. The Louis-Phillipe style of the original
museum is set in sharp contrast to the new, modern glass and steel entrance in the courtyard. The first
structure strove to create a beautiful environment in which to display other objects of beauty and value. The
new entrance seeks to bring the inside outside, playing on the modern idea of non-isolationism in architecture.
The museum wanted to put in a new entrance without obstructing the beauty of the original structure. This
was the best solution, and in and of itself becomes an exhibit of sorts, showcasing the evolution of
architecture as art.
MODULE 4
How modern architecture differs from

classical architecture
by Brian Smith
There are three distinguishing features of
modern architecture versus classical
architecture. The first is in the materials
used. Ancient builders used stone, mud
brick, and eventually concrete and wood in
most of their buildings, which had limited
capabilities. Today, the production of iron,
steel, cable, concrete, aluminum, etc. have
vastly extended the range of designs that
can be succesfully built. This leads to the
second difference, and that is in the use of
the arch. Classically, arches were one of
the only methods of spanning large distances, hence their extensive use in large buildings. Today, steel
frames and lightweight construction materials allow designers to
span distances the ancients would never have dreamed of-often without
the use of any arches. The final difference is in the functional design.
Today, buildings are designed with function in mind. Rooms are planned to
maximize the use of space, buildings are built taller and taller, etc.
Anciently, space was not such a problem, and utility was not necessarily
considered as much as aesthetics.
How modern architecture differs from classical architecture
by Will Kester
There are many types of classical architecture, Greek, Roman, Gothic,
Moorish, etc. I enjoy looking at them all, generally. I would hate to tackle
building them, though, as the detail seems overwhelming. In the
1950's there was one type of modern style boring. Rectangular boxes made
of concrete, with glass or not just some windows, the only choices.
Now, architects are bringing some style and innovation into the modern designs, incorporating function and
style, a big improvement. They aren't however built to withstand the ages, as classical structures seemed to
be. Look at the design and construction of any new building in your area and objectively ask yourself if you
think it will still be something to be admired three hundred or a thousand years from now.
See what I mean?
Not all classical structure withstood the ages, but a lot did. Is there any modern building that will? I don't
know, or if they deserve to be kept around for our admiration, but they are getting prettier and more
interesting, it seems. That's a good thing.
MODULE 4
My question when anything is called modern, is, what will future generations call it?
Different architectural styles

throughout history
by Asahatter
The "styles" employed by

architects through history have depended primarily upon 3
factors:
1. The MATERIALS - from the stone of the Neolithic
period to the reinforced concrete of the Brutalist style, the materials available to the architect will naturally
frame or constrain his or her ideas.
2. The TECHNIQUES - closely related to materials, the technologies available to manufacture, shape and
interconnect materials will inform the architect's designs. For example stone carving abilities was central
to Ancient Egyptian architecture whereas the ability to cast structural steel affected many architectural
styles from the 1850s onwards.
3. The FASHION - what society expects its buildings to look like is central to the notion of architectural style.
From the Classical architecture of Greece and Rome through Europe's Gothic styles to the
Deconstructivism of today, fashions come and go. Architects may leap upon new ideas or materials or
be influenced by buildings from previous eras to design structures have a distinct set of features that will
be used when characterising its style.
MODULE 4
The style of buildings has varied greatly from place to place and across the centuries, and attempts to classify
styles, particularly in the modern era will always court controversy, as periods will overlap, new styles will be
based upon old ideas and the availability of materials may cause styles to reinterpreted in differing areas of
the globe.
In the ANCIENT WORLD styles changed relatively slowly, and are usually divided according to the region in
which the style first emerged.
NEOLITHIC (~10000BC - 3000BC) architecture probably began in ancient Iraq and was characterized by the
use of primitive materials such as stone, mud bricks, wattle and daub etc. Structures that have survived range
from Skara Brae on the Orkney Islands through Stonehenge in England and parts of ancient Jericho in the
West Bank.
SUMERIAN architecture ( ~5000BC - 2000BC) was characterized by the use of unmortared "planoconvex"
mud bricks, as wood and stone were not available to the architects of the Tigris-Euphrates plain, although
this style is perhaps most famous for its platformed towers, known as ziggurats.
The ANCIENT EGYPTIAN style (~3000BC - 400AD) is usually thought to be defined by stone monuments,
temples and the like, although extensive use was also made of mud bricks. Buildings tended to be of post
and lintel construction with the use of elaborate carvings and hieroglyphic decoration.
The CLASSICAL styles of Greece and Rome (~800BC - 650AD) remain hugely influential in architecture,
with the use of pillars and arches, the first uses of concrete and decorations such as mosaic.
The BYZANTINE style emerged from the Roman Classical style and spread throughout Asia Minor. Often
incorporating domes into its designs, many of its elements can be seen in subsequent styles.
Descriptions of ancient architectural styles tend to be based around their emergence in the Old World, but
significant movements were also present in the Americas, with MAYAN architecture being just one of the
rungs in the ladder.
Following on from ancient styles, MEDIEVAL architecture is usually divided into ROMANESQUE, NORMAN
and GOTHIC with the Gothic style being further divided into Early, Decorated, Perpendicular and Brick. These
styles overlap, and distinguishing and categorising them will remain a matter of debate and personal taste.
Romanesque architecture is characterized by its use of geometric form and stone vaulting, with the columns
of the Romans being replaced by piers. It spawned Norman architecture in North West Europe, which in turn
gave rise to Gothic - characterized by its use of the ogee or pointed arch, flying buttresses and decorations
such as gargoyles. Notre Dame in Paris is a notable example of this.
Style and fashion began to change even more rapidly as new techniques were discovered and the half-
timbered, steep-roofed TUDOR style in Britain ran straight into the RENAISSANCE and BAROQUE. Styles
were revised, reintroduced and reinterpreted throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, with movements such
as EMPIRE, CITY BEAUTIFUL, ART DECO, ARTS and CRAFTS and BAUHAUS all rising to the fore and
then passing.
The modern architect has so many influences to draw upon and so many ways to solve design issues that
each new building can seem to come from a different era, with tastes varying widely between architects.
From bubbles to monoliths, modern architecture has it all.
Different architectural styles throughout history

anonymous
MODULE 4
From Pre-History to Post-Modernity, architectural styles have always been a fascinating window into the past
for anyone interested in the nature and origins of human culture. They reflect the essence of a time and
place, preserved in stone or etched in marble, like no other kind of artifact. This article is but a glimpse, a
small taste of that vast history of architectural styles. Consider it a beginner's guide, an overview, something
to pique your interest and arouse your curiosity by chronologically tracing human progress as evidenced in
works of architecture. One could spend a lifetime studying even one of these periods or styles!
PRE-HISTORIC architectural structures that remain partially intact today were typically religious in nature,
because religious architecture was made of more permanent materials (like brick and stone). Such structures
vary dramatically in terms of style and appearance, but reveal much about the building technologies (and,
where there are engravings or paintings) the cultural histories of peoples. These are our strongest link to the
distant past, and demonstrate at once how far we have come as a species and how much we still rely on
beliefs and stories to sustain us.
CLASSICAL architecture falls into two primary sub-categories: Greek and Roman architecture. The Greeks
were perhaps most well known for the subtle and highly calculated visual effects or illusions produced by
their incredibly crafted buildings. They would use devices like a subtle taper (narrowing) of a column to
change the apparent size, depth or proportion of a structure. Rigid geometries defined their temples and
ornaments applied to them. Roman architecture tended to focus less on religious structures and more on
public or civic ones. In terms of style, the Romans borrowed much from the Greeks but were considerably
less interested in subtly - preferring grandeur and opulence instead. Their buildings became monuments to
their pride and power moreso than examples of their cunning and creativity.
MEDIEVAL architecture is perhaps most well known for the production of incredible Gothic churches.
Religious architecture was again at the forefront of society, and in a culture where very few people could read
the stories depicted through sculptures and engravings were critical for telling Biblical stories to believers.
Medieval churches emphasized heaven by accentuating the thinness of structural elements and using visual
devices to focus one's eye up toward the heavens. Medieval architects were also less exacting in their
execution of buildings than classical architects, allowing individual craftsmen to create specific sculptures
within the overall system that weren't required to match symmetrically with others.
RENAISSANCE architecture shifted the focus from religiosity to reason, and, in turn, returned to certain
Classical ideals of rigorous geometry and proportion. As such, the prevailing Renaissance style could be
described as highly restrictive, formal, symmetrical and ordered, as opposed to the more decorative, creative
and sublime work of the Medieval period. This was simply an outgrowth of the philosophy of the times, which
believed that science would fix all the wrongs of the world.
BAROQUE architecture can be best understood as both an extension and rejection of Renaissance
architecture. While it largely draws on the stylistic motifs and organization of the Renaissance, Baroque
architecture deformed perfect geometries - emphasizing, for example, the ellipse instead of the circle. In a
way, it was an attempt to test the limits or question the authority of the rigid Renaissance - a time of creative
deformations that pushed the boundaries of convention.
NEO-CLASSICAL and GREEK REVIVAL architecture became popular as more people turned back to the
ancient world for architectural, civic and political inspiration. The increasing availability of printed texts
showing heretofore little-seen actual works of Greek and Roman architecture played a roll in the development
and refinement of these movements.
ART DECO (or Jugendstiel in Germany) was a short-lived but highly creative and expressive collection of
styles from around Europe that sought to make sense of the industrial revolution, using new materials in
MODULE 4
strangely dynamic and often organic ways. Due largely to its relative expense and incoherence as a
movement it did not last long.
The ARTS AND CRAFTS Movement began in England with a renewed interest in Gothic architecture, which
was argued by some to be a more creative and liberating form of work for the craftsman - as an alternative
to dirty industrial craft work. The movement spread to the United States and influenced various regional
styles. This movement too was short-lived - due in part to the relative expensive of handicraft which was
pitted against the ease and inexpense of modern mass-production
The MODERN Movement began in the early 1900's and evolved with the development of new building and
transportation technologies, most particularly steel and the automobile (respectively). The modern movement
celebrated these new technologies, emphasizing the simplicity, efficiency and speed of them. Some regional
Modernists also tried to blend ideals of the Arts and Crafts with their designs. Here is a short list of the most
famous, influential and studied Modern architects of the first generation: Mies van der Rohe, LeCorbusier
and Frank Lloyd Wright. Of the so-called second generation, it is worth looking at the work of Louis Kahn.
The POST-MODERN Movement started in the 1960's as a rejection of the overly functional and undecorated
buildings of the Modern Movement. Post-Modernists advocated the reintroduction of creativity, complexity
and ornament to buildings in various ways. This movement, however, has been largely criticized in recent
years for never being able to resolve its philosophies into aesthetically pleasing buildings. Its most notable
proponent, Robert Venturi, is widely respected as a scholar, for example, but largely ignored as an
architectural designer. The excesses of the Post-Modern Movement reached a climax in the 1980's, after
which time it largely died out as a popular approach to design.
The DECONSTRUCTIVIST movement is a contentious issue and difficult to speak with authority about, given
that many believe it describes our currently predominant style of architecture. Also, many people who are
described as its practitioners do not describe themselves using this term. People who consider this a style or
movement would characterize it in terms of it being a fragmentation or rearrangement of Modernist forms.
Like Modernism and unlike Post-Modernism, the style tends not to include overt symbols with specific
meanings. However, it is also anything but sleek or straightforward in its appearance - often being a
rearrangement or 'deconstruction' of a pure form. This is said to be in response to deconstructivist
philosophies like those of Jacques Derrida, which maintain that everything is subjective and things can have
multiple meanings to different people. On this philosophy, it is argued, a 'pure' or 'whole' object is not
desirable, but something that can be understood and appreciated by different people in different ways is.

by Royce Radcliffe
Architectural history is just as rich as art history. There are just as many movements and evolutions of the
form. Studying the evolution of the form is vital to any budding student of architecture.
Prehistoric architecture was mostly natural and made form the bare minimum requirements. Workability was
the focus and aesthetics were almost accidental.
Architecture during medieval times was spiritually charged. The structures were made so that light could
permeate them, and through geometry the designers tried to represent divinity. Some of the noteworthy sub-
movements of this period were the Byzantine and Romanesque Architectural movements.
During the Renaissance the architecture shifted somewhat. The perception of infinity had entered
architectural consciousness. Expanses of space opened up and in fact the openness of spaces were
MODULE 4
designed to be understood in their own right from certain fixed views. This was the central theme to
Renaissance architecture, which in the eyes of many analysts is still one of the more powerful and influential
styles.
In the 1800s architecture was used to emphasize characteristics of form. This is however also the period
when the individual architect began to distinguish himself and make inroads into the mainstream art
community.
Modern architecture started in the early 1900s and rose to prominence as it sown architectural movement in
the 1940s. In those years the style was called the International Style and the label has held to this day. The
characteristics of modern architecture are being discussed right now and are entirely open to interpretation.
The history of architecture is very important in terms of understanding the evolution that has led to the building
styles we see today. To look at the architecture of history is to see history itself reflected in the most beautiful
manner possible.

by Dana Toutloff
Initially, and throughout the ages to follow architectural style has been a reflection of two main factors, need
and availability. The basic need throughout has been shelter. What was available in the areas of material
and know-how has fluctuated, increased and blossomed over the years. The personal taste of the times
played its part from architectural age to architectural age, and leaves us today with a world of variation.
What remains and/or what is known to man of architecture's earliest years is a lesson in simplicity. A roof
and walls made from raw products generally mortared by mud was what first provided much of the shelter
for mankind. It served its purpose. Later as intellect piled up on intellect and with the addition of trial and
error, the world saw the Roman, Greek and European influence begin to permeate. Both era's left their mark
and can still be seen in much of modern architecture.
By the 18th century the majority of the leaps and bounds of architectural need had been mastered. Roofs
and walls were still roofs and walls, but admittedly they had taken on a definite sophistication. What then
became of the architectural movement was most often seen in personal taste.
During the 1800's Antonio Gaudi made his architectural contributions showing most vividly the emphasis of
style development over foundational change. His work still stands, much of which can be seen in Barcelona.
Those structures each speak of excessive excess in practically every corner, beautifully done, but undeniably
'gaudy'.
In the most modern of times there have been some to step outside of the main frame of architectural
standards. Most notable may be the style of Frank Lloyd Wright who never drew a crooked line and yet never
designed a regularly square anything. His work, as did Gaudi's, spoke of artistic flair more than need but
always served the foundational purpose in spite of it.
Throughout history, man has left his imprint through the style of his work. Whether that contribution was made
in architecture, music, or science the touch of the masters hand is what lingers on in our minds, if not in our
presence. The architectural treasures we keep in tact set a timeless standard, teaching us of a beauty that
is not only structurally sound but constantly needful and inspiring.
International Style Architecture

MODULE 4
Revolutionary Dynamic Tower, Dubai

Dr. David Fisher
The building generates electricity from wind turbines mounted horizontally between each floor, eighty storey
will have up to seventy nine wind turbines, making it a true green power plant while traditional vertical wind
turbines have some environmental negative impact, including obstruction of views and the need for roads to
build and maintain them, the Dynamic Tower’s wind turbines are practically invisible and extremely quiet
due to their special shape and the carbon fiber material they are made of.
Another environmentally green element of the Dynamic Tower is the photovoltaic cells that will be placed
on the roof of each rotating floor to produce solar energy, approximately 20% of each roof will be exposed to
the sun, so a building that has 80 roofs will equal the roofing space of 10 similar buildings.
In addition, natural and recyclable materials including stone, marble, glass and wood will be used for the
interior finishing. To further improve the energy efficiency of the Dynamic Tower insulated glass and
structural insulating panels will be employed.
MODULE 4
Energy will also be saved during construction, which involves pre-fabricating individual units in a factory, this
Fisher Method not only reduces construction time, but it also results in a cleaner construction site with limited
noise, dust, fumes and waste, the shorter the building time also results in a less energy consumption than
traditional construction methods.
Innovative Architect
The rotating towers are the vision of Dr. David Fisher, an accomplished Italian Architect focused on designing
“Dynamic Architecture” or “designing buildings that can adjust themselves to the needs of its inhabitants”.
Fisher has been involved in building restoration projects in New York and is currently working to develop
revolutionary construction technologies. Fisher’s designs are built in the factory and assembled on site,
significantly reducing the construction time and number of workers.
Revolutionary Construction
The first phase of construction will take about six months. A central concrete core is erected to house
important static amenities like elevators, staircases, plumbing and other utilities. This is the only part of the
project which must be built on site. The 12 individual units that make up each floor are pre-fabricated in a
factory to ensure safety, cost effectiveness and quality control. Each unit is self-contained and includes all
necessary electrical, plumbing and air-conditioning. Units are hooked on to the building and hoisted up to
the top of the tower. It takes one week to rotate the entire floor. The tower is effectively built from the top-
down. The fact that each unit is independent and moves with the wind, ensures a much higher resistance to
earthquakes.
Self Powered Architecture

Neatly stacked in between each floor is a horizontal
wind turbine (58 turbines total). Each turbine can
produce 0.3 megawatt of electricity and is said to
be able to produce enough energy for 50 families.
The turbines are integrated in such a way that they
are hardly visible from the outside. Their close
proximity makes them easy to maintain.
“Producing that much electric energy without any
implication on the aesthetic aspect of the building
is a revolutionary step in tapping alternative energy
sources”.
Dynamic Architecture’s website also claims that
combined with solar panels they could generate up
to 7 million dollars worth of surplus electricity every
year.

ARCH543 - EVALUATING ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ARCH543 - EVALUATING ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ARCH543 - EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Specific Learning Objectives

Features Architectural period

Columns Greek Architecture – TEMPLE OF HERA (OYLMPIA)

The temple measures 50.01 x 18.76m at stylobate level; such elongated

Romanesque Architecture – BASILICA DI SAN CLEMENTE

In most parts of Europe, Romanesque columns were massive, as they supported

Columns were either cylindrical and of stumpy proportions or formed as massive

sometimes carved with ornament. Variations of Corinthian or Ionic capitals are

Early Christian Architecture – OLD ST. PETER’S BASILICA

Byzantine Architecture – HAGIA SOPHIA

Mouldings Romanesque Architecture – LIMBURG CATHEDRAL

The Romanesque period produced a profusion of sculptural ornamentation. This

Byzantine Architecture – LINCOLN CATHEDRAL

Byzantine Architecture – CHURCH OF THE SAINTS SERGIUS AND

Early Christian Architecture – OLD ST. PETER’S BASILICA

Greek Architecture - TEMPLE OF APOLLO PALATINUS

in larger buildings by columns in the naos, as at Paestum. The timber rafters of

The famous west front, decorated with thousands of figures, is a masterpiece of

Romanesque Architecture – LIMBURG CATHEDRAL

Facades of windowless temples, which would otherwise have been monotonous,

Early Christian Architecture

These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using rubble or

Gothic Architecture – NOTRE DAME OF PARIS

Construction materials Egyptian Architecture – GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA

homogeneous. These were still constructed according to Roman methods of using

The method of hollow wall-construction was sometimes used, as in the frieze of

Byzantine Architecture – SAN VITALE CHURCH

The system of construction in concrete and brickwork introduced by the Romans

The mathematical and geometrical nature of the construction is an image of the

Roman methods of craftsmanship still influenced constructive art in Europe, but

1. Modern/ International Architecture

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Falling Waters, Pennsylvania

Einstein Tower, Potsdam

Barbican Housing Project, London

United States Pavilion, Expo 67

How modern architecture differs from classical

How modern architecture differs from classical architecture

The greatest distinguishing factor between modern and

How modern architecture differs from

Different architectural styles

The "styles" employed by

Different architectural styles throughout history

Different architectural styles throughout history

Different architectural styles throughout history

International Style Architecture

Revolutionary Dynamic Tower, Dubai

Self Powered Architecture

You might also like