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Dr. Julián Sierra‐Pérez
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Materiales Avanzados
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NON CONVENTIONAL COMPOSITES
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 ADVANTAGES MMCs VS. ALLOYS

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• Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at RT and above,
• Increase in creep resistance at higher temperatures,

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• Increase in fatigue strength, especially at higher temperatures,
• Improvement of thermal shock resistance (lower expansion coefficient),

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• Low degradation problems,
• Increase in Young’s modulus,

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• Reduction of thermal elongation,
• Improvement in low temperature creep resistance (reactionless materials),
• Improvement of burnout behavior (switching contact),

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• Improvement of wear behavior (sliding contact),
• Production of layer composite materials for electronic components,
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Production of ductile composite superconductors,
Production of magnetic materials with special properties.
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DISADVANTAGES MMCs VS. ALLOYS
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• Changes in density,
• Reduction of ductility,
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• Reduction of toughness (in some cases),

• Reduction of the corrosion resistance (in some cases),
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• Anisotropy,
• Difficulties in production,
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• Processing problems,
• Insufficient process stability and reliability,
• More expensive (inadequate economic efficiency in certain
areas).

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 REINFORCEMENTS FOR MMCs

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General properties of the reinforcements for MMCs:
• low density,

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• mechanical compatibility (with low thermal expansion coefficient),

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• chemical compatibility,
• thermal stability,
• high Young’s modulus,

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• high compression and tensile strength,
• good processability,

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• economic efficiency.

• These demands can be achieved only by using non‐metal inorganic reinforcement

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components: ceramics (oxides, nitrides, carbides…).
• For metal reinforcement ceramic particles, fibers or carbon fibers are often used. Common

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reinforcing elements: SiC, Al2O3, TiB2, boron and graphite.
Due to the high density and the affinity to reaction with the matrix alloy the use of metallic
fiber usual fails.
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REINFORCEMENTS FOR MMCs
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Properties related to the type of reinforcement:

• Continuous reinforcement composites have the possibility to incorporate a
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mix of properties in the matrix, as better wear resistance and lower

coefficient of thermal expansion. The products have high mechanical
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strength (especially fatigue strength) along the direction of the

reinforcement. They are anisotropic.
• Discontinuous reinforcement improves hardness, wear resistance, fatigue
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resistance, dimensional stability and compression resistance. There is an

increase in stiffness but less ductility and fracture toughness. The products
can be worked with the usual techniques of rolling, extrusion and forging.

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 LOAD TRANSFER CONCEPT
• The concept of load sharing between the matrix and the reinforcing shape is important

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in mechanical behavior of MMCs.

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• At equilibrium, the external load must equal the sum of the volume‐averaged loads

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borne by the constituents of the MMC:
(1 ‐ f) M + f R = A

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governing the volume‐averaged matrix (M) and reinforcement (R), stresses in a

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composite under an external stress A, containing a volume fraction f of reinforcement.
• Thus, for a simple two‐constituent MMC under a given applied load, a certain
proportion of that load will be carried out by the reinforcement and the remainder by

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the matrix. This proportion depends on the volume fraction, shape and orientation of
the reinforcement and on the elastic properties of both constituents.
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• Provided the response of the MMC remains elastic, this proportion will be
independent of the applied load.
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LOAD TRANSFER CONCEPT
• The reinforcement may be regarded as efficient if it carries a relatively high proportion
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of the externally applied load.

• The concept of load transfer can be readily applied to the elastic behavior of
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continuous fiber MMCs.

• The calculation of the load partitioning is more complex in discontinuous
reinforcement MMCs, particularly when the matrix starts to undergo plastic
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deformation.
• A rigorous approximation must take into account that, in this case, the strengthening is
the result of both load transfer and work hardening of the matrix due to the
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interaction of dislocations and reinforcement.

• For the analytical prediction of load transfer, it will be also important the concept of
misfit strain (the difference between the shape of the reinforcement and the “natural”
shape of the hole it occupies in the matrix).

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 PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING

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• Metal Matrix Composites can be processed by incorporating or combining a liquid

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metal matrix with the reinforcement.

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• Advantages of using a liquid phase route in processing:
– Near net‐shape when compared to solid state processes,

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– Can favor intimate interfacial contact, and hence stronger bond,
– Faster rate of processing,

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– Relatively low temperatures associated with melting most light metals.

• Main liquid phase processing techniques:

– Stir Casting,

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– Liquid Infiltration,
– Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration,
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Spray co‐deposition,
In situ processes.
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PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING
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Stir Casting.

• In Stir Casting a dispersed phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten
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matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring.

• Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication.
• The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
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• The liquid composite material is cast by conventional casting methods and equipment used
for metallic alloys and may also be processed by conventional metal forming technologies.
• In the application of Stir casting process to MMCs:
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– Alloys that minimize reactivity with the reinforcement must be used.

– Addition of reinforcement particles increases the viscosity of the melt. Thus, the temperature of the composite
melt should be above a certain limit to keep the melt not too viscous.
– Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually no more than 30% vol).

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 PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING
Compocasting.

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• A solidifying metal “slurry” (with a suspension of ceramic particles) is made to remain
relatively fluid with up to about 40% solid, provided it is continuously agitated to

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encourage initial particle wetting, discourage particle agglomeration and counter
particle sedimentation.

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• A 20% vol. particulate can be added, provided the particles remain well‐disperses in

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suspension.
• It is necessary that the matrix has a high solidification range.
• During the process, less contraction and cracking problems are observed.

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• Good dimensional tolerances are obtained.
• As matrix is in a semi‐solid state, the fill of the mold is less turbulent, so an small
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amount of gas remains trapped, and porosity is reduced.
• The method is in commercial use for Al‐SiC composites.
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PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING
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Liquid infiltration.

• Infiltration is a liquid state method of MMCs fabrication, in which a preformed dispersed phase
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(ceramic particles, fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix metal, which fills the space
between the dispersed reinforcement preform. The molten metal must have low viscosity and
good wettability of the reinforcement.
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• The motive force of an infiltration process may be either capillary force of the dispersed phase
(spontaneous infiltration) or an external pressure (gaseous, mechanical, electromagnetic,
centrifugal or ultrasonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase (forced infiltration).
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• Infiltration is one of the methods of preparation of tungsten‐copper composites, and of MMCs

with an Al, AlMg, TiAl or Ni3Al matrix.
• The process can be reactive or non‐reactive.
• The process is conducted in inert atmosphere to minimize interfacial reactions. For Al or Al‐Mg,
typical infiltration rates are less than 25 cm/h.

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 PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING

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In Situ fabrication of MMCs.

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• Is a process in which reinforcing phase is formed in the matrix as a result of precipitation from

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the melt during its cooling and solidification.
• Different types of MMCs may be prepared by in situ fabrication method:

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– 1. Particulate in situ MMC: Particulate composite reinforced by in situ synthesized dispersed
phase in form of particles. Ex: Al matrix reinforced by TiB2 particles, Mg matrix reinforced by

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Mg2Si particles.
– 2. Short‐fiber reinforced in situ MMC: Short‐fiber composite reinforced by in situ synthesized
dispersed phase in form of short fibers or whiskers (single crystals grown in form of short
fibers). Examples: Ti matrix reinforced by TiB2 whiskers, Al matrix reinforced by TiAl3 whiskers.

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– 3. Long‐fiber reinforced in situ MMC: Long‐fiber composite reinforced by in situ synthesized
Si vadispersed phase in form of continuous fibers. Good creep resistance. Example: NiAl matrix
reinforced by long continuous fibers of Mo.
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PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING
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• In situ processes fall into two major categories:

– Reactive processes, in which two components are allowed to react exothermically to
form the reinforcement phase. The matrix usually is Al, Ni or an intermetallic matrix,
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The reaction eliminates problems associated with wetting of the particle, so a

relatively clean and strong interface is typically formed. A fine, high volume fraction
reinforcement is obtained. Reaction temperature is used to tailor the desired particle
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size. Examples:
2B + Ti +Al  TiB2 + Al
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C + Ti + Al  TiC + Al

– Non reactive processes, that take advantage of two‐phase systems, such as eutectic or
monotectic alloys, to form the fiber and matrix in situ. Controlled directional
solidification (maintaining a stable solidification growth front) is conducted to
separate the two phases, with solidification rates in the range of 1‐5 cm/h.

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 PRIMARY LIQUID PHASE PROCESSING

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• Dispersed phases of in situ fabricated MMCs may consist of intermetallic compounds, carbides,

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borides, oxides, and/or eutectic ingredients.
• Advantages of in situ MMCs:

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– In situ synthesized particles and fibers are smaller than those in materials with separate
fabrication of dispersed phase (ex‐situ MMCs). Fine particles provide better strengthening

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effect;
– In situ fabrication provides more homogeneous distribution of the dispersed phase

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particles and bonding between the particles of in situ formed dispersed phase and the
matrix is better than in ex‐situ MMCs; Equipment and technologies are less expensive.
– No interfacial chemical problems (as the two phases should be in thermodynamic

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equilibrium).
• Disadvantages of in situ MMCs:
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– Choice of the dispersed phases is limited by thermodynamic ability of their precipitation in
particular matrix, and the size of dispersed phase particles is determined by solidification
conditions.
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PRIMARY SOLID STATE PROCESSING
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Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites

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Is the process, in which MMCs are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase
due to mutual diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and
under pressure.
• The difficulty in controlling reinforcement distribution and obtaining a uniform matrix
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microstructure associated to liquid phase techniques is avoided in solid state processing.

• Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state fabrication of
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MMCs) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary between the matrix and dispersed
(reinforcing) phases, although it may result in less intimate interfacial contact.
• Principal groups of solid state fabrication of MMCs:
– Diffusion bonding.
– Powder Metallurgy Processing.
– PVD.

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 PRIMARY SOLID STATE PROCESSING

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Diffusion Bonding.

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• Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils and a
dispersed phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then pressed at
elevated temperature. Interdiffusion of atoms, from clean metal surfaces in contact with each

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other leads to bonding.

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• The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure.
• Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, flat products, tubes).
• Advantages: ability to process a wide variety of metals (ex: superplastic Al alloys, Ti) and control
of fiber orientation and volume fraction.

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• Disadvantages: long processing times, high processing temperatures and pressures, limitation
on complexity of shapes that can be produced, expensive. Fiber‐to‐fiber contact can result in
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very high stress concentration. A significant interfacial reaction layer is formed during the heat
treatment necessary for consolidation.
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PRIMARY SOLID STATE PROCESSING
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• Variants of the basic diffusion bonding process:

– Foil‐fiber‐foil process. A matrix foil or powder cloth (a mixture of matrix powder
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and a fugitive organic binder) and fiber arrays (composite wire) are stacked in a
predetermined order. The stacked layers are vacuum hot pressed so that
diffusion bonding may take place.
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– Matrix coated fiber process. The fibers are coated with the matrix material by
plasma spraying or physical vapor deposition. The uniformity of fiber spacing is
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easier to control. Depending of the flexibility of the fibers, the coated fibers may
also be wound on a drum. A very high fiber volume fraction (80% vol.) can be
obtained.
– Wire/fiber Winding is a process of combined winding continuous ceramic fibers
and metallic wires followed by pressing at elevated temperature.

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 SECONDARY PROCESSING

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• MMCs may be conformed by rolling, forging, pressing, drawing or extrusion.

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The deformation operation may be either cold (below the recrystallization

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temperature) or hot (above the recrystallization temperature). Therefore,
secondary processing involves high temperatures and large deformations.

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• It must be noted that deformation of MMCs with dispersed phase in form of

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short fibers results in a preferred orientation of the fibers and anisotropy of
the material properties (enhanced strength along the fibers orientation).
• Secondary processing of MMCs may usually have different objectives:

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– Consolidation (porosity elimination).
–
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– Forming into a required shape.
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SECONDARY PROCESSING
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Extrusion and drawing.

• Extrusion may be carried out on discontinuous MMCs produced commonly by squeeze

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infiltration or powder metallurgy processing.

• Extrusion pressures required are higher than for unreinforced material and heating more rapid,
limiting extrusion speed to avoid liquation and surface tearing.
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• When fibers are present, there is an alignment of fibers parallel to the extrusion axis and a
progressive fiber fragmentation. The degree of fiber fracture decreases with increasing
temperature and decreasing total strain rate.
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• Main difficulties: the selection of suitable die materials and the control of heat flow during
extrusion to maintain the required temperature.
• Ceramic‐enriched bands parallel to the extrusion axis are occasionally formed, due to the
concentration of shear strain in certain regions where ceramic particles or fibers accumulate.
This involves inhomogeneity.

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 MACHINING AND JOINING

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Mechanical cutting.

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• Conventional cutting, turning, milling and grinding operations can usually been
applied to MMCs.
• Diamond tools are needed for monofilament‐reinforced MMCs. Tungsten carbide

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or high speed steel tooling may be adequate for short fiber and particulate

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material.
• For most MMCs, the best results are obtained with sharp tooling, an appropriate
cutting speed, lubrication and a high material feed rate
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MMCs are more difficult to machine as the reinforcement volume fraction, size or
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MACHINING AND JOINING
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Joining processes.
• Conventional welding processes are not satisfactory, particularly in fibrous MMCs,
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because the distribution of reinforcement will tend to be strongly disturbed in the

fusion zone and may be entirely absent. In particulate MMCs great
inhomogeneities can be also produced. These reinforcement distribution cannot be
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changed by post‐welding heat treatments. So the joint area remains prone to strain
localization and failure.
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It is preferable to use processes in which the joint produced is relatively narrow:

brazing, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding, laser or electron beam welding and
mechanical fastening.
• Diffusion bonding is commonly applied to Ti‐based MMCs. The
matrix/reinforcement interfacial reaction has to be limited. Al‐based MMCs can be
diffusion bonded with the use of suitable interlayers.

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