Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Adhesion in fried battered nuggets: Performance of different hydrocolloids

as predusts using three cooking procedures
A. Albert a, I. Perez-Munuera b, A. Quiles b, A. Salvador a, S.M. Fiszman a, *, I. Hernando b
a
Instituto de Agroquı́mica y Tecnologı́a de Alimentos (CSIC), Apartado de correos 73, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
b
Departamento de Tecnologı́a de Alimentos, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Apartado de Correos 22012, 46071 Valencia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Batter systems have to turn into a crisp crust after frying and they have to adhere to food substrate
Received 26 August 2008 surfaces which are sometimes very smooth. As a result, treating the substrate with a predust is highly
Accepted 20 November 2008 recommended. Predust agents act by absorbing the moisture on the substrate surface, creating a rough
outer surface on the substrate and ensuring optimal binding between substrate and batter. Normally, the
Keywords: same wheat flour used in the formulation of the batter is used for dusting. In this study, three different
Adhesion
hydrocolloids were used as predusting materials for battered fish nuggets and their performances in
Predust
three different cooking procedures were evaluated. Oxidised starch, xanthan gum and HPMC were
Hydrocolloids
Batters compared with wheat flour (control), using deep frying, conventional oven and microwave oven. Image
Nuggets analysis, an innovative method in this area, was used to quantify adhesion. The performance of the
Frying hydrocolloids used as predusting agents depended on the cooking procedure.
Oven Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Microwave

1. Introduction
Convenience foods are in great demand due to social and
cultural changes in recent years. One of the most important foods in
this group is battered products.
Battered products such as fish nuggets are products which have
been coated with batter and pre-fried, so the consumers or food
service providers only have to apply a final cooking procedure,
usually deep frying; however, the use of conventional or microwave
ovens has been increasing lately and they are now among the most
popular cooking procedures.
Batters are liquid mixtures consisting of water, flour, starch and
seasonings into which food products are dipped prior to cooking.
They act as barriers to moisture loss by protecting the moisture
content, thereby ensuring a final product that is tender and juicy on
the inside and at the same time crisp on the outside (Fiszman &
Salvador, 2003). Modern industrial batters are coating systems
which can be formulated to improve several functionalities, such as
reducing oil uptake while controlling optimum moisture retention,
to improve the cohesion and strength of the external layer, to
favour adhesion to a variety of food surfaces or to create and retain
crunchiness in the crust. In the last decade, quite a large number of
studies of hydrocolloid performance in coating systems have been
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 96 390 0022 16; fax: þ34 96 363 6301 17.
E-mail address: sfiszman@iata.csic.es (S.M. Fiszman).
published (Akdeniz, Sahin, & Sumnu, 2006; Sahin, Sumnu, & Altu-
nakar, 2005).
One of the key features which is common to all batters is
assuring adhesion to the substrate throughout the elaboration and
cooking processes. Creating coating systems that adhere to meat,
fish or vegetable pieces is challenging for manufacturers (Brandt,
2002). Adhesion can be simply defined as the chemical and physical
binding of a coating, both with itself and with the food product it
coats (Suderman, 1983).
In engineering sciences, several well-established mechanical
methods are used to quantify adhesion between two different
surfaces. A few of the more common characterization methods
include peeling tests, probe-tack tests, lap-shear tests, etc. Each of
these experimental methods is focused on a particular level of
adhesion or type of product. For example, peel tests, loop tack
methods, and probe-type experiments are primarily used to
quantify the adhesion of soft adhesives with varying degrees of
adhesion in engineering materials (Crosby, 2003).
In the hydrocolloid field, these kind of mechanical tests were
used to measure the ability of different hydrocolloid ‘‘glues’’ to
adhere different surfaces in medical applications (Ben-Zion & Nus-
sinovitch, 1997). In the present study, the surfaces involved con-
sisted of preformed fish pieces and a fragile fried batter layer making
almost impossible their handling for these mechanical methods.
Traditionally, in batter systems the adhesion was related to yield
(Baker, Darfler, & Vadehra, 1972; Corey, Gerdes, & Grodner, 1987;
Hsia, Smith, & Steffe, 1992; Mukprasirt, Herlad, Boyle, & Rausch,

0268-005X/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.11.015
1444 A. Albert et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448
2000;) in the sense that the more dough batter adhered the more
final proportion of outer layer to total weight; that is, higher yield of
the elaboration process.
Lack of adhesion at the interface is considered a severe fault of
quality. Assisting adhesion, especially in the case of frozen
substrates, predusts are commonly used. Predust is a fine, dry
material that is dusted onto the moist surface of the food substrate
before further coating is applied, If the batter is applied to a surface
that is too moist it can slip, leaving some areas uncovered or
covered with a diluted material that will then form too thin a layer.
Predusting also helps to reduce any voids that may be caused by
entrapment of air pockets between the substrate and the batter
during batter application, preventing ‘blow-off’ and ‘pillowing’, and
also tends to increase batter pick-up (Fiszman, 2008).
In a pioneering work, Baker et al. (1972) evaluated the predust
material capacities of a series of ingredients from three large
groups: starchy materials, proteins and gums. Since then, little
research has been conducted in this area.
The most commonly used predust in industrial processes is
wheat flour; in addition, certain modified starches are also used. By
adding spices, predusts can act as flavour carriers as well (Van
Beirendonck, 2003).
Hydrocolloids develop wet adhesive properties at various
degrees of hydration, reaching maximum adhesion at an optimum
degree of hydration (Chen & Cyr, 1970). Wetting is not a static
process as water diffuses from the surface of the fish into the
hydrocolloid layer and this makes the hydrocolloid particles to
swell and interact with the batter. Spite of its gel forming properties
and their ability to absorbing water HPMC is one of the cellulose
derivatives less researched in the adhesion area; in the other hand
xanthan gum and oxidised starch were linked to good stickiness
properties (Fiszman & Salvador, 2003; Hsia et al., 1992).
The aim of this work was to evaluate HPMC, xanthan gum,
and oxidised starch as predust materials. A method to quantify
lack of adhesion of the outer layer after three different cooking
methods for pre-fried, battered fish nuggets is proposed. The
samples were cooked by deep frying, conventional oven and
microwave oven, and the performances of the hydrocolloids were
analysed. Other general quality factors of the final products were
also measured.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Food matrix
Frozen fish (hake) blocks were bought in a local market and
stored in a freezer at 18  C until used. The fish blocks were thawed
at room temperature before processing and were cut with a sharp
knife into rectangular-shaped portions (‘‘fish nuggets’’) measuring
55  1 mm, 35  1 mm, and 20  1 mm.
2.2. Sample preparation
A commercial batter formulation was used, consisting of wheat
flour (85%), corn flour (5.8%), salt (5.5%), flavouring (0.6%) and
leavening (Na2H2P2O7/NaHCO3) (3.1%) (Adı́n, S.A., Paterna, Spain).
The dry ingredients were pre-blended for 30 s at speed 2 in a Ken-
wood Major Classic mixer (Kenwood Ltd, UK) and mixed with water
(1:1.2 solid to water ratio) for 2 min. Four different predustings were
used, two starchy materials: 1) wheat flour (as control), 2) an oxi-
dised starch (C* BatterCrisp 05548, Cargill, Barcelona, Spain),
a cellulose derivative: 3) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC,
Methocel E4 M, Dow Chemical Co., and a gum: 3) xanthan gum
(Camp y Jové, Barcelona, Spain). The predusted fish nuggets were
immersed in the batter dough. After being allowed to drip for 1 min,
the battered food matrices were pre-deep-fried in sunflower oil at
190  C for 30 s (Fritaurus Professional 3 domestic fryer, Barcelona,
Spain), placed in plastic freezer bags (LDPE film, thickness 150 m) and
stored at 18  C for two weeks. The samples were then cooked
without thawing.
2.3. Cooking procedures
2.3.1. Deep frying (DF)
1 nugget at a time for 3 min at 180  C in sunflower oil in a 3 l
Fritaurus Professional 4 domestic fryer (Taurus, Barcelona, Spain).
2.3.2. Conventional oven (CO)
2 nuggets at time for 11 min at 225  C in a domestic conven-
tional oven (Fagor 2H 114, Mondragón, Spain).
2.3.3. Microwave oven (MO)
2 nuggets at time for 1 min 15 s in a domestic microwave oven
(Samsung M1727, Barcelona, Spain) at maximum power, 800 W
(measured power output 691 W according to International Stan-
dard IEC 60705), (IEC, 1988).
After cooking, all the samples were left to rest for 1 min before
performing the measurements.
2.4. Adhesion
Cooked samples were cut in half transversally with a sharp knife
and photographs were taken with an Olympus E-1500 camera
(Center Valley, Pennsylvania, USA). Percentage of covering that
remains adhered to the substrate (CRA) was calculated as:
CRA ¼ P=T  100
where P ¼ pixels corresponding to the perimeter of the substrate
where coating is adhered, and T ¼ pixels corresponding to the total
perimeter of the substrate.
High CRA values would indicate good adhesion properties in the
final battered and cooked product.
The measurements were carried out with the help of Analysis
AUTO software (Soft Imaging Systems GmbH, Münster, Germany).
At least 15 cooked nuggets were measured for each sample.
2.5. Microscopy
Five nuggets (4–5 mm3) of each sample were frozen with liquid
CO2 and cut with a cryotome (Shibuya Optical Co., LTD, Saitama,
Japan). Photographs were taken with a Steoroscopic Zoom Micro-
scope Nikon SMZ-1500 (Izasa, Barcelona, Spain) for better obser-
vation of the interface between the coating and the substrate.
2.6. Quality characteristics
In order to ascertain whether the different predusts affected the
general quality of cooked nuggets a number of determinations were
performed.
2.6.1. Batter pick-up
For each predust and cooking procedure (DF, CO and MO), four
fish nugget were thawed, individually weighed, pre-dusted,
immersed in the batter and cooked.
In batter-coated products, the term ‘pick-up’ is generally used to
denote the amount of batter that adhered to the piece of food; the
yield and the quality of the final product depend upon it. Therefore
amount of batter adhering to a fish nugget was considered the
batter pick-up value, calculated as:
Batter pick-upð%Þ ¼ ðB=B þ SÞ  100
 A. Albert et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448
where B is the mass of batter coating the food item after cooking
and S is the mass of the food item, excluding the batter (‘‘peeled’’),
after cooking (Baixauli, Sanz, Salvador, & Fiszman, 2003).
2.6.2. Colour
The colour of the fish nuggets as measured after each cooking
procedure (DF, CO and MO), four nuggets from each formulation
and cooking procedure were analyzed. The colour was measured
instrumentally with a Hunter Labscan II colorimeter. The results
were expressed in accordance with the CIELAB system with refer-
ence to illuminant D65 and a visual angle of 10 . The measurements
were performed through a 6.4 mm diameter diaphragm containing
an optical glass. The CIELAB parameters (L*, a*, b*, C*ab, hab) for all
the samples were determined following the recommendations of
the Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE, 2004). L* is an
approximate measurement of lightness, which is the property
according to which each colour can be considered as equivalent to
a member of the grey scale, between black and white, taking values
within the range 0–100, respectively; a* takes positive values for
reddish colours and negative values for greenish ones, whereas b*
takes positive values for yellowish colours and negative values for
bluish ones; Chroma (C*ab) is the attribute that allows the degree of
difference in comparison to a grey colour with the same lightness to
be determined for each hue, so it is considered the quantitative
attribute of colourfulness; and Hue (hab) is the attribute according
to which colours have been traditionally defined as reddish,
greenish, etc. The two latter parameters are defined by the
following equations:
    1=2
2 2

Cab ¼ a * þ b*
 
hab ¼ arctan b* =a*
2.6.3. Texture analyses
Six nuggets from each formulation and cooking procedure (DF,
CO and MO), were measured to obtain mechanical data. A TA-XT
plus Texture Analyser (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) was
used with a 25 kg load cell for force/displacement measurement.
The samples were cut with a light knife blade (A/LKB) and placed on
the HDP/90 Heavy Duty Platform with a slotted blade insert, with
the longest side of the nugget placed perpendicular to the blade.
The test settings were: test speed 1 mm/s, trigger force 5 g, blade
displacement 20 mm (in order to cut completely through the
sample) (Varela, Salvador, & Fiszman, 2008).
2.7. Statistical analysis
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to compare the
effects of the different predusts and of the cooking procedures.
Least significant differences were calculated by the Tukey test. The
analysis was performed using SPSS for Windows Version 12 (SPSS
Inc., USA).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Adhesion
The functionality of the different hydrocolloids as predustings
depends on their ability to absorb water. This is in relation with the
development of adhesion properties. In addition, starchy materials
as wheat flour and oxidised maize starch have a granular structure
which swells in presence of water and temperature.
1445
Image analysis of the coating/substrate interphase area in the
photographs made it possible to quantify the amount of covering
that remained adhered (CRA) after cooking. Table 1 shows the
results obtained when the three different hydrocolloids and the
wheat flour (control) were used as predusts and the samples were
cooked by frying or in a conventional or microwave oven. Oxidised
starch provided the best adhesion between the substrate and the
coating, even better than that of the control sample, regardless of
the cooking method used. It was the only hydrocolloid that
showed better adhesion results than the control when frying was
used as cooking method. Oxidised starch would increase
the adhesion because of their carboxyl functional groups that can
bind proteins in the substrate. Shinsato, Hippleheuser, and Van
Beirendonck (1999) described that this kind of bonding make the
batter sticker when oxidised starch is added to a batter formula-
tion, helping in this way the coating to adhere better to the
substrate.
It is interesting that when the microwave oven was used for
cooking all the hydrocolloids used as alternative predustings
improved the adhesion results compared to the control. It should
be remembered that because of the type of heating that takes place
in microwave ovens, more water escapes from inside the substrate
in the form of steam; because the hydrocolloids under study are
effective absorbing water. The escaping vapour can lead to pock-
eting between the substrate and the coating layer if the coating is
not well-adhered. No significant differences in percentage of CRA
between HPMC, xanthan gum, and the control were obtained when
the conventional oven was used for cooking; here, only the oxidised
starch improved coating adhesion significantly in comparison to
the control.
A separate analysis of the effect of the different cooking
methods for each hydrocolloid revealed that there were no signif-
icant differences in adhesion due to the cooking method for oxi-
dised starch or xanthan gum. HPMC showed the worst adhesion
results when the nuggets were cooked by frying but significantly
improved its performance when the other cooking methods were
used. The control gave the best adhesion for frying but its results
worsened radically when used in a conventional or microwave
oven; taking into account that flour is used as a predust in products
intended for final frying and its behaviour with other cooking
methods has probably not been analysed, this result is not
surprising.
Pictures were obtained of the cross-sections of the pre-fried,
frozen, and cooked nuggets prepared with the different hydrocol-
loids as predust. Fig. 1 shows some examples of the pictures of fried
samples from which the CRA was calculated. Similar pictures were
taken for the samples cooked in conventional and microwave
ovens. It can be clearly observed that oxidised starch acted as the
best adhesion agent between the substrate and the coating.
Fig. 2 shows the pictures of other freshly cut samples taken with
the stereoscopic microscope; these examples correspond to oxi-
dised starch and HPMC predust samples cooked by frying: in these
Table 1
(%) Covering that remains adhered to the substrate (CRA) results for each cooking
method.
Predust Deep frying Conventional oven Microwave oven
Control 95 a, A (6) 84 b, B (17) 71 c, C (15)
Oxidised starch 100 a, A (0) 100 a, A (0) 99 a, A (4)
Xanthan gum 84 a, C (16) 89 a, B (16) 93 a, AB (8)
HPMC 52 a, B (16) 87 b, B (14) 86 b, B (10)
a,b,c
Means in the same row without a common letter differ (P < 0.05) according to
the Tukey test.
A,B,C
Means in the same column without a common letter differ (P < 0.05) according
to the Tukey test.
Values in brackets indicate standard deviations.
1446 A. Albert et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448

Fig. 1. Some example of the photographs from which percentage of covering that remains adhered to the substrate (CRA) was calculated. Samples cooked by frying. A: control, B:
oxidised starch, C: HPMC, D: xanthan gum.

samples predusted with oxidised starch, values near 100 for CRA
were obtained (Fig. 2A). It will be seen that the starch predust and
the coating integrated well.
During the frying procedure, oxidised starch in the interphase
probably cannot gelatinize completely because it has not enough
water in the first step of the elaboration process. However, some
partial gelatinization could take place during frying that enables
a good integration of the starch granules into a continuous and
sticky interphase adhering the coating in progress.
In the samples prepared with HPMC, however, three separate
layers could be distinguished (Fig. 2B): an outer layer of coating, an
intermediate layer formed by the HPMC itself that did not adhere to
either the coating or the substrate and the inner layer corre-
sponding to the fish muscle used as the substrate. Here, the HPMC
layer can be seen to be opaque, indicating that poor hydration of the
hydrocolloid could have led to its separating. Ben-Zion and Nussi-
novitch (1997) described that some hydrocolloids exhibit wet
adhesiveness in the presence of little water, whereas a greater
amount of water causes the formation of slippery, non-adhesive
mucilage. This seemed to be the case for HPMC in the present study.
This description opens the door to a study using a dusting mixture
of HPMC with flour or other ingredients.
The good adhesion results obtained with oxidised starch as the
predust when the nuggets were cooked in a microwave oven can be
observed in Fig. 3A. When wheat flour (control) was used as the
predust for this cooking method, a separation between the predust
layer and the substrate was revealed (Fig. 3B); these control
samples gave the worst adhesion results when the nuggets were
cooked in the microwave oven.
The results in a conventional oven are not shown, as they are
very similar to those in the microwave oven.
3.2. Quality characteristics
In order to study the quality of the end products prepared with
the different dustings, some quality indices of the nuggets cooked
by the three methods were examined.

Fig. 2. Photographs taken with the Steoroscopic Zoom Microscope. Samples cooked by frying. A: oxidised starch, B: HPMC.
 A. Albert et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448
Fig. 3. Photographs taken with the Steoroscopic Zoom Microscope. Samples cooked by microwave oven. A: oxidised starch, B: control.
3.2.1. Batter pick-up
Batter pick-up is an important index in the food industry, as it
can affect the final food quality and process yield (Hsia et al.,
1992). Yang and Chen (1979) showed that fried chicken flour
predusted, battered and floured again had higher yields than that
battered and breaded. Batter pick-up values for the different
predusts and for each of the cooking methods used are shown in
Table 2.
The batter pick-up of the control sample was higher than that
of samples prepared with different predusts, whether in deep
frying, a conventional oven or a microwave oven. However, the
differences in values were not large, either between the hydro-
colloids or between the cooking methods; all the values found
were perfectly acceptable in the food industry. Flour, being the
only ingredient already found in the batter dough, may be inte-
grated into it more immediately, increasing the quantity of
coating.
3.2.2. Colour measurements
On examining the effect of cooking method, the fried samples
and those cooked in the conventional oven showed redder hues, as
expected, since the outer crust acquires the typical dark golden
colour caused by Maillard reactions at high temperatures. The
samples cooked in the microwave oven exhibited lighter colours,
practically identical to those they had acquired during pre-frying.
On analysing the effects of the different hydrocolloids in each
cooking method, there were no significant differences in the
parameters studied (L*, C* and h*) (data not shown). These results
are logical, as the external colour of the nuggets bears little relation
to the inner substrate/coating interphase.
3.2.3. Texture measurements
The mechanical, morphological and compositional differences
between the layers of the sandwich-like structure of fish nuggets
make difficult to assess the texture of this kind of crusted food
piece. Mechanics of both layers stacked together are essential for
the understanding of the texture of the whole Varela et al. (2008).
Blade cutting was adopted as the method to evaluate the texture of
Table 2
Batter pick-up values for each cooking method.
Predust Deep frying Conventional oven Microwave oven
Control 38.2a (2.0) 37.8a (2.4) 40.1a (0.6)
Oxidised starch 29.4b (1.2) 31.3b (2.6) 35.6b (1.3)
Xanthan gum 30.4b (0.3) 35.1a, b (2.5) 35.1b (1.1)
HPMC 28.3b (1.2) 33.0a, b (2.4) 35.8b (0.7)
a,b
Means in the same column without a common letter differ (P < 0.05) according to
the Tukey test.
Values between parentheses are the standard deviations.
1447
the samples. The profiles of the curves obtained for the different
samples and for each cooking method are shown in Fig. 4. As can be
observed, analyzing the differences due to predusting separately
only makes sense for curves obtained with the same cooking
procedure, because the profiles corresponding to each are quite
different.
The curves for deep frying (Fig. 4A) present a highly jagged
profile with many force peaks and drops associated with fracture
events. These profiles describe the behaviour of crisp products. The
profiles of the curves for the samples cooked in the conventional
oven (Fig. 4B) are quite similar to those for deep frying, although
less jagged, and the force values are higher, indicating more resis-
tance to cutting in a less fragile covering. The profiles for microwave
oven cooking (Fig. 4C) are quite different to the previously
described. These curves do not present drops in force and no
fracture events occurred during the test. The sample was deformed
under compression by the blunt plastic blade and remained
without a ‘‘clean’’ cut until almost the end of the test. These
samples were not crisp but gummy and tough. Similar texture
profiles were found by Varela et al. (2008) in commercial samples
cooked by these three methods.
In general, the profiles of the samples corresponding to the
different hydrocolloids were very similar within each cooking
method. To summarize the texture study, it could be said that using
a hydrocolloid as a predust does not improve the crispness of the
battered sample, compared to the control, in any of the three
cooking methods used.
Fig. 4. Texture profiles of samples cooked by deep frying (A), conventional oven (B)
and microwave oven (C).
1448 A. Albert et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 1443–1448
4. Conclusion
The use of different hydrocolloids as predusts has considerable
effect on coating adhesion to the substrate without altering the
overall characteristics of the batter-coated food. This study high-
lights the importance for a correct interphase choice, which in turn,
will perform differently depending on the cooking procedure.
Oxidised starch gave the best adhesion results for the three
cooking methods. It improved the CRA values significantly
compared to wheat flour when a conventional or microwave oven
was used as cooking method and maintained the quality charac-
teristics of the final product. HPMC and xanthan gum showed
better adhesion properties than wheat flour when a microwave
oven was used. The use of any of the three hydrocolloids as a pre-
dust did not affect batter pick-up, the colour, or texture character-
istics in any of the three cooking methods used.
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to the Comisión Interministerial de
Ciencia e Innovación (Spain) for financial support (Project AGL-
2006-11653-C02).
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