Chillers

ARTICLE

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Types of Chillers

Introduction
Chillers are a key component of air conditioning systems for large buildings. They
produce cold water to remove heat from the air in the building. They also provide
cooling for process loads such as file-server rooms and large medical imaging
equipment. As with other types of air conditioning systems, most chillers extract heat
from water by mechanically compressing a refrigerant.

Chillers are complex machines that are expensive to purchase and operate.
A preventive and predictive maintenance program is the best protection for this valuable
asset.

Learn more about establishing a Best Practice O&M Program.

Chillers commonly use more energy than any other piece of equipment in large
buildings. Maintaining them well and operating them smartly can yield significant energy
savings.

Types of Chillers
Mechanical Compression
During the compression cycle, the refrigerant passes through four major components
within the chiller: the evaporator, the compressor, the condenser, and a flow-metering
device such as an expansion valve. The evaporator is the low-temperature (cooling)
side of the system and the condenser is the high-temperature (heat-rejection) side of
the system.
Mechanical Compressor Chillers
Mechanical compression chillers are classified by compressor type: reciprocating, rotary
screw, centrifugal and frictionless centrifugal.

Reciprocating: Similar to a car engine with multiple pistons, a crankshaft is turned by

an electric motor, the pistons compress the gas, heating it in the process. The hot gas is
discharged to the condenser instead of being exhausted out a tailpipe. The pistons have
intake and exhaust valves that can be opened on demand to allow the piston to idle,
which reduces the chiller capacity as the demand for chilled water is reduced. This
unloading allows a single compressor to provide a range of capacities to better match
the system load. This is more efficient than using a hot-gas bypass to provide the same
capacity variation with all pistons working. Some units use both methods, unloading
pistons to a minimum number, then using hot-gas bypass to further reduce capacity
stably. Capacities range from 20 to 125 tons.

Rotary Screw: The screw or helical compressor has two mating helically grooved rotors
in a stationary housing. As the helical rotors rotate, the gas is compressed by direct
volume reduction between the two rotors. Capacity is controlled by a sliding inlet valve
or variable-speed drive (VSD) on the motor. Capacities range from 20 to 450 tons.
Centrifugal: The centrifugal compressor operates much like a centrifugal water pump,
with an impeller compressing the refrigerant. Centrifugal chillers provide high cooling
capacity with a compact design. They can be equipped with both inlet vanes and
variable-speed drives to regulate control chilled water capacity control. Capacities are
150 tons and up.

Frictionless Centrifugal: This highly energy-efficient design employs magnetic bearing

technology. The compressor requires no lubricant and has a variable-speed DC motor
with direct-drive for the centrifugal compressor. Capacities range from 60 to 300 tons.

Absorption Chillers
Absorption chillers use a heat source such as natural gas or district steam to create a
refrigeration cycle that does not use mechanical compression. Because there are few
absorption machines in the Northwest U.S., this document covers only mechanical-
compression chillers. You can learn more about absorption chillers at the Energy
Solutions Center.
Key Components of Mechanical Compression
Chillers

Evaporator
Chillers produce chilled water in the evaporator where cold refrigerant flows over the
evaporator tube bundle. The refrigerant evaporates (changes into vapor) as the heat is
transferred from the water to the refrigerant. The chilled water is then pumped, via the
chilled-water distribution system to the building's air-handling units.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of HVAC Water Distribution Systems.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Air Distribution Systems.

The chilled water passes through coils in the air-handler to remove heat from the air
used to condition spaces throughout the building. The warm water (warmed by the heat
transferred from the building ventilation air) returns to the evaporator and the cycle
starts over.

Compressor
Vaporized refrigerant leaves the evaporator and travels to the compressor where it is
mechanically compressed, and changed into a high-pressure, high-temperature vapor.
Upon leaving the compressor, the refrigerant enters the condenser side of the chiller.

Condenser
Inside the condenser, hot refrigerant flows around the tubes containing the condenser-
loop water. The heat transfers to the water, causing the refrigerant to condense into
liquid form. The condenser water is pumped from the condenser bundle to the cooling
tower where heat is transferred from the water to the atmosphere. The liquid refrigerant
then travels to the expansion valve.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Cooling Towers.

Expansion valve
The refrigerant flows into the evaporator through the expansion valve or metering
device. This valve controls the rate of cooling. Once through the valve, the refrigerant
expands to a lower pressure and a much lower temperature. It flows around the
evaporator tubes, absorbing the heat of the chilled water that's been returned from the
air handlers, completing the refrigeration cycle.

Controls
Newer chillers are controlled by sophisticated, on-board microprocessors. Chiller control
systems include safety and operating controls. If the equipment malfunctions, the safety
control shuts the chiller down to prevent serious damage to the machine. Operating
controls allow adjustments to some chiller operating parameters. To better monitor
chiller performance, the chiller control system should communicate with the facility's
direct digital control (DDC).

Safety Issues
Chillers are typically located in a mechanical equipment rooms. Each type of refrigerant
used in a chiller compressor has specific safety requirements for leak detection and
emergency ventilation. Consult your local mechanical code or the International
Mechanical Code for details.

The EPA has enacted regulations regarding the use and handling of refrigerants to
comply with the Clean Air Act of 1990. All personnel working with refrigerants covered
by this act must be appropriately licensed.

Best Practices for Efficient Operation

The following best practices will improve chiller performance and reduce operating
costs:

Operate multiple chillers for peak efficiency: Plants with two or more chillers can
save energy by matching the building loads to the most efficient combination of one or
more chillers. In general, the most efficient chiller should be first one used.
Raise chilled-water temperature: An increase in the temperature of the chilled water
supplied to the building's air handlers will improve its efficiency. Establish a chilled-water
reset schedule. A reset schedule can typically adjust the chilled-water temperature as
the outside-air temperature changes. On a centrifugal chiller, increasing the
temperature of chilled water supply by 2-3°F will reduce chiller energy use 3-5%.

Reduce condenser water temperature: Reducing the temperature of the water

returning from the cooling tower to the chiller condenser by 2-3°F will reduce chiller
energy use 2-3%. The temperature setpoint for the water leaving the cooling tower
should be as low as the chiller manufacturer will allow for water entering the condenser.

Purge air from refrigerant: Air trapped in the refrigerant loop increases pressure at the
compressor discharge. This increases the work required from the compressor. Newer
chillers have automatic air purgers that have run-time meters. Daily or weekly tracking
of run time will show if a leak has developed that permits air to enter the system.

Optimize free cooling: If your system has a chiller bypass and heat exchanger, known
as a water-side economizer, it should be used to serve process loads during the winter
season. The water-side economizer produces chilled water without running the chiller.
Condenser water circulates through the cooling tower to reject heat, and then goes to a
heat exchanger (bypassing the chiller) where the water is cooled sufficiently to meet the
cooling loads.

Verify Performance of hot-gas bypass and unloader: These are most commonly

found on reciprocating compressors to control capacity. Make sure they operate
properly.

Maintain refrigerant level: To maintain a chiller's efficiency, check the refrigerant sight-
glass and the superheat and subcooling temperature readings, and compare them to
the manufacturer's requirements. Both low-level and high-level refrigerant conditions
can be detected this way. Either condition reduces a chiller's capacity and efficiency.

Maintain a daily log: Chiller O&M best practices begin with maintaining a daily log of
temperatures, fluid levels, pressures, flow rates, and motor amperage. Taken together,
these readings serve as a valuable baseline reference for operating the system and
troubleshooting problems. Many newer chillers automatically save logs of these
measurements in their on-board control system, which may be able to communicate
directly with the DDC. Below is an example of a daily log that can be adapted for use
with your chiller.

Download this table as a Word Document

Best Practices for Maintenance
Compared to a major chiller failure, a sound preventive and predictive maintenance
program is a minor cost. Implementing a best-practice maintenance plan will save
money over the life of the chiller and ensure longer chiller life. For more information on
this topic go to Best Practice O&M Program.

Substandard operating practices frequently go unnoticed and become the accepted

norm. Training personnel in both maintenance and operating practices is the best
prevention. Many chiller manufacturers offer training for building operating engineers in
operating and maintaining their chillers.

To effective maintain chillers, you must 1) bring the chiller to peak efficiency, and
2) maintain that peak efficiency. There are some basic steps that facilities professionals
can take to make sure their chillers are being maintained properly. Below are some of
the key practices.

Reduce Scale or Fouling

Failure of the heat exchanger tubes is costly and disruptive. The evaporator and
condenser tube bundles collect mineral and sludge deposits from the water. Scale
buildup promotes corrosion that can lead to the failure of the tube wall. Scale buildup
also insulates the tubes in the heat exchanger reducing the efficiency of the chiller.
There are two main preventive actions:

Checking water treatment: Checking the water treatment of the condenser-water open

loop weekly will reduce the frequency of condenser tube cleaning and the possibility of
a tube failure.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Cooling Towers.

Checking the water treatment of the chilled-water closed loop monthly will reduce the
frequency of evaporator tube cleaning and the possibility of a tube failure.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of HVAC Water Distribution Systems.

Inspecting and cleaning tubes: The tubes in the evaporator and condenser bundles
should be inspected once a year, typically when the chiller is taken offline for
winterizing. Alternately, for systems that operate all year to meet process loads, tube
scaling and fouling can be monitored by logging pressure drop across the condenser
and evaporator bundles. An increase in pressure from the inlet to the outlet of 3-4 PSI
indicates a probable increase in scale or fouling requiring tube cleaning.

Inspect for Refrigerant Leaks

If possible, monitor the air-purge run timer. Excessive or increased air-purge time may
indicate a refrigerant leak. If an air-purge device is not installed, bubbles in the
refrigerant sight-glass may also indicate refrigerant leak. Gas analyzers can also be
used to identify refrigerant leaks.

The table below provides a checklist for maintenance tasks.

Download this table as a Word document

Maintenance Schedule for Chillers

DESCRIPTION COMMENTS

Fill out daily log Check all setpoints for proper setting and function

Chiller use/sequencing Turn off or sequence unnecessary chillers

Check chilled water reset settings and function Check settings for approved sequence of operation

Check chiller lockout setpoint Check settings for approved sequence of operation

Clean evaporator and condenser tubes Indicated when pressure drop across the barrel (tub

Verify motor amperage load limit Motor amperage should not exceed manufacturer's
 Compressor motor and assembly Conduct vibration analysis: Check all alignments t

Compressor oil system Perform analysis on oil and filter. Change if neces

Electrical connections Check all electrical connections and terminals for

Check refrigerant condition Add refrigerant if low. Record amounts and addre

Check for condenser and evaporator tube corrosion and clean as needed. Indications include: poor water quality, excessive

Cooling Towers
ARTICLE

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Types of Cooling Towers
 Key Components of Cooling Towers
 Safety Issues
 References

Introduction
Cooling towers are heat exchangers that use water and air to transfer heat from air-
conditioning systems to the outdoor environment. Most commonly, they are used to
remove heat from the condenser water leaving a chiller. Cooling towers are usually
located on rooftops or other outdoor sites. Because they are frequently out of sight, they
are often neglected by operation-and-maintenance technicians, resulting in lower
cooling-system efficiency. This document will help you adopt best practices for the
efficient operation and maintenance of cooling towers.
Types of Cooling Towers
There are two basic types of cooling towers, open and closed (sometimes called direct
and indirect).

Open (Direct) Cooling Towers

Open cooling towers expose the condenser water coming from the chiller plant directly
to the atmosphere. This warm water is sprayed over a fill in the cooling tower to
increase the contact area, and air passes through the fill. Most of the heat is removed
by evaporation. The cooled water remaining after evaporation drops into the collection
basin and is returned to the chiller's condenser.

Open (direct) Cooling Tower

Closed (Indirect) Cooling Towers
A closed cooling tower circulates warm water from the chiller plant through tubes
located in the tower. In a closed tower, the cooling water does not come in contact with
the outside air. Water that circulates only within the cooling tower is sprayed over the
tubes and a fan blows air across the tubes. This cools the condenser water within the
tubes, which is then recirculated to the chiller plant.

Closed (indirect) cooling tower

Key Components of Cooling Towers

This section explains how the components of a cooling tower work together.

Water Distribution
Hot water from the chilled-water system is delivered to the top of the cooling tower by
the condenser pump through distribution piping. In an open tower, the hot water is
sprayed through nozzles onto the heat transfer medium (fill) inside the cooling tower.
Some towers feed the nozzles through pressurized piping; others use a water-
distribution basin and feed the nozzles by gravity. In a closed-loop tower, the water from
the condenser loop runs through tubes in the tower and is not exposed to the outside
air. Water for cooling the tubes circulates only in the tower.

In the open tower, a cold-water collection basin at the base of the tower gathers cool
water after it has passed through the heat transfer medium. The cool water is pumped
back to the condenser to complete the cooling-water loop. In the closed tower, the
condenser water cools as it moves through the piping in the tower and returns to the
chiller plant.

Heat Transfer Medium (Fill)

Cooling towers use evaporation to release waste heat from an HVAC system. In an
open tower, hot water from the condenser is slowed down and spread out over the fill.
Some of the hot water is evaporated in the fill area, or over the closed-circuit tubes,
which cools the water. Cooling tower fill is typically arranged in packs of thin corrugated
plastic sheets or as splash bars supported in a grid pattern.

Air Flow
Large volumes of air flowing through the heat-transfer medium help increase the rate of
evaporation and the cooling capacity of the tower. The cooling-tower fans generate this
airflow. The size of the cooling-tower fan and airflow rate are selected to achieve the
desired cooling at design conditions of condenser-water temperatures, water flow rate,
and wet-bulb temperature.

Cooling towers may have propeller fans or squirrel-cage blowers. Small fans may be
connected directly to the driving motor, but most designs require an intermediate speed
reduction provided by a power belt or reduction gears. The fan and drive system
operate in conjunction with the control system to control start/stop and speed. Variable-
speed drives (VSDs), when added to the fan motors, control fan speed and more
precisely regulate the temperature of the water as it leaves the tower.

Drift Eliminator
As air moves through the fill, small droplets of cooling water become entrained and can
exit the cooling tower as carry-over or drift. Devices called drift eliminators remove
carry-over water droplets. Cooling-tower drift becomes annoying when the droplets fall
on people and surfaces downwind from the cooling tower. Efficient drift eliminators
virtually eliminate drift from the air stream.

Safety Issues

Water Treatment
Cooling-tower water must be regularly treated, generally with chemicals, to prevent the
growth of harmful bacteria, minimize corrosion, and inhibit the buildup of scale (mineral
deposits) on the fill.

Maintenance Personnel
Cooling towers are often placed in precarious locations, and inspection ports can be
located in awkward or exposed locations. This can create a hazardous working
environment. Be sure to implement adequate fall-prevention measures and procedures.
In addition, always follow lock-out and tag-out safety procedures.

Best Practices for Efficient Operation

Always consult the manufacturer's manual for the cooling-tower. Another excellent
source of information and standards for cooling towers is the Cooling Technology
Institute. Here are some recommendations for operating any cooling tower more
efficiently:

Implement a preventive-maintenance program: This includes regular water treatment

and maintenance of the mechanical and electrical systems. See the Maintenance
Schedule for Cooling Towers, below for more information.

Reduce the temperature of water leaving the tower: The temperature of water

leaving the cooling tower should be as cold as the chiller manufacturer will allow for
entering condenser water. Newer chillers usually tolerate colder temperatures for water
returning from the cooling tower. Check with your chiller manufacturer's representative
or manual and set the entering condenser-water temperature (same as the leaving
cooling tower temperature) as low as possible.

Operate cooling towers simultaneously: Direct water through all towers regardless of

the number of chillers operating. Tower fans should be staged on as required.
Operating the towers simultaneously will use less energy in most situations than staging
towers individually. This strategy is particularly effective with VSDs on the fans. When a
fan VSD reaches 40% speed (adjustable), the next fan stages on and operates in
parallel, both now running at a minimum speed of 20%.

Balance water distribution between multiple towers (or cells within a single tower

enclosure) and within each tower or cell. Water often flows down only one side of the
tower, or one tower may have more flow than an adjacent tower. This increases the
temperature of the water returning to the chiller and reduces the efficiency of the tower.

Consider a condenser water reset strategy: The temperature set point of the water
leaving the cooling tower should be at least 5°F (adjustable according to the design)
higher than the ambient wet-bulb temperature. If the Direct Digital Control (DDC)
system has a wet-bulb temperature sensor, this can be done automatically. Otherwise
the operator should consider manually adjusting the set point seasonally.

Close the bypass valve before starting the cooling-tower fans: Make sure the DDC
control sequence prevents the tower fans from starting before the cooling-tower bypass
valve is fully closed. If the bypass valve isn't fully closed, hot water leaving the chiller
short circuits into the water returning to the chiller, adding unnecessary load to the
compressor.

Trend log the temperature of the water leaving the tower: Use the trend
logging capability of the DDC to track the temperature of the water leaving the tower.
Higher than normal temperatures may indicate that the tower in not operating properly.

Best Practices for Maintenance

Inside an operating cooling tower is much like a hurricane. This harsh environment must
be regularly inspected and maintained for best system performance.

Effective water treatment: Effective water treatment eliminates harmful bacteria and

bio-film and controls scale, solids, and corrosion. Bleed or blowdown-the continuous
flow of a small portion of the recirculating water to a drain to eliminate dissolved solids-
is insufficient by itself to control scale and corrosion and is always ineffective in
controlling biological contamination. A regular chemical-treatment program is always
recommended for controlling biological organisms, scale, and corrosion.

Prevent scale deposits: When water evaporates from the cooling tower, the minerals
that were dissolved in it are left behind as scale deposits on the surface of the fill. Scale
build-up inhibits heat transfer from the water to the air, which reduces the fill's
effectiveness. Excessive scale build-up is a sign of inadequate water treatment.

Prevent or clean clogged spray nozzles: Algae and sediment that collect in the water
basin as well as excessive solids that get into the cooling water can clog the spray
nozzles. This causes uneven water distribution over the fill and uneven airflow through
the fill, which reduces evaporation. These problems indicate improper water treatment
and clogged strainers. Kits are available to replace older, smaller distribution nozzles or
troughs with large-orifice, clog-free designs.

Ensure Adequate Airflow: Poor airflow through the tower reduces the transfer of heat
from the water to the air. Poor airflow can be caused by debris at the inlets or outlets of
the tower or in the fill, loose fan and motor mountings, poor motor and fan alignment,
poor gearbox maintenance, improper fan pitch, damage to fan blades, or excessive
vibration. Reduced airflow due to poor fan performance can ultimately lead to motor or
fan failure.

Ensure Adequate Pump Performance: A closed-loop cooling tower uses a pump to

transport water over the tubes for evaporative cooling. Proper water flow is important to
achieve optimum heat transfer. Loose connections, failing bearings, cavitation, clogged
strainers, excessive vibration, and operating outside of design conditions result in
reduced water flow, reduced efficiency, and premature equipment failure.

The table below provides a schedule for maintenance tasks.

Download this table as a Word document

Maintenance Schedule for Cooling Towers

DESCRIPTION COMMENTS

Cooling tower use/ sequencing Turn on/sequence unnecessary cooling towers

Overall visual inspection Complete overall visual inspection to be sure all equipment is operating and safety

Fan motor condition Check the condition of the fan motor through temperature or vibration analysis and

Clean suction screen Physically clean screen of all debris

Operate make-up water float switch Operate switch manually to ensure proper operation

Vibration Check for excessive vibration in motors, fans, and pumps

Check tower structure Check for loose fill, connections, leaks, etc.

Check belts and pulleys Adjust all belts and pulleys

Test for proper concentrations of dissolved solids, and chemistry. Adjust blowdow
Test water samples
systems.

Check lubrication Assure that all bearings are lubricated per the manufacture's recommendation
Check motor supports and fan blades Check for excessive wear and secure fastening
Motor alignment Aligning the motor coupling allows for efficient torque transfer
Check drift eliminators, louvers, and
Look for proper positioning and scale build up
fill
Inspect nozzles for clogging Make sure water is flowing through nozzles in the hot well
Clean tower Remove all dust, scale, and algae from tower basin, fill, and spray nozzles
Check bearings Inspect bearings and drive belts for wear. Adjust, repair, or replace as necessary.
Motor condition Checking the condition of the motor through temperature or vibration analysis assu

Water Distribution
 ARTICLE

Table of Contents

 Introduction
 Types of Water Distribution Systems
 Hydronic System Types
 Constant- and Variable-Flow Pumping Systems
 Pumping System Arrangements
 Key Components of Water Distribution Systems
 Safety Issues
 Best Practices for Efficient Operation
 Best Practices for Maintenance
 References

Introduction
Many large buildings and campuses have HVAC water-distribution systems, also called
hydronic systems. Water is heated or cooled in a central plant, then pumped to air
handlers, where ventilation air is conditioned as needed.

Maintaining and optimizing the performance of pumps and valves-the key mechanical
components of water-distribution systems-can be challenging. These systems often
have hidden performance problems that waste energy and cause excessive wear on
equipment.

As with other mechanical components of the HVAC system, a preventive and predictive
maintenance plan is an excellent way to maintain an efficient system, save energy
dollars, prevent costly breakdowns, and extend equipment life.

Learn more about establishing a Best Practice Operation-and-Maintenance Program.

Types of Water Distribution Systems

Water-distribution systems are either closed-loop (cooling- or heating-system water
does not come in contact with outside air) or open-loop (condenser water is exposed to
outside air, usually in the cooling tower). Water in a closed loop requires less treatment
than water in an open system.

Distribution systems for chilled water and heating water

Hydronic System Types

Chilled water: Chilled-water distribution systems transport water used for air
conditioning from the chiller to the air handlers, where the chilled water flows through
coils in the ventilation air stream. Chilled water can also flow directly to terminal units
located in the occupied space. Another variation is radiant cooling or chilled beams
where chilled water flows through a radiant cooling device. Passive chilled beams
provide cooling separate from the ventilation-air system. Active chilled beams are
integrated into a ventilation-delivery system.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Chillers.

Heating water: Heating-water systems move water from the boiler, typically located in a
central plant, to air handlers or perimeter terminal units. Heating-water systems are
closed loops.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Boilers.

Condenser water: Condenser water loop moves water between the chiller's condenser
and the cooling tower. These systems are usually open loops.

Learn more about Operation and Maintenance of Cooling Towers.

Water-loop heat pump: This hydronic system circulates water to individual water-to-air

heat pumps throughout the building. Most heating and cooling is done by individual heat
pumps serving the zones in which they're located. These heat pumps either take heat
from the water loop or reject heat to the loop. In moderate weather, the water loop self-
balances within a controlled range, usually 65-90°F. In hot weather, if the temperature
of the loop exceeds 90°F, water in the loop will be diverted to a cooling tower. In cold
weather, if the loop temperature drops below 65°F, the water will be diverted through a
boiler to increase the water temperature in the loop. Hydronic heat pumps are typically
closed-loop systems.

Ground-source water-loop heat pumps: This is a water-loop heat-pump system (as

described above) with the addition of an extensive piping loop buried in the ground
which acts as a heat sink. Heat is absorbed from the ground by the water in the piping
loop in heating season, and rejected into the ground in cooling season.

Constant- and Variable-Flow Pumping

Systems
All hydronic systems are either constant-flow or variable-flow. Generally, older buildings
have constant-flow systems and buildings or systems built after about 1990 use some
form of variable-flow control for pumping chilled and heating water.

Constant flow: A constant flow rate is maintained throughout the hydronic loop
whenever the system is operating. Flow rates are established for a peak design
condition, which represents a small fraction of total operating hours.
 Variable flow: Variable-flow pumping can be accomplished in several ways:

 Mechanical or magnetic clutch: This type of device controls the torque to the

pump from the motor in response to an external input from the DDC system, typically
the differential pressure between the supply and return piping.
 Variable-speed drive: A VSD alters the frequency of the electrical input to the
motor, allowing the motor to speed up or slow down as required to maintain a setpoint.
Modulating control valves: There are two valve types, two-way and three-way. Either
type can be used for both constant-flow and variable-flow pumping.

 Two-way valves: These can be used in a constant-flow pumping system in

conjunction with a bypass valve that controls pressure. They allow unused water to
return to the central plant if the supply pressure gets too high due to a number of the
valves closing. They can also be used in variable-flow pumping systems where the
pump output is controlled directly by the differential pressure.
 Three-way valves: These are traditionally used in constant-flow pumping
systems, where the unused water is bypassed at the coil. They are also used in
variable-flow pumping systems. In special cases, several may be installed at the end of
the longest piping runs. The sum of their flows equals the minimum flow the pump can
produce in stably. This also allows the piping system to stay at the temperature set point
in case another air handler requires immediate chilled or heating water.

Pumping System Arrangements

There are several ways to combine the above system of pumps and valves to provide
energy savings as compared to a single-loop constant-flow system.

Primary-secondary variable-flow systems: Water flows through the chiller or boiler

primary loop at a constant rate, and water flows through the secondary loop, which
serves air handlers or fan coils, at a variable rate. The decoupled section (shown as
common piping in the diagram below) isolates the two systems hydraulically. Primary-
secondary variable-flow systems are more energy efficient than constant-flow systems,
because they allow the secondary variable-speed pump to use only as much energy as
necessary to meet the system demand.
Schematic of primary-secondary loop system

Primary-loop variable-flow systems: These are chilled-water or heating-water

systems with a single variable-flow loop. A two-way bypass valve is typically used to
maintain a minimum specified flow rate through the chiller or boiler. Primary-loop
variable-flow systems are more efficient than primary-secondary variable-flow systems.

Key Components of Water Distribution

Systems
Pumps: HVAC water-distribution systems use centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps
have a rotating and a stationary component. The rotating section consists of an impeller
and shaft; and the stationary section is the housing, which includes a casing, casing
cover, and bearings. A motor spins the shaft and impeller, creating centrifugal force to
increase the velocity of the water and push it through the volute (the curved funnel
increasing in area) to the pump outlet.
Centrifugal pump

Valves: Manual or automatic valves regulate the flow of water throughout the piping
system. Valves perform four basic functions: 1) starting, stopping, and directing flow;
2) regulating or throttling flow; 3) preventing backflow; and 4) relieving or regulating
pressure.

Balance valves, also called circuit setters, are a special type of regulating valve that limit
flow at design conditions. This allows the system to be balanced so that every coil in the
system has adequate flow. Excessive pressure drop across these valves can waste a
considerable amount of energy.

Valve bodies are available in many configurations according to type of service.

Regardless of function, the basic valve components are the body, seat, stem, and
packing or gasket. Valve actuators control water flow through automatic valves in
response to electronic or pneumatic control signals.
Either two-way or three-way valves control the flow of heating or cooling water. Two-
way valves reduce flow and are commonly found in variable-flow systems. Three-way
valves maintain a single flow rate by diverting the water around the coil (or other
equipment such as a chiller or boiler) when necessary. Three-way valves are typically
used in constant-flow systems.

Valve components

Pipe and other system components: Pipes connect all components and, with the
possible exception of hydronic-heat-pump loops, should be insulated per local codes.
Other system components that need to be operated and maintained properly are
expansion tanks, strainers, and gauges for pressure and temperature.

Safety Issues
Working near rotating pump shafts and couplings can be dangerous. Control panels for
electrical motors and electrical connections on pump motors present a shock hazard.
Heating-water systems are dangerous if not fully insulated, so be careful not to touch
uninsulated piping without first checking its temperature.
Always observe lock-out and tag-out procedures during maintenance.

Best Practices for Efficient Operation

These best practices will help improve the performance of your water-distribution
system and reduce operating costs:

Monitor the make-up water meter: A quick way to spot a leak in a closed-loop
hydronic system is to monitor the meter on the system make-up water inlet. Reading the
meter daily or weekly and comparing the readings to historical averages can help
identify problems.

Investigate valve chatter: Valve chatter or water hammer coming from control valves
may indicate overpressurization at the valve. High pump pressure or system imbalance
can exceed the valve's actuator shut-off rating and cause water to pass through the
"closed" valve and thereby cause the chatter. Water passing through a "closed" valve
causes overcooling or overheating, thereby destabilizing control and wasting energy.
Generally, the shut-off pressure limit for 2-way valves with vertical actuators should be
25% greater than maximum pump head. Two-way valves with rotating actuators use a
much lower torque. Three-way valves do not need as high a limit as vertical 2-way
valves since they simply divert flow. Rebalancing or, as a last resort, replacing the valve
actuator with one with a suitable higher pressure limit may fix the problem. Confirm the
correct operating parameters of the valves in your system before making any changes.

Confirm correct control setpoints: Pumps in a variable-flow system are controlled to

maintain a minimum differential pressure across the coil for a critical zone or for the coil
farthest from the central plant. Make sure the differential pressure setpoint for this coil
(there could be more than one) is at the proper design value. Occasionally these
setpoints are raised in an attempt to fix an unrelated problem and then forgotten,
wasting pump energy.

Investigate parallel pumping: Most variable-flow systems have one on-line (or lead)
pump and one standby (or lag) pump. At higher flow rates, it can be more energy
efficient to operate both pumps in parallel. A typical control sequence is for the lead
pump to operate alone until twice its minimum flow rate is reached, then the lag pump
cycles on and the two pumps operate together in parallel on the same speed-control
signal. An engineering professional should determine the best strategy for your
particular system.
Best Practices for Maintenance
Pumps are a vital part of HVAC and process-load applications. Pump efficiency directly
affects the efficiency of other system components.

Inspect system weekly: At least once a week, a building engineer should walk the
entire system and check piping, valves, and pumps for leaks and unusual noise. Noise
often indicates hidden valve or pump problems. Sources of noise include turbulence,
cavitation, release of entrained air, and water hammer.

Ensure adequate water treatment: Scale and sludge deposits reduce flow and impair
heat transfer. An ongoing water-treatment program is critical to efficient equipment
operation throughout the distribution system.

Inspect insulation: System efficiency is compromised if the distribution piping has

inadequate, damaged, or wet insulation. Proper insulation can reduce radiant energy
loss by as much as 90 to 95%. Removable lagging pads or snap-on insulation are
available for parts such as valves that need periodic maintenance.

Test valve stroke: Test each automatic valve annually. Conduct a test where the valve
actuator moves the valve stem through the entire range of the stroke. Failure to move
smoothly through the entire range indicates a problem.

Maintain optimal condenser water flow: Most condenser-water systems include a

strainer to remove larger material picked up in the open cooling tower. In areas with
high particulate counts in the air, a side-stream mechanical filtration system is
recommended to constantly filter the water and remove contaminants.

Test pump efficiency annually: Testing the efficiency of large pumps and comparing it
to previous benchmarking data will help spot developing problems.

Balance or recommission the system: If temperature-control problems are found in

multiple air handlers and can't be otherwise resolved, or if the hydronic system has
been expanded or modified, a test-and-balance specialist or commissioning engineer
should test and recommission the system.

The table below provides a checklist for maintenance tasks.

Download this table as a Word Document

Maintenance Schedule for Water-Distribution Systems

DESCRIPTION COMMENTS

Check pump use/sequencing Turn off/sequence unnecessary pumps.

Visually inspect pumps, valves, and all mechanical

Visually inspect components to ensure that all equipment is opera
joints

Test water Test for proper concentrations of dissolved solids and chemistry.

Check lubrication Ensure that all bearings are lubricated according to manufacturer'

Check packing Check packing for wear and repack as necessary. Consider replac

Check mechanical seals Check for leakage that exceeds the manufacturer's specifications.

Motor/pump alignment Align the pump/motor coupling to ensure efficient torque transfer

Check mountings Check and secure all pump mountings.

Check bearings Inspect bearings and drive belts for wear. Adjust, repair, or replac

Check strainers Clean strainers.

Check expansion tanks Inspect these tanks to make sure that the acceptance capacity is ad

Inspect heating and cooling heat exchangers. Temperature differences may indicate air binding, clogged straine
 Cycle valves Observe the valves moving through their full range from closed to

Motor condition Check the condition of the motor through temperature or vibratio

Introduction
Creating a best-practice operation-and-maintenance (O&M) program increases the
efficiency of facility staff, improves building operational practices, and reduces utility
costs. The O&M process helps sustain a building's profitability by reducing costly
equipment failure and maintaining tenant comfort and indoor air quality. Establishing an
O&M program is generally straightforward and does not significantly affect budget. It
primarily reorganizes and reallocates existing resources to be more efficient and
productive. Implementing a best-practice O&M program can reduce facility energy use
by 5-20% without significant capital investment. This document discusses the elements
essential to creating a best-practice O&M program.

Create the Leadership Team

Convene an O&M leadership team

Members of the leadership team should include representatives from the executive,
finance, and engineering branches of the organization. Participation of an upper-level
manager is key to sending the message that the program is supported from the top of
the organization. Appoint an O&M project manager as the project leader and focal point
for accountability. Early participation of line-level engineering staff is essential to the
long-term success of the O&M program. As with any initiative, be sure to establish roles,
responsibilities, and communication channels.

Assign someone to coordinate with the utilities. Your local utility may be the most
important source of outside assistance. They may help fund or provide technical support
for establishing an O&M program or a building tune-up.

Maintain the momentum

 With the O&M Program up and running, the challenge is to maintain the momentum.
Hold quarterly meetings (more frequently at the beginning) of the O&M team to review
building energy use and progress toward meeting the goals. It may also be appropriate,
in the context of O&M activities, to review building operation protocols, complaints from
occupants about comfort, the performance of service contractors, and staff training
plans.

Recognize success

Employee recognition will help sustain enthusiasm and interest for achieving energy-
use goals. Use recognition, awards, and meaningful incentives to encourage the entire
staff to develop ideas for improving building performance. Ultimately, the success or
failure of the new O&M Program lies with the line-level staff. Meeting or exceeding
building-energy-performance goals should be an occasion for sharing a sense of a job
well done by all.

Appoint a Building or System Champion

Many organizations spend tens of thousands of dollars on electricity, but assign no
responsibility for managing energy usage. Properly managing any system requires a
champion.

What is a champion?

The champion is someone who is responsible for the overall management of a building
or system. The champion is knowledgeable of, and an advocate for, the proper design,
use, operation, and maintenance of the building or system. The champion understands
the details and knows how to meet management's goals and objectives in the safest,
and most cost-effective way possible.

What do champions do?

 Educate themselves and others on the proper design, use, operation, and
maintenance of the system to minimize the life-cycle cost, and maximize the
performance of the system.
 Participate in all decisions regarding the design, use, operation, and
maintenance of the system.
 Work with management to establish and track key performance indicators for the
system.
 Recommend operational or maintenance changes to improve system
performance.
What does a system champion need to succeed?

To succeed, a champion must have management support. Management support

includes technical training for the champion and others, establishing and managing key
performance indicators, and commitment to implementing change to increase
performance.

Establish an Energy Accounting System

The information provided by an energy-accounting system provides insight into the
O&M fitness of the building. Create a best-practice system for tracking utility information
and communicate the results both vertically and laterally in the organization. Evaluate
and select an energy-accounting software tool to track energy use and monitor
performance goals. Some utilities offer their customers excellent free or low-cost
programs with automatic data uploading. Programs are also available from private
vendors. With your permission, some private vendors can work directly with your utility
to collect consumption data periodically. Energy-accounting programs have a wide
variety of features and user interfaces. For instance, the ability to update utility data in a
web-based program may be a desirable feature. Carefully evaluate several programs
before selecting one. If you buy from a vendor, request a trial period to thoroughly
evaluate the product.

When you select a system, establish responsibilities for implementation and

maintenance. Broad employee access to energy-consumption data promotes
awareness of energy use throughout the organization and collective ownership in
reducing energy use. Providing read-only access on your organization's intranet is
highly recommended.

Establish Performance Goals and

Follow-up Activities
With the energy-accounting system providing a clear picture of building-energy use,
establish performance goals. Goals should be realistic and achievable based on
established benchmarks.
Establish benchmarks

Benchmarks create a standard for measuring building-energy performance. Energy

performance benchmarks may be based on similar buildings in a portfolio or campus, or
other standards such as the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Energy Star
Portfolio Manager. This web-based program has a benchmarking feature that ranks the
energy use of a building among a large database of similar buildings. When comparing
buildings in your campus or portfolio, be sure to use a common metric such as energy
use per square foot of conditioned space, to create an "apples-to-apples" comparison.

Track performance

The O&M project manager and the leadership team should review and adjust energy-
use goals as necessary. The perpetual question should be, "How can we be more
energy efficient?" When operational changes (in equipment scheduling or space use, for
example) are made, or equipment is added or replaced, it is appropriate to adjust the
goals accordingly. Provide monthly feedback to building-operation staff on building-
energy use relative to goals and benchmarks. Building-energy-performance data should
be easily accessible to all employees.

Identify tune-up candidates

Benchmarking will identify buildings with higher than normal energy use. These are the
best targets for a building tune-up. If your organization has more than one building, a
strategic approach is to identify one building that most needs improving, conduct the
building tune-up at that building, then expand the program to build on that initial
success.

The building-tune-up process includes reviewing operating procedures and existing

O&M practices, as well as the physical inspection of equipment. The outcome will
include a list of low-cost modifications and the follow-up improvements and
modifications. A well-executed tune-up will noticeably reduce energy consumption.

Integrate O&M into related activities

Identify organizational activities that affect O&M and building-energy use, and
incorporate a long-range perspective into these related activities. For example, the
decision to purchase replacement equipment should consider long-term or life-cycle
operating costs. A low-first-cost option may have costly long-term effects. Many utilities
offer rebate programs to help offset the higher first cost of high-efficiency
 equipment. Service contracts are another area where a lowest-first-cost option may
have adverse long-term effects.

Apply for a nationally recognized award

Consider applying for a building award or certification that signifies achieving a

recognized standard of energy and environmental excellence. These certifications are
attractive to building occupants and tenants as well as the building operations' team,
and will have positive effects on marketing and staff morale. Two high-profile awards for
green buildings are the EPA's Energy Star Labeled Buildings program and the U.S.
Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design - Existing
Buildings (LEED-EB) award.

Define a Maintenance Strategy

There are three general approaches to maintenance management: reactive, preventive,
and predictive. Evaluate the current approach and adopt a maintenance strategy that
best supports the long-term O&M plan.

 Reactive: This is the "run it until it breaks" approach. In the short run, this saves
staff time and expense but over time it is costly in terms of unplanned equipment
downtime, repairs, and shorter equipment life.
 Preventive: Preventive maintenance (PM) occurs at time intervals or at run-hour
milestones. Because HVAC equipment is capital intensive, this is more cost-effective
than reactive maintenance.
 Predictive: This approach uses periodic measurements to detect evidence that
machinery is deteriorating, with the aim of extending service life by avoiding impending
problems. Special diagnostic equipment, which requires additional staff training, is
needed, but it will maximize equipment life and efficiency.
Most organizations use a combination of reactive and preventive maintenance with or
without maintenance-service contractors. Generally, the most cost-effective solution is a
combination of preventive and predictive maintenance that appropriately balances
prevention and repair.

Computerized maintenance-management systems

Computerized maintenance-management systems (CMMS) automate and streamline

the logistical tasks associated with maintenance programs. CMMS capabilities include
generating work orders, tracking work orders, tracking equipment performance, tracking
periodic or run-hour-based preventive maintenance, and tracking outside service calls
and dispatches, plus many other functions which may be desirable for a particular
organization. Overall, a CMMS will eliminate tedious paperwork, increase staff
productivity, and streamline maintenance monitoring for management.

While these systems go a long way toward improving the efficiency of maintenance,
there are some common pitfalls in adopting them. Chief among these is inadequate
training of administrative and maintenance staff, which leads to lack of commitment and
integration into existing practices.

A CMMS integrated into daily operation with well-trained personnel and persistent
management support will yield considerable benefits in the form of improved
maintenance, more efficient use of staff resources, better inventory control, better
maintenance of equipment performance, reduced downtime, and extended equipment
life.

Maintaining the maintenance program

The long-term success of a best-practice O&M program requires proper documentation

and periodic review of the total cost of the maintenance program. For instance, while it
may be difficult to show that the new maintenance program was responsible for saving
money in the third quarter because the chiller didn't breakdown, there should be a long-
term parity or reduction in maintenance costs compared with the previous, less-rigorous
program. Some non-monetary benefits, such as reduced comfort complaints and better
air quality, can be tracked and factored into the evaluation.

Assess Staff and Training

Define the skills required

Large facilities have a variety of types and complexity of HVAC and process systems.
While maintenance can be performed entirely in-house or entirely outsourced, most
organizations use a mix of in-house operating engineers and outside service
contractors. Typically, specialized and complex equipment such as building-automation
systems (BAS) or chillers are serviced by outside contractors, but a well-trained staff
may be capable of many specialized maintenance tasks that are typically outsourced.
Emergency repair work is often handled by mechanical or service contractors. Each
building or organization will have a somewhat unique balance of in-house and
outsourced tasks.
Inventorying the skills and licenses of in-house engineering staff will reveal if their skills
are being used effectively. Likewise, gaps in training may become apparent. Evaluate
how well the employee skills match the complexity of the installed systems and local,
state and federal licensing requirements. Assess the level of management and
supervisory experience required to provide the leadership needed to execute a best-
practice O&M program.

Conducting a building tune-up can provide a snapshot of the level of O&M practiced in
the facility. This will inform the future staffing and training needs.

Create and implement individual and group training plans

Developing staff training plans should combine supervisory input and individual interest.
Large buildings with modern systems are sufficiently complex to encourage individual
staff members to become in-house experts in different areas. A staff with good basic
skills and diverse advanced technical skills is invaluable in maintaining and operating a
complex building, and will reduce reliance on outside contractors. Regularly update
individual and group training plans.

Take advantage of resources such as the Building Owners and Managers

Association (BOMA), the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society and the Air
Conditioning Contractors Association. These organizations provide or sponsor
classroom training, on-line training, and training manuals. Additionally, they can provide
industry guidelines for staff training and qualifications for maintenance tasks.

Ongoing staff training

Conduct annual training reviews, possibly as part of annual performance reviews. The
O&M leadership team should provide input to the supervisory staff on training needs
and goals.

Execute Service Contracts

Define the scope

All large facilities use a mixture of maintenance, mechanical, electrical, and lighting
service contractors to help perform the many tasks that keep complex building systems
operating smoothly. The range of outsourced tasks will vary from building to building.
This section offers suggestions for managing contractors with ongoing service
contracts:

Within your organization, there should already be a solid understanding of your

maintenance strategy and a plan for optimally balancing in-house and outsourced
maintenance. Now the challenge is to translate this into a scope of services for a
service contract.

Most of the suggestions below apply equally to a building tune-up and to ongoing
enhanced O&M.

For information on types of service contracts, see Contract Provisions for Enhanced

Operations and Maintenance.

For information on the scope of tune-ups, see Energy Tune-Up Process Scope.

Evaluate providers

There are many types of service contractors. With your maintenance strategy,
outsourcing needs, and scope of work in mind, select an appropriate type of service
provider.

For information on types of maintenance-service providers, see Contract Provisions for

Enhanced Operations and Maintenance.

When you have identified the appropriate type(s) of service providers to bid on the work,
consider the selection criteria in the reference below. For a complex building, a pre-bid
contractor meeting including a building walkthrough is highly recommended. This will
help communicate the organization's requirements and should elicit similarly scoped
bids.

For information on screening contractors, see Contract Provisions for Enhanced

Operations and Maintenance.

Structure and implement the contract

There are many factors to consider in describing the scope of services in a service
contract. The reference below describes contractual details that will serve the owner
best over the term of the contract.
For information on structuring service contracts, see Contract Provisions for Enhanced
Operations and Maintenance.

Manage a service contract

The reference below provides insight into effectively managing a service contractor.

For information on managing service contracts, see Contract Provisions for Enhanced

Operations and Maintenance.

When the contract is executed, establish clear lines of communication and set specific
protocols to follow. Set up a feedback system for monitoring contractor performance.
Periodically review measurable objectives with the contractor. Use a quarterly report
card as part of the feedback system and let them know when they're doing a good job.