E L

P T
Geographic Information Systems

N
Dr. Bharath Haridas Aithal
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 9: Spatial analysis

Lecture 41 : Introduction to Remote Sensing
 E L
T
 Basics of Remote Sensing

P
 Electromagnetic Radiation

N
 Basic Principles of RS
 Basic resolutions
 L
Remote Sensing

T E
Remote Sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object,

P
area or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is
not in physical contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation

N
 E L
P T Passive
and

N
Active
Remote Sensing

@grindgis
 L
DATA ACQUISITION DATA ANALYSIS

Sensing System Data Products Interpretation Information

E
Satellite Reference data Visual Maps

T
High Altitude
Images

P
Passive Pictorial data
Low Altitude

N
Numerical data Numerical
Active Reports

Ground Level Digital data

Technical
Digital
Reports
 Remote Sensing

E L
P T
@grindgis

@grindgis
N
Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

L
• Wavelength: the length of one wave cycle measured as the distance between

E
• Frequency:
successive the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
wave crests.

P T
N
EMR Energy

E L
P T
N
• Energy of a quantum
E=hf
E in Joules (J)
h – Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10-34 J sec
f – Frequency
 @Berkleys lab

L
EMR Spectrum

T E
N P
 E L
P T
N
 L
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
W =  T4

E
W – Total radiant emittance in W m-2
 – Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2oK-4

T
T – Absolute temperature (0oK) of the emitting material

P
Energy from an object varies as T4.
Increases rapidly with increase in Temperature

N
A black body is one that can complete absorb and re-emit all energy incident upon it

Wien's Displacement Law

(max = A/T)
 E L
P T
N
 E L
P T
N @CCRS
 E L
P T
@seos
N
 L
Satellite Data: Resolutions

• Spectral Resolution

T E
P
• Spatial Resolution

• Radiometric Resolution

N
• Temporal Resolution
Spectral Resolution

L
The spectral resolution of a sensor characterizes the ability of the sensor to resolve the

E
energy received in a spectral bandwidth to characterise different constituents of earth
surface

P T
N
 E L
P T
N
 Spatial Resolution

E L
This is a measure of the area or size of the smallest dimensions on the earth’s surface over
which an independent measurement can be made (pixel) by the sensor

P T
original image
1m pixel
@GRINDGIS
N
2m pixel 5m pixel 10m pixel 30m pixel
 E L
P T
@GRINDGIS
N
 L
 Radiometric resolution of a sensor is a measure of how many grey levels are measured between

E
black (no reflectance) to pure white.

T
 Is measured in bits Examples

P
 1 bit (21) – 2 levels
 8 bits (28) – 256 levels Landsat TM
 11 bits (211) – 2048 levels NOAA – AVHRR

N
 In a 8 bit system, black is measured as 0 and white is measured as 255.
 For comparison across bands, all the bands should have same radiometric resolution.
 L
Radiometric Resolution

E
8 bit

P T
N 2 bit
 L
Temporal Resolution

E
 Temporal resolution of a RS system is a measure of how often data are obtained for

T
the same area

P
 Examples of sensor temporal resolution:
Landsat - 16 days

N
IKONOS- 1.5(MSS), 2.5(PAN)
MODIS - 16 day repeat, 1-2 day coverage
AVHRR – 9 day repeat, daily coverage
GOES - 30 minutes
 L
Summary

 EMR SPECTRUM
 Process of Remote Sensing

TE
P
 LAWS GOVERNING EMR SPECTRUM

N
 Resolutions of satellites
 E L
P T
N
 E L
P
Geographic Information Systems
T
N
Dr. Bharath Haridas Aithal
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 9: Spatial analysis

Lecture 42 : Basic spatial analysis
 E L
P T
 Analyzing spatial data
 SQL statements

N
 Spatial analysis
 Overlap polygons
Analyzing spatial data

L
 Analyzing data normally comprises two principal phases:

E
 Choice of data

T
 Analysis of data chosen
 ALL GIS’s provide functions for analysis of data chosen and storing the results

P
of such analysis

N
 Data may be selected according to:
 Geographical location
 Thematic Content
Using Spatial Data to get Information

L
 Wide range of methods: simple data retrieval and display to creation of complex models for

E
specific scenarios

T
 Analysis capabilities are usually organized in modular commands
 Each kind of analysis can be performed separately or combined with others to build a data

P
analysis model

N
 Answer a query by setting up a formal set of data retrieval and analysis operations to:
 Recall the data
 Compute new information
 Display the result
Using Spatial Data to get Information

L
 The type of spatial analysis technique selected depends greatly on the data model and the

E
representation that were used

T
 Different data modes and different kinds of representation can require different
approaches in formulating spatial queries

N P
The fundamental taught: whether the basic data
model refers to entities in space or to the
continuous variation of an attribute over space
Areas, Lines, Points, X & Y

E L
P T
N
Basic Classes of Spatial Analysis for Entities

 Attribute operations
 Operations on 1 or more attributes of an entity

E L
T
 Operations on 1 or more attributes of multiple entities that overlap in

P
space
 Operations on 1 or more attributes of multiple entities that are linked by

N
directed pointers (object orientation)
 Operations on the attributes of entities that are contained by other
entities (point in polygon)
Basic Classes of Spatial Analysis for Entities

 Distance/Location operations

E L
 Operations to locate entities with respect to simple distance or location

T
criteria

P
 Operations to create buffer zones around an entity
 Operations using in-built spatial topology

N
 Operations to model spatial interactions over a connected network

All these operation result in new attributes or new entities

Operations on the Attributes

E L
Attributes are properties of entities
 3 types of attributes

T
 Refer to location (coordinates, elevation)

P
 Non-spatial qualitative or quantitative descriptors (parcel number,
name of parcel owner)

N
 Derived from spatial properties of the entity (the fence bordering the
road, the area, the shape of a piece of land)
Analyzing spatial data

L
 Data is then analyzed at various levels

E
 Data in attribute tables are sorted for presentations in reports or for use in

T
other computers
 Operations are performed on geometric data, either in search mode or for

P
computational purposes

N
 Operations performed on attributes
 Arithmetic
 Boolean
 Statistical
Analyzing spatial data

L
Geometries are used jointly to

E
 Compile new set of data , based on original and derived attributes

T
 Compile new sets of data based on geographical relationships

P
 In each of the levels, the operations used may be logical, arithmetic, or

N
combination of these
 Operations may be performed on individual points or on areas, involving
consideration of changes
Logical operations

L
 Normally employ algebra or Boolean algebra.

E
 The set algebra uses =, >, <, ≤, ≥ , < > .

T
 Boolean Algebra uses AND , OR , NOT

N P Image source: Digital textbox library

Logical (Boolean) Operations on Attributes

L
 True (0) or False (1)

E
 Logical operation can be applied to all data types: nominal, ordinal, directional

P T
N (A and B) or C A and (B or C)
Boolean Operations, Venn Diagram

E L
P T
N
Spatial Aspects of Boolean Analysis

E L
 Logical retrieval and reclassification on the non-spatial attributes of spatial
entities has little effect on the map image, except in terms of symbolism

T
and boundary retrieval

P
 Requires the preparation of a legend and re-coloring of the selected
entities

N
 E.g., simplify a complex soil map by dissolving the soil type boundaries
and generalizing
Arithmetic operations

L
 Addition +  Division /

E
 Subtraction –  Square root √

T
 Multiplication x  Trigonometric - sin , cos , tan

P
 These operators can be used for different purposes, including assigning

N
new thematic codes
 Ex:- conversion of distances along roads to driving times, by dividing all
distances by specified average vehicle speed. The result is new set of
attributes that are useful in transport planning.
Statistical operations

L
 Most GISs support a range od statistical operations, including Sum, Maxima, Minima,

E
Average, distribution, Standard deviation, Multivariate operations

P T
 Frequency distributions are used to create histograms, charts, comprising of
rectangles whose area is proportional to class intervals.

N
 The data used to draw a histogram can be used to plot a curve.
 Pattern recognition is also incorporated in GISs.
Geometrical operations

L
 Operations on geometric data involve the

E
customary arithmetic operations in computation

T
of distances , areas, volumes and direction
 In many GISs, the periphery, area, and centroid

P
are computed automatically for each polygon and

N
connected to object as attributes for topological
purposes
 Volumes, distances, flow analysis also can be
calculated and analyzed
Measuring distances

L
 Distances should be measured using uniform unit

E
- Distance = measured unit * number of units

T
 Distance in vector
- Euclidian distance

N
- Manhattan distance
D= a+b
P
Measuring areas

L
 The surface area of a vector data can be calculated with formula

E
𝒏

T
𝟏
𝑨 = ෍ 𝒚𝒊 𝒙𝒊+𝟏 − 𝒙𝒊−𝟏
𝟐
𝒊=𝟏

P
 The raster surface area can be calculated by summing the number of cells in the

N
surface and multiplying by cell size
Measuring Volumes

L
 Volume calculations are performed on digital terrain models.

E
 If calculations are performed on raster, by multiplying the height to the cell size

T
the volume can be found
 Total volume can be found by summing volumes linked to the individual cells

N P
Operations on Overlapping Entities

L
Operations on attributes from 2 or more entities that partially or completely occupy or cover

E
the same space
 Inclusion

T
 A contains B or A is contained by B

P
 These cases are solved by extending the rules of Boolean algebra from the attributes of the
entities to measures of how the entities occupy space

N
 The “point in polygon” problem
 First, determine which entities are included or excluded in the location
 E.g., which restaurants are located in Fairfax? Which groundwater observation
wells have been drilled in the Minikata limestone formation?
Operations on Overlapping Entities

E L
 Once the entities have been selected and tagged, apply the procedures for entity attribute
analysis either on each entity or collectively

T
 What is the min and max water level for each well for a given year?

P
 The result of the comparison is used to tag the enclosing polygon, which can be displayed
with a new color, label, or shade

N
 Find all soil profiles inside parcel 123, compute the mean nitrate level
Summary

E L
 Analyzing spatial data
 Operations in GIS

T
 Arithmetic
 Logical

P
 Statistical
 Geometrical

N
 Measuring length, area and volumes
 E L
P T
N
 E L
P
Geographic Information Systems
T
N
Dr. Bharath Haridas Aithal
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 9: Spatial analysis

Lecture 43 : Basic spatial analysis
 E L
P T
 Report generation
 Operations on attribute data

N
 Overlay
 Buffer zones
 Spatial objects
Report generation from attribute data

L
 Inquiry into attribute data is the primary task in any GIS application

E
 Tailor made software are used most of the GIS software
 In others Query languages such as SQL are used, particularly that access relational database

T
 Inquiry is based on logical and arithmetic operations and specific relational database

P
functions
 The query criteria may be complex and covers several attribute tables

N
 Some GISs application support report formats that are tailor made for each applications
 Others use report function and report from storage facilities of report
generator supplied by DBMS in use
Report generation from attribute data

L
 Inquiry into attribute data is the primary task in any GIS application

E
 Tailor made software are used most of the GIS software
 In others Query languages such as SQL are used, particularly that access relational database

T
 Inquiry is based on logical and arithmetic operations and specific relational database

P
functions
 The query criteria may be complex and covers several attribute tables

N
 GISs application support report formats that are tailor made for each applications
 Others use report function and report from storage facilities of report
generator supplied by DBMS in use
 Complex operations on attribute data

L
 Mathematical, logical and statistical operations may be performed on attribute data

E
 Including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponential, square root,
and trigonometric functions

T
 The numerical treatment of qualitative attribute data is limited to counting

P
operations

N
Overlay

L
 Overlay is used in data integration and is technical process, the results of which can be used

E
in realistic forms of GIS
Polygon overlay

T
 Is a spatial operation in which a first thematic layer containing polygons is superimposed

P
onto another to form a new thematic layer with new polygons
 Computing the coordinates of border intersection is a vital function in polygon overlay

N
 If areas are stored as links in a topological model, fewer intersection need to be
computed thus reducing computing time
 The new intersection will be identified as node and lines between nodes as links
 The new nodes and links form a topological structure
Overlay

L
 Each new polygon is a new object represented by a row in attribute table

E
 Each object has a new attribute , which is represented by a column in

T
attribute table
 Superimposing and comparing two geometrical data sets differing in origin

P
and accuracy often give rise to large no of small polygons

N
 The proliferation of small polygons may be counteracted automatically by
laying small zone around each other
 If these zooms intersect when superimposed the lines they surround may
convert into single line
Overlay

L
Overall procedure for a polygon overlay is to

E
 Compute intersection points

T
 Form nodes and links
 Establish topology and hence new objects

P
 Remove excessive number of small polygons

N
 Compile new attributes and addition to attributes
Points on polygon

L
 Points can also be superimposed on polygons

E
 The points are then assigned the attributes of polygon upon which they are

T
superimposed
 Relevant geometric operations means that point must be associated within polygons

P
 One of the approaches is to compute the intersection of polygon border with parallel

N
lines through points
 Attribute table is updated after all points are associated with polygons
Buffer zones

L
 Are used to define spatial proximity

E
 These comprises of one or more polygons of prescribed extent around point, lines, areas

T
 The new polygons have the attributes of original objects
 Many GISs support automatic compilations of buffer zones

P
 Buffer zone polygons are also processed in the same way as other polygons generated

N
during overlay, arithmetic , logical, statistical operations
Procedures in integrated data analysis

L
Fixed procedures are used in Integrated Data analysis

E
 Stating of problems

T
 Adapting the data for geometric operations
 Performing geometric operations

P
 Adapting attributes for analysis

N
 Performing attribute analysis
 Evaluate the results
 Redefine and instigate new analysis if needed
 Analysis of Discrete Entities: The Basics

L
 The aim of GIS is to provide a means of selecting, retrieving and analyzing

E
geographical data
 Spatial analysis begins when you affect not only attributes, but also the size shape

T
and form of the spatial entities

P
 Spatial GIS analysis starts with the determination of spatial inclusion or exclusion
and with the intersection of lines and areas of different kinds to yield new entities

N
 Spatial interactions are not limited to just the boundaries of entities, but may also
be extended to include neighborhood functions
Representations

L
 If you worked for BBMP (Municipal corporation) what road characteristics would
you collect?

E
 Surface composition

T
 Date of last resurfacing
 Daily traffic volume

P
 Road structures (shoulder type, culverts, bridges, etc.)

N
 If you worked for BMTC (Bus Company) what bus route characteristics would you
collect?
Representation of a geographic
 Timetables/schedules entity depends on the purpose for
 Passenger loads it will be used

 Location of bus stops

Spatial Objects

L
 Theoretical & practical issues

E
 We need to separate the representation of the object from its fundamental spatial
characteristics (E.g., a line as an edge of an area)

T
 We must consider geographic scale

P
 Is Fairfax city a point or a polygon?
 Objects are often 2-dimensional

N
 How can we handle height or depth as an attribute?
 Our representation of the reality is usually static
 Even in a limited model, the number of geometric and spatial analytical
operations is large
Summary

E L
 Report generation
 Operations on attribute data

T
 Overlay OPERATION
 Buffer zones

P
 Spatial objects

N
 E L
P T
N
 E L
P T
Geographic Information Systems

N
Dr. Bharath Haridas Aithal
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 9: Spatial analysis

Lecture 44 : Advanced spatial analysis
 E L
P T
 Point in polygon analysis
 Operations on overlapping entities

N
 Overlay, vector overlay
 Distance relationship
 Buffering
 Connectivity
Point in Polygon Analysis

L
 Simple

E
 Complex

T
 Problem

N P
Overlay Analysis

E L
P T
N
Overlay Analysis

E L
P T
N
 L
Vector Overlays

TE
N P
Vector Overlay—Polygon on Polygon

E L
P T
N
 Distance Relationships

L
 Operations that depend on a simple distance between A and B

E
 Distance relationship between 2 points in space
 A is w/in or beyond a specified distance of B

T
 Solved with the help of a buffer

P
 Draw a zone around the initial entity where the boundaries of the zone are all
distance “D” from the coordinates of the original entity

N
 Buffer (outward) & setbacks (inward)
 Circle, rectangular with rounded ends, an irregular line, or a polygon
 Buffer is an new polygon that may be used as a temporary aid to
spatial query or that may be itself be added to the database as an entity
Buffering

E L
P T
N
Buffered Point, Line, Feature

E L
P T
N
Operations on Overlapping Polygons

L
 In some cases, polygon overlap leads to creation of spurious polygons

E
 Caused by errors in digitized boundaries

T
 3 solutions
 Designate boundaries of one feature as dominant

P
 Eliminate polygons that have an area smaller than some critical threshold

N
 Pass a smoothing window over all the polygons coordinates (fuzzy
tolerance)
Connectivity

L
 Operations in which the entities are directly linked in the database

E
 The linkage can be spatial

T
 “A” is a direct neighbor of “B”, or “A” is connected to “B” by a topological network
 Topologically connected lines use explicit information in the spatial database to

P
determine the relationships

N
 Inter-entity distances over a network can be used to determine indices of interaction
 Analysis of connectivity over a topologically directed network can be used for
determining emergency service areas, or optimizing a delivery route
 Entity attributes identify the character of the connector
To Consider

L
 There is a wide range of logical and numerical methods to retrieve spatial entities,

E
and compute new attributes
 Numerical procedures can be applied to inclusion and intersection problems,

T
proximity analysis, or for analysis of relations over topological connections

P
 We can combine methods—creating models to analyze complex spatial problems

N
 Many data analysis operations are NOT commutative!
 The sequence of analysis operations is important!
 Spatial modeling permits “what if” exploration of different scenarios
 Spatial modeling also lets planners learn from “digital mistakes”
Summary

E L
 Point in polygon analysis
 Operations on overlapping entities

T
 Overlay, vector overlay

P
 Distance relationship
 Buffering

N
 Connectivity
 E L
P T
N
 E L
P T
Geographic Information Systems

N
Dr. Bharath Haridas Aithal
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 9: Spatial analysis

Lecture 45 : Advanced spatial analysis
 E L
P T
 Network operations
 Proximity operations

N
 Interpolation
 GIS analysis models
 DTM, TIN, Contour
 Problems in Establishing GIS
Network operations

L
 Network: systems of connected lines represented in vector data

E
 Can determine the fastest route , Resistance is entered as

T
attribute and route with least resistance is considered.

P
Starting point 10 101
Optimal road choice

(1) Obstruction
(1)

N
Directional change
20 (2) 11
Stopping point

(2) Resistance
(2) (3)
(4)
10 Link no
Ending point
103 21 102 103 Node no
Network operations

L
Network operations are based on

E
 Continuous connected networks

T
 Rules for displacement in a network

P
 Definitions of units of measure
 Accumulations of attribute values due to displacements

N
 Rules for manipulating attribute values
Proximity operations and spatial interpolations

L
 GIS supports proximity operations, in which new values are assigned to new points on the

E
basis of values of existing neighborhood points or observations.
 The procedure usually consists of

T
 Identify a base point.
 Define or compute search area.

P
 Select or search for objects.
 Manipulate the attribute data in accordance with selection criteria.

N
 Includes operations such as
 The sum of all values
 The average of values
 The greatest or least value
 Interpolation of values with neighboring objects.
 Statistical distribution of values.
 Interpolation & extrapolation

L
 Interpolation is the process of defining a function that takes on specified

E
values at specified points.

T
 In mathematics, extrapolation is the process of constructing new data

P
points outside a discrete set of known data points.
 Three types

N
 Closest , nearest neighborhood
 Linear ,bilinear , bicubic
 Spline
Bilinear interpolation

L
Pixel value

E
 Bilinear considers the closest 2x2 neighborhood of known pixel

T
values surrounding the unknown pixel.

P
 It then takes a weighted average of these 4 pixels to arrive at its
final interpolated value.

N
 This results in much smoother looking images than nearest
interpolation
Bicubic Interpolation

L
 Bicubic goes one step beyond bilinear by considering the closest 4x4

E
neighborhood of known pixels for a total of 16 pixels.

 Since these are at various distances from the unknown pixel, closer

T
pixels are given a higher weighting in the calculation.

P
 Bicubic produces noticeably sharper images than the previous two
methods, and is perhaps the ideal combination of processing time

N
and output quality.

 For this reason it is a standard in many image editing programs

(including Adobe Photoshop), printer drivers and in-camera
interpolation.
 Spline

L
 The term “spline” refers to an instrument used in drafting.

E
 It is a thin, flexible wooden or plastic tool that is passed through given

T
data points and defines a smooth curve in between. The
 Physical spline minimizes potential energy subject to the interpolation

P
constraints.

N
 The corresponding mathematical spline must have a continuous second
derivative and satisfy the same interpolation constraints. The
breakpoints of a spline are also referred to as its knots
 L
GIS Analysis models

T E
Several models have been explored , prime examples are

P
 Cartographic algebra
 Expert systems

N
 Linear combinations
 Cartographic algebra

E L
 Is based on assumption that a set of simple operations can be found and joined

T
sequentially to form a complex modeling
 This process starts with existing set of attribute data stored as tables

P
 This is processed in sequence of operations which produces a new column in the

N
table
 This is compiled and can be used for any analysis
Cartographic algebra

L
Thematic layers A,B,C that are manipulated into one layer and one attribute table

E
Layer A Layer B Layer C

T
ID Attributes ID Attributes ID Attributes
A A A

P
Layer A
Layer A Layer A

ID Attributes
ID Attributes ID Attributes

N
A
A A

Layer A

ID Attributes
A
 Expert systems

L
 In which analytical results are assessed automatically in terms of criteria entered as ancillary

E
information or attributes

T
 On basis of this criteria system assigns priorities to various combinations of the attributes and
provides an output comprising recommended choices and course of action

P
ATTRIBUTE ATTRIBUTE PRIORITY Expert’s criteria in table a are combined with

N
CULTIVATED DEVELOPEMENT 2 attribute table(b) for automatic evaluation for a
FOREST DEVELOPEMENT 1 (A) overlay result.

ID ATTRIBUTE ATTRIBUTE PRIORITY

1 1 CULTIVATED 1 DEVELOPEMENT 2
(B)
2 2 FOREST 2 DEVELOPEMENT 1
Digital Terrain Models (DTM)

DTM’s represent elevation of the bare earth surfaces

E L
T
 Elevation modeling

P
 Contours modeling
 Volumes modeling

N
 Shading and draping
 Miscellaneous applications
Elevation model

L
Using elevation data stored as a point cloud the elevation of random point can be

E
computed as the weighted median of surrounding points, with closest points having

T
greatest weight

P
Neighboring points ate searched within a area.

N Area search
TIN model

L
 Depicts geographic surfaces as contiguous non-overlapping

E
triangles.
 Topographic surface is represented by several triangles, with

T
each triangle face having an approximate slope, aspect, and
surface area.

P
 The vertices of each triangle match the elevation of the
terrain exactly.

N
 The irregularity of the triangles comes from the scattered
nature of the (x, y, z) points (the triangle vertices)
 Once a tin is created, the elevation of any point on the
 Triangle's continuous surface can be interpolated
Contours

L
 A line drawn on a map connecting points of equal height.

E
 DEM from a topographic map requires that the elevation

T
contours on the topo map be converted to xyz data
 The raster elevation contours must first be converted to vectors.

P
 The vector contours must be “tagged” with their corresponding

N
elevation values.
 The tagged vector data is then transferred to a superimposed grid
by an interpolation algorithm
Contours

L
Disadvantages

E
 Digitized contours have many vertices along contours, but no control between
contours.

T
Over-sampling along contours and under-sampling between contours

P
 If the contour interval of the source map is small, the surface model created
from it is generally good.

N
 If the contour interval of the source map is large, the surface model created
from it is generally poor, especially along drainages, ridge lines and in rocky
topography.
Slope and slope direction

L
 Slope Identifies the max. rate of change in value from each cell to its neighbors.

E
 An output slope grid can be calculated as percent slope or degree of slope.
 Aspect(slope direction):-Identifies the down-slope direction of the maximum rate of

T
change in value from each cell to its neighbors.

P
32 64 128

N
16 1

8 4 2

EIGHT POINT MODEL

 E L
P T
Formal Problem in Establishing GIS

N
Ownership and copyright

‘Data rights’

E L
• Geographical data is regarded to have status of “intellectual productions”

T
• Intellectual productions is the term used for devices whose value is not

P
based on ownership of a physical article.
• The ownership of such production may also be regulated through pricing and

N
licencing mechanism.
• The data can also be protected by copyright law only if it fulfils the
requirement of national law.
• It can be protected on national legalization on issues such as database
protection and unfair competition.
 E L
Geographical Data

T
Procurement of data by single agency Multiple stakeholders involved in data procurement

P
Easy ownership status Complicated ownership status

N
Copyright laws

L
• The Berne convention of 1951 specified common international regulation for

E
protection of copyright, can be used by signatory countries for protection of their
mapping and geographical data

T
• EU database directives gives protection to "sweat of the brow” databases where
all data are registered/catalogued by one mean or the other

P
• “Facts” are not normally covered by copyright law
• The data needs to have the necessary level of importance to be copyright

N
protected
• The rule are similar for both data being reproduced in digital or in analog format.
• Copying from one electronic storage device to other is a reproduction under
copyright laws.
• Copying a screen display is more of a problem as its only temporary.
 L
Data sharing policies

E
• The data ownership and sharing policies varies considerably from country to country, and
sometimes within country.

T
o In USA the policies vary within states, however in UK , the public sector claims the

P
copyrights
o In Canada, usage fee are charged whenever the value of digitized data exceeds the cost

N
incurred in acquisition and digitizing
o In India we have several public entities providing data but not on a unified framework
though ‘National Data Registry’ was established
Cost recovery and pricing

L
• Pricing also depends on

E
Data pricing
o Data quality and details
• The pricing value must cover

T
o Timeliness of data
o Data establishment cost

P
o Completeness of data
o Storage cost
o Topological continuity of data

N
o Distribution cost
o User applicants, usages or application

• Data pricing varies as per the user category.

Academic and public sector are charged less than commercial
users for same piece of data.
 L
Data Pricing

E
High Data Pricing Low Data Pricing

T
• Encourages user to compile data • Bring in difficulties for data updates

P
on their own due to cost recovery failures.

• Reduces the importance of • The value of quality data is not

N
public sector (data producer) appreciated.
Cost Recovery

L
• The enforcement of copyrights in UK and Netherland have facilitated 70 to 80 % and
30 to 40% cost recovery rates

E
• However, countries like USA finds little point in 100 % recovery.

T
• They consider some data to have more social significance rather than commercial
interest.

P
• Data such as accident data, data for military use have little to no recovery
• In order to reduce tax burdens, some countries impose charges on special purpose

N
data as well.
• As per economic point of view the data charges should cover
o Marginal cost of production
o Distribution Cost
o Percentage increment to cover some fixed cost of production
o Risk associated
Public or private organization of geo-data

L
The public or private organization of geo-data will require

E
• Production or supply depending on prevailing market condition
• Standardization of data products by the producer

T
• Homogenization of market

P
Demand and supply mechanics of geo data are based on business approaches such
as:
o Supplement basic data with other standard data and distribute the

N
combination as a standard package to all users.
o Supplement basic data with other standard data to compile tailor-made basic
product.
o Supplement basic data with user specified data to compile tailor-made user
product.
o Coordinate data interchange without being involved in production but with
responsibility for standardization.
Data Security

E L
• Different countries may observe different regulations for data security.
• In USA, Financial Services Modernization Act permits organizations to

T
acquire and distribute substantial personal information unless an individual
specifically asks to be removed from the register.

P
• Sensitive data such as maps of border areas, disputed territories,
endangered species, rare plants are considered as national interest and

N
restricted accordingly.
• In some cases limited information is openly available and combining data
from open registers may be considered as security risk.
• In future, it is recommended to share data in coded format to avoid
tampering.
Summary

E L
 Network operations
 Proximity operations

T
 Interpolation

P
 GIS analysis models
 DTM, TIN, Contour

N
 Data limitation in usage
 Data security
 E L
P T
N