17me3302

17ME3302
Mechanics
(Study on forces)
of
Materials
P. Satheesh Kumar Reddy, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, V.R.Siddhartha Engineering College
Mechanics of Materials
• Course Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of the course, the
student will be able to:
CO1: Understand stress-strain concepts and
analyze axially loaded members.
CO2: Illustrate and analyze the structures
subjected to bending & torsion.
CO3: Determine deflections of beams and safe
load on columns.
CO4: Analyse plane stress problems.
• The subject 'Mechanics of materials' or
'Strength of Materials' or 'Mechanics of
Structures' or 'Materials and Structures'
deals with the study of strength and
mechanical properties of materials and
the behavior of structural members
under the action of an externally applied
loads.
• The mechanics of materials (or) strength of
materials may be defined as the maximum
resistance which a material can offers to
deformation to the external applied loads.
• When an external force acts on a body, the
body tends to undergo some deformation.
Due to cohesion between the molecules, the
body resists deformation. This resistance by
which material of the body opposes the
deformation is known as strength of material.
• Deformation: When an external force is
applied to a body of an elastic material, there
will be some change in its size and shape due
to change in the dimensions of a body. This
change in the size and shape of a body due to
an externally applied load is called as
deformation.
• The objective of mechanics of material study
will be the determination of the stresses,
strains and deflections produced by the
external loads. If these quantities can be
found for all values of load up to the failure
load then we will have a complete picture of
the mechanical behaviour of the body.
• The first step in learning mechanics of
materials is to understand various mechanical
properties of the materials and then type of
loads on the elements.
Mechanical properties of materials
In this article, the following properties of a
material are defined and briefly explained.
• Rigid body • Elasticity
• Plasticity • Brittleness
• Hardness • Weldability
• Machinability • Ductility
• Malleability • Fatigue
• Creep • Stiffness
• Flexibility • Toughness
1. Rigid body
• The material of a body is said to be rigid, if the relative
position of any two points in the body is not changed under
the action of the external forces. In Fig 1.1(a), the points A
and B are the original position in a body. After application of a
system of forces F1, F2, F3, the body takes the position as
shown in Fig 1.1(b). A′ and B′ are the new positions of A and
B. If the material of the body is rigid. A′ B′ = AB
2. Elasticity:
• It is the property of a material by virtue of
which the material regains its original shape
and size after removal of external load. In a
rubber we easily visualize this property, since
with small load it changes considerably and
when the load is removed it gains its original
shape and size. This type of behavior is found
in steel also. Only difference is the changes
taking place are small.
3. Plasticity:
• It is property by virtue of which material do
not regain its original shape and size even
after the applied load is removed. The
permanent deformation takes place. Soil is a
plastic material. It is found steel also reaches
plastic stage if load applied is beyond a
specified load.
4.Ductility: It is the property of the material by
virtue of which it can undergo a considerable
amount of deformation without rupture. Under
tension a ductile material may be drawn into
wire also. The examples of such materials are
copper, mild steel.
5.Brittleness: Some material suddenly break
when external load act. They do not undergo
deformation under the load. Such materials are
said to be brittle. The examples of such
materials are glass, ceramics, cast iron.
6.Hardness: It is the property of a material by
virtue of which it resists penetration, scratching
and abrasion. Example tool is always harder
than workpiece.
7.Toughness: Ability of a material to absorb
energy and plastically deform without
fracturing.
8. Malleability: It is the property by virtue of
which it can be deformed into a thin sheet by
hammering and rolling without rupture.
Aluminum, copper and gold are having good
malleability.
9. Machinability: It is the property of a material
by virtue of which if can be cut with machine
tools to give different shapes.
10.Weldability: It is the property of the metal
by virtue of which it can be easily welded. Mild
steel is having good weldability while cast iron
is not weldable.
11.Creep: It is the property of material by virtue
of which the gradual extension of material takes
place under a constant load over a longer
period.
12.Stiffness: It is the property of the material by
virtue of which it resists deformation. The
stiffness of a member of the material is defined
as resisting force per unit deformation. This
property of spring can be easily visualized.
13.Flexibility: Ability of an object to bend or
deform in response to an applied forces. The
flexibility of a member of the material is defined
as deformation per unit resisting force.
• Stiffness and flexibility are complimentary to
each other.
14. Fatigue: The load causing varying stress when
applied repeatedly affects the strength of the material
and this effect is called fatigue. Many structural
members and mechanical components are subjected
to such fluctuation of stresses and reversal of stresses
as shown in Fig 1.2(a) and (b). The bridge girders are
subjected to fluctuation of stresses and the shafts of
the vehicles are subjected to reversal of stresses.
Questions
Types of Loads
Loads may be classified as shown below on the
basis of the stresses they cause in a member.
• Direct loads
• Shearing loads
• Flexural loads
• Twisting loads
Types of Loads
1. Direct Loads: Direct loads are those which
cause axial extension or shortening of the
member. A wire subjected to axial pull causes
extension of the wire such load is tensile load. A
column subjected to axial pressure is the
example of direct compressive load.
2. Shearing Loads: The load that is trying to
shear off a section of the member is called
shearing load.
For example consider the cross section of the bolt at
junction of two plates which are connected by the bolt.
When load Q is applied on plates the cross section of
bolt is subjected to shearing force Q as shown in Figure
3. Flexural Loads: If a member is supported at
few points and is subjected to loads transverse
to its axis, the member bends. It is subjected to
shearing also. Beams are typical examples of
members subjected to flexural loads.
4. Torsional Loads : The loads trying to twist a
member may be termed as torsional load. They
apply twisting moment to the member. Shafts
are common examples of such loads. Beams of
grid floors are subjected to torsional moments.
Figure shows a shaft subjected to twisting
moment
Concept of stress
• The internal resistive force to deformation per
unit cross-sectional area is called as stress,
intensity of stress or unit stress. It is denoted by
σ.
∴σ= R/A
• In the equilibrium condition, the internal resistance R is
equal to an external load P i.e. R = P.
∴ σ= P/A
where σ = Stress,
P = Load acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body
• Mathematically, stress may be defined as the force per
unit area.
Units of Stresses
S.I. Unit:
S.I. unit of stress = S.I. unit of force / S.I. unit of area = N / m2
N / m2 is called Pascal and is denoted by Pa.
Therefore, S.I. unit of stress is Pascal.
Other units of stress:

Kilo Pascal (kPa), Mega Pascal (MPa), Giga Pascal (GPa) etc.
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2
mm2 = [(10-3) m]2 = 10-6 m2
m2 = 106 mm2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 = 106 N / 106 mm2 = 1 N/mm2
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2 = 109 N / 106 mm2 = 103 N/mm2 = 1
kN/mm2
Note: Milli = 10-3, k = kilo = 103, M = Mega = 106, G = Giga = 109

Concept of strain
• When a body is subjected to some external force,
there is some change of dimension of the body. The
ratio of change of dimension of the body to the
original dimension is known as strain. Strain is
dimensionless quantity. It is defined as the ratio
between change in length and the original length. It
is denoted by e or ε.
• ∴ Strain = Change in length/ Original length
• ∴ e = δL / L
• where e = Strain, δL = Change in length of the body,
• L = Original length of the body
• Unit: Strain being the ratio of two similar quantities, it
has no unit.
Types of Stresses
1. Normal stresses
-Tensile & Compressive stresses
When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the stresses
are tensile stresses; if the forces are reversed in
direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain
compressive stresses. In as much as the stresses act in
a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are
called normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be
either tensile or compressive.
• When a sign convention for normal stresses is
required, it is customary to define tensile
stresses as positive and compressive stresses
as negative. Because the normal stress “σ” is
obtained by dividing the axial force by the
cross-sectional area, it has units of force per
unit of area (N/mm2)
Types of Stresses
2. Shear stresses: The stresses act in a direction
tangential to the cut surface, they are called
shear stresses because they act in directions
parallel to the surface of the material. The
force acting tangentially along the section is
called shear force. Shear stress is generally
denoted by “τ”
• When the section of a body is subjected to two equal
and opposite forces acting tangentially to the
section, tending to slide its one part over the other
at that section, the body is said to be in a state of
shear; the stress induced in it is called shear stress
Type of Stress Calculations
1. Normal Stress: It is the normal force per unit
area of cross section.
∴ σ = Normal Force /Cross sectional Area
• Normal stress may be tensile or Compressive.
2. Shear Stress: It is the ratio of shearing force per
unit shearing cross sectional area.
∴ τ = Shearing force / Shear area
• Note that shear stress is tangential to the area
over which it acts.
Understanding shear area
Understanding shear area
Concept of Normal strain
1.Linear strain: The change in length per unit is
known as linear strain.
2.Lateral strain:The lateral strain may be defined

as the change in the lateral dimension per
unit lateral dimension.
Concept of Normal strain
Concept of Shear Strain
• Shear Strain: Shear strain is defined as the
tangent of the angle, and is equal to the length
of deformation at its maximum divided by the
perpendicular length in the plane of force
application. It is denoted with 'φ'.
φ=
= dl / h
Stress – Strain Diagrams
• Mild steel: Figure shows a typical tensile test specimen
of mild steel. Its ends are gripped into a universal
testing machine. An extensometer is fitted to the test
specimen which measures extension over the length
L1, shown in Figure. The length over which the
extension is measured is called gauge length. The load
is applied gradually and the extension is measured for
each load. It will be observed that after a certain load,
the extension increases at a faster rate, and the
capacity of extensometer to measure extension comes
to an end. Hence, it is removed before this stage is
reached and the extension up to this stage is
measured from the scale on the universal testing
machine. Thereafter, the load is increased gradually till
the specimen breaks.
Mild steel test specimen
Mild steel Stress-Strain diagram
Salient points in stress–strain curve
• Limit of Proportionality (OA): Proportional Limit. From the origin
O to the point A, stress-strain diagram is a straight line i.e.,
stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the stress is no
longer proportional to the strain. Hence point A is the
proportional limit stage. Thus, the limit up to which stress is
directly proportional to strain is called proportional limit.
• Elastic limit (OB): At point A, the curve deviates from the straight
line and the stress-strain graph from A to B is non-linear. If the
load is increased beyond A up to the point B, the material
behaves in elastic manner i.e. on removal of the load, the whole
deformation will vanish. The value of stress corresponding to
point B up to which the material behaves in an elastic manner is
called the elastic limit.
• The two points viz. proportional limit and elastic limit are very
close to each other and in some cases they may coincide also.
Stress –Strain diagram drawn to Scale
Mild steel Stress-Strain diagram
• Permanent set: The specimen if stressed beyond
this elastic limit will not return back to its original
position when the load is removed and there will
be a permanent deformation of the body called
permanent set. Up to point B, the material will be
in its elastic range and beyond B it will be in the
plastic range.
• Upper yield point (B): This is the stress at which,
the strain (extension) begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress (Load). This
phenomenon is called yielding of material.
• Lower yield point (C): Yielding has ceased at C, further
stresses and strains can be obtained by increasing the
load.
• Perfectly plastic: In the region from B to C the material
becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it
deforms without an increase in the applied load. The
elongation of a mild-steel specimen in the perfectly
plastic.
• Strain hardening phenomenon: After undergoing the
large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC,
the steel begins to strain harden. During strain
hardening, the material undergoes changes in its
crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance
of the material to further deformation.
• Ultimate stress (D): Elongation of the test specimen in
this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and
therefore the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope
from C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum
value, and the corresponding stress is called the ultimate
stress. This is the maximum stress the material can resist.
• Breaking point (E): From D, the cross-sectional area of
the specimen goes on uniformly decreasing forming a
neck and the load required to cause further extension is
also reduced. As the elongation continues, cross-
sectional area becomes smaller and smaller and
ultimately the specimen is broken at E into two pieces
giving cup cone type of ductile fracture. Point E is called
breaking load point and the stress corresponding to this
point is called breaking stress or rupture stress or
breaking strength of the material.
Failure of specimen
Tensile Test Readings
• In a tensile test on a specimen of mild steel 20 mm diameter,
the following readings were recorded using extensometer of
200 mm gauge length. All along the length of the specimen
markings were made at an interval of 100 mm. The test was
carried up to fracture and the following were noted.
• (i) Load at breaking point = 93 kN
• (ii) Distance between two adjoining markings including neck
portion after fracture = 122 mm.
• (iii) Diameter at neck = 14.7 mm
Material beyond elastic limit
Material beyond elastic limit
• Residual Strain (OF′) : If unloading is made
within elastic limit the original length is
regained i.e. the stress strain curve follows
down the loading curve shown in Figure. If
unloading is made after loading the specimen
beyond elastic limit, it follows a straight line
parallel to the original straight portion as
shown by line FF′ in Figure. Thus if it is loaded
beyond elastic limit and then unloaded a
permanent strain (OF′) is left in the specimen.
This is called residual strain or permanent set.
Stress-strain curve for brittle materials
Brittle materials like concrete, aluminium, cast iron has

very low proportional limit and do not show the yield
point. In such a case where the yield point is not clearly
defined, it is taken as the point of some definite amount
of permanent strain, generally 0.2%.
Definitions
1. Nominal Stresses: The stresses which are
calculated by dividing the respective loads by
the original cross-sectional area are called
nominal stresses. From the stress-strain
curve, it is clear that the nominal breaking
stress is less than the ultimate stress.
2. Actual or True Stresses: The stresses which
are calculated by dividing the respective
loads by the reduced cross-sectional area at
that point are called actual stresses.
3. Yield Stress: It is defined as the ratio of the
load at yield point and the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
Definitions
4. Ultimate Stress: The ratio of the maximum load
that the specimen is capable of withstanding and its
original cross-sectional area is called the ultimate
stress of the material.
5. Working Stress: It is defined as the ratio of the
actual axial load and the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen.
• Working stress is the maximum allowable stress
to which a material is subjected during its service
period. For the safety of a structure, it is very
essential that the working stress should be within
the elastic limit of the material.
Definitions
6. Measurement of ductility: In a tension test,
both the percentage reduction in area up to
fracture and the percentage elongation in gauge
length of the specimen upto fracture are
considered to be measures of the ductility of a
material.
Elasticity and Plasticity
• This property of a material, by which it returns to its

original dimensions during unloading, is called elasticity,
and the material itself is said to be elastic.
• This property of a material, by which it returns partially
to its original dimensions during unloading, and so the
material is said to be in plasticity.
Linear Elasticity
• Linear Elasticity: When a material behaves elastically
and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic. This type of
behaviour is extremely important in engineering for an
obvious reason - by designing structures and machines
to function in this region, we avoid permanent
deformations due to yielding.
• Elastic Limit: The body will regain its previous shape
and size only when the deformation caused by the
external force, is within a certain limit. Thus there is a
limiting value of force up to and within which, the
deformation completely disappears on the removal of
the force. The value of stress corresponding to this
limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the
material.
Hooke’s Law
• Hooke’s Law: With in elastic limit, stress is directly
proportional to strain is commonly known as
Hooke’s Law.
Stress α strain
σ α ɛ
• Stress (σ) = Force/(Cross-sectional Area) = P/A
• Strain (ɛ) = (Change in length )/(Original Length) = δ/L
Constant of proportionally is Modulus of Elasticity (E)
According to Hooke’s Law, σ = E ɛ
P/A = E (δL/L )
Deflection, δL = (P L)/(A E)
Poisson’s Ratio
• The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is
known as Poisson’s Ratio.
• Lateral means normal to the direction of load application.
• Linear means parallel to the direction of load application.
ϒ = (Lateral strain )/(Linear strain)
Poisson’s Ratio
ϒ = (δd/d) / (δL/L)
Poisson’s Ratio
ϒ = (Lateral strain )/(Linear strain)
ϒ = (δh/h) / (δL/L)
ϒ = (δb/b) / (δL/L)
Volumetric Strain
• When a body is subjected to external forces on
its face, there will be a change in its volume. The
ratio of change in volume to original volume is
known as volumetric strain. It is denoted by εv
• εv = Change in volume (δV) / Original volume (V)
• Change in volume = (L+δL)(b-δb)(h-δh) – L b h
= δL b h - δb L h - δh L b
• Original volume = L b h
• εv = δL /L - δb/b - δh/h = δL /L - ϒ δL /L - ϒ δL /L
εv = (δL /L) (1-2 ϒ) = εL (1-2 ϒ) = (σ/E) (1-2 ϒ)
Hooke’s Law for Shear Stress
• With in elastic limit shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain is commonly known
as Hooke’s Law.
Shear Stress α Shear strain
τ α φ
Shear Force P
Shear Stress ( τ ) = =
Shear Area As
Length of deformation 𝑑𝑙
Shear Strain (φ) = =
Perpedicular length ℎ
• Constant of proportionally is shear modulus of
elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity (G)
• According to Hooke’s Law, τ = G φ
Allowable stresses and Allowable loads
• Factor of Safety: It is the ratio of actual
strength to require strength (or) it is the ratio
of ultimate stress to working or allowable or
permissible stress.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
F O S (n) = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Hence, the maximum stress to which any member
is designed is much less than ultimate stress, and
this stress is called Working Stress.
The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress is
called factory of safety.
Factor of Safety = Ultimate stress/ Working stress
1. For Ductile materials like Mild steel - Low ( 1 to 2)

2. For Brittle materials like Cast iron - High
3. For timber - 4 to 6
• Allowable stresses: It is defined as the ratio of
ultimate stress or yield stress to factor of safety.
This stress is also called as working stress (or)
permissible stress.
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Allowable Stress =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑦
• Allowable loads: It is defined as the ratio of
maximum load to factor of safety. This load is also
called as working load (or) permissible load.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
• Allowable load =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑦
Change in lengths of Axially loaded members
• Structural components subjected only to tension or
compressions are known as axially loaded members. Solid
bars with straight longitudinal axes are the most common
type, although cables and coil springs also carry axial loads.
Examples of axially loaded bars are truss members,
connecting rods in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels, columns
in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine mounts.
Force
Stress (σ) = =
Cross−sectional Area
P
A
Change in length δ
Strain (ɛ) = =
Original Length L
PL
δ =
AE
• Stiffness of Axially loaded members: It is the
ratio of load per unit deflection.
P AE
Stiffness, K = =
δ L
• Flexibility of Axially loaded members: It is the
ratio of deflection per unit load.
δ L
Flexibility, ƒ = =
P AE
Change in lengths under non uniform conditions
• Bars with intermediate axial loads: Suppose, for instance, that
a prismatic bar is loaded by one or more axial loads acting at
intermediate points along the axis as shown in Fig. We can
determine the change in length of this bar by adding
algebraically the elongations and shortenings of the individual
segments AE = Axial rigidity
𝑛 𝑃𝑖 𝐿𝑖
δ= σ𝑖=0
𝐴𝐸
δ = (1/ AE) { PD (L1+L2+L3) + PC (L1+L2) – PB (L1)}

Where AE = Axial rigidity
Change in lengths of Axially loaded members
• Bars consisting of Prismatic Segments: This same general
approach can be used when the bar consists of several
prismatic segments, each having different axial forces,
different dimensions, and different materials as shown in Fig..
𝑃𝑖 𝐿𝑖
δ = σ𝑛𝑖=0
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
δ = {(PAL1)/(A1E1) + ((PA+PB)L2)/ (A2E2)}

Where AE = Axial rigidity
Change in lengths under non uniform conditions
• Bars with varying cross section: Sometimes the cross-sectional area
vary continuously along the axis of a bar, as illustrated by the tapered
bar in Figs.
𝑃 𝑑𝑥
δ= ‫𝐸 𝑥𝐴 ׬‬
𝑷𝑳 𝝅
• Tapered bar of circular cross section, δ = where A = dA dB
𝑨𝑬 𝟒
𝑷𝑳
• Tapered bar of square cross section, δ = where A = dA dB
𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑳 𝒃𝟐
• Trapezoidal section of uniform thickness, δ = ln
𝑬 𝒕 (𝒃𝟐−𝒃𝟏) 𝒃𝟏

17me3302 - Unit One Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

17me3302 - Unit One Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Other units of stress:

Note: Milli = 10-3, k = kilo = 103, M = Mega = 106, G = Giga = 109

2.Lateral strain:The lateral strain may be defined

Brittle materials like concrete, aluminium, cast iron has

• This property of a material, by which it returns to its

ϒ = (Lateral strain )/(Linear strain)

1. For Ductile materials like Mild steel - Low ( 1 to 2)

δ = (1/ AE) { PD (L1+L2+L3) + PC (L1+L2) – PB (L1)}

δ = {(PAL1)/(A1E1) + ((PA+PB)L2)/ (A2E2)}

You might also like