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316 Sample-Chapter PDF
316 Sample-Chapter PDF
State of Stresses
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Stress and strain are most important concepts for a comprehension of the mechanics of
solids. The load carrying capacity and sizing of the components depend on the behaviour
of material under different kinds of loading. This chapter deals with behaviour of material
under uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial states of stress under various combinations of loads.
Concept of principal stress and strains is also illustrated for different combinations of
loading conditions.
Resisting force F
s= =
Cross-sectional area A
Thus, stress is defined as the internal resistance developed in the body due to external
disturbances over an unit area of its cross section. Stress at a given point does not only
depend on the location of the point but also on the plane passing through it. Therefore,
it is a second-order tensor.
In SI units, stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In
actual practice, we use bigger units of stress, that is, megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal
(GPa), such that
When loads act perpendicular to the axis of the member, they are called normal loads
and the corresponding stresses are called normal stresses. Normal stresses are caused
by (i) direct loading (may be tensile or compressive) and (ii) bending (both tensile and
compressive).
Poisson’s Ratio: When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force,
elongation as well as lateral contraction occurs. For example, if a metal bar is stretched,
both the thickness and width decrease while the length increases. Likewise, the
compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in the direction of force and its
sides expand laterally. Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain. In the
elastic range, Poisson’s ratio lies between 0.25 and 0.33 for most engineering materials.
Typical values of Poisson’s ratio for some common materials are given in Table 1.1,
p.11 of DDHB.
F
F
F
F
Area of shear
Tangential force F
Shear stress, t =
Area of shear
=
As
(Eq. 1.1c, DDHB p. 2)
Figure 2.3 Single shear
F F
Area of shear
Tangential force F
Shear stress, t = =
Area of shear 2 As
Figure 2.4 Double shear
Figure 2.4 shows double shear, as the force is resisted by two sections of the body.
Simple shear stress is accompanied by shear strain g which is measured in terms of
angular deformation.
State of Stresses 25
Shear stresses are caused by (i) direct loading (in the transverse direction), (ii) twisting
(torsion) and (iii) bending (only in the case of unequal bending; pure bending will not
induce any shear stress in a beam).
Load direction determines the type of stresses induced. Consider Figure 2.5.
F F
Figure 2.5
Note that the equations for both kinds of stresses are the same.
s n ¥ mn ¥ 1 = (s x ¥ pn ¥ 1) ¥ cosf
pn
sn = sx ¥
mn
¥ cosf = s x cos 2f (Eq. 1.6a, DDHB, p. 4)
Now resolving forces parallel to mn
t n ¥ mn ¥ 1 = (s x ¥ pn ¥ 1) ¥ sinf
Ê pn ˆ
t n = Ás x ¥ ¥ 1˜ ¥ sinf
Ë mn ¯
2 s
t n = (s x ¥ cosf ) ¥ sinf = ¥ (s x ¥ cosf ) ¥ sinf = x sin 2f
2 2
(Eq. 1.6 b, DDHB, p. 4)
Maximum and minimum normal in uniaxial state of stress
We know that normal stress (s n ) = s x cos 2f . Maximum normal stress (principal stress) s 1
acts on cross-section normal to the axis of the bar that is when f = 0 (Eq. 1.6d, DDHB, p. 4 )
Therefore, Maximum normal stress = Maximum principal stress = s1 = sx (Eq. 1.6c,
DDHB, p. 4)
Minimum normal stress acts on the cross section parallel to the axis of the bar, that
is, when f = 90
Therefore, Minimum normal stress = Minimum principal stress = s 2 = 0 (Eq. 1.6c,
DDHB, p. 4)
Maximum shear stress occurs when sin 2f = 1 or f = 45∞ (Eq. 1.6f , DDHB, p. 4)
sx s s
Maximum shear stress , t max =
2
¥ sin 2f = x = 1
2 2
(Eq.1.6e, DDHB, p. 4)
That is, maximum shear stress induced in a body subjected to uniaxial stress is half
of normal stress and is inclined at an angle of 45∞ with respect to reference axis (with
vertical).
45°
F F
Figure 2.9
Hence, the part fails by shear. Failure occurs on the plane 45° to the plane of axial
stress.
Corresponding compressive stress = 2 ¥ t = 2 ¥ 173 = 346 MPa
Corresponding compressive force = Area ¥ s y
p ¥ 20 2 ¥ 346
Fc = = 108695.9 = 108.69 kN
4
Solution:
Plane of axial stress
sn
30°
F = 20 kN F = 20 kN
tn
Figure 2.10
F 20 ¥ 1000
Axial stress, s x == = 40.7435 MPa
A p ¥ 252
4
The normal stress acting on a plane inclined at 30°
s n = s x cos 2f = 40.7435 ¥ cos 2 30 = 30.558 @ 35.6 MPa
sx 40.7435
tn =
sin 2f = ¥ sin ( 2 ¥ 30 ) = 17.64 MPa
2 2
Maximum shear stress occurs on a plane where f = 45∞
sx 40.7435
t max = sin 2f = ¥ sin (2 ¥ 45) = 20.37 MPa
2 2
Problem 2.3. An element of a machine member of rectangular cross section is subjected
to a 10 kN unidirectional load using universal tensile testing machine. Determine the
cross-sectional area of the member. Take the width of the beam as thrice the thickness.
Also find the normal and shear stresses along a plane inclined at 30° (Figure 2.11). The
allowable stress for the material is 294 MPa.
sn
tn h
F = 10000 N 30° F = 10000 N
b = 3h
Figure 2.11
Given data:
Force F = 10000 N. b = 3h (rectangular cross section). Allowable stress = 294 MPa.
Inclination f = 30∞.
30 Design of Machine Elements
Solution:
F
Axial stress, s x =
A
10 ¥ 1000 10 ¥ 1000
294 MPa = =
b¥h 3h ¥ h
Solving we get, h = 3.367 mm take h = 3.5 and b = 3 ¥ h = 3 ¥ 3.5 = 11.5 mm
Actual stress induced in beam of cross section 3.5 ¥ 11.5 is
F 10 ¥ 1000 10 ¥ 1000
Actual axial stress, s x = = = = 272.1 MPa
A b¥h 3 ¥ 3.52
The normal stress acting on a plane inclined at 30°
s n = s x cos 2f = 272.1 ¥ cos 2 30 = 204.08 MPa
The shear stress acting on a plane inclined at 30°
sx 204.08
tn = sin 2f = ¥ sin ( 2 ¥ 30 ) = 88.369 MPa
2 2
sx tn sx x sx ¥ pn sin f
f
sy ¥ mp
sy mp cos f f
n
sy sy mp sin f
Figure 2.12
Let the block be of unit depth, then considering the equilibrium of forces on the
triangular portion mnp
Resolving the forces perpendicular to mn,
(
s n ¥ mn ¥ 1 = (s x ¥ pn ¥ 1) ¥ cos f + s y ¥ mp ¥ 1 ¥ sin f )
Ê pn ˆ Ê mp ˆ
s n = Ás x ¥ ¥ 1˜ ¥ cos f + Á s y ¥ ¥ 1˜ ¥ sin f
Ë mn ¯ Ë mn ¯
32 Design of Machine Elements
Figure 2.13
f is the angle between the horizontal and s n .
Let the block be of unit depth, then considering the equilibrium of forces on the
triangular portion mnp,
Resolving the normal to mn
( ) (
s n ¥ mn ¥ 1 = t xy ¥ pn ¥ 1 ¥ sin f + t xy ¥ mp ¥ 1 ¥ cos f )
Ê pn ˆ Ê mp ˆ
s n = Á t xy ¥ ¥ 1˜ ¥ sin f + Á t xy ¥ ¥ 1˜ ¥ cos f
Ë mn ¯ Ë mn ¯
s n = t xy cos f sin f + t xy sin f cos f
s n = t xy sin 2f
( ) (
t n = - t xy ¥ cos f ¥ 1 ¥ cos f + t xy ¥ sin f ¥ 1 ¥ sin f )
t n = -t xy ¥ cos 2 f + t xy ¥ sin 2 f = -t xy cos 2 f - sin 2 f( )
t n = -t xy cos 2f
State of Stresses 33
s1 - s 2
Maximum shear stress , t max = = t xy
2
f f
sx ¥ pn txy ¥ mp
txy ¥ pn
sy ¥ mp
sy mp sinf txy ¥ pn sin f
Figure 2.15
State of Stresses 35
sn =
(
sx + sy
+
) (
sx - sy )
cos 2f + t xy sin 2f
2 2
= Ì
(
ds n d ÏÔ s x + s y
+
) (
sx - sy
cos 2f
)+ t sin 2f
¸
Ô
˝=0
xy
df df Ô 2 2 Ô˛
Ó
Here, s x , s y and t xy are constants, therefore,
ÔÏ Ê sx - sy ˆ ¸Ô
Ì(0 ) + Á ˜ ¥ (- sin 2f ) ¥ 2 + t xy (cos 2f ) ¥ 2 ˝ = 0
ÔÓ Ë 2 ¯ Ô˛
Dividing throughout by − 2 we get,
Ê sy - sx ˆ
ÁË ¥ (sin 2f ) - t xy (cos 2f ) = 0
2 ˜¯
Rewritten as
Ê sy - sx ˆ
-Á ¥ (sin 2f ) + t xy (cos 2f ) = 0 (a)
Ë 2 ˜¯
1 Ê 2t xy ˆ
f p 1, p 2 = tan -1 Á ˜
2 Ë sx - sy ¯
f p 2 = f p1 + 90∞
That is, maximum and minimum principal planes are orthogonal, or mutually
perpendicular to each other.
State of Stresses 37
tn = -
(s x -sy ) sin 2f + t cos 2f
xy
2
To get the orientation of maximum and minimum shear stresses, differentiate Equation
(b) with respect to f and equate it to zero.
dt n d ÏÔ s x - s y
= Ì -
(
sin 2f + t
)
cos 2f
¸
Ô
˝=0
xy
df df Ô 2 Ô˛
Ó
-
(s x -sy ) (cos 2f ) ¥ 2 + t (- sin 2f ) ¥ 2
xy
2
This gives,
( )
- s x - s y (cos 2f ) = 2t xy (sin 2f ) (e)
sin 2f
=-
(
sx - sy )
cos 2f 2t xy
Ê sx - sy ˆ Ê sx - sy ˆ
tan 2f = - Á ˜ =Á ˜ (f ) Eq. 1.8f , DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2t xy ¯ Ë -2t xy ¯
1 Ê sx - sy ˆ
fs1, s 2 = - tan -1 Á ˜ (g)
2 Ë 2t xy ¯
fs 2 = fs1 + 90∞
We can also use Eq. 1.8f , DDHB, p. 5 to determine the maximum shear stress.
s 1 - s 2 20 - 0
Maximum shear stress, t max = = = 10 MPa
2 2
2
Ê sx - sy ˆ 2 Ê 20 - 0 ˆ
2
t
max = ± ÁË + t = ± ÁË ˜ + 0 = ±10 MPa
2 ˜¯
xy
2 ¯
Problem 2.5. A tension member is formed by connecting with glue, two wooden
scantlings, each 50 mm ¥ 100 mm at their ends, which are cut at an angle of 60° as
shown in Figure. 2.19. The member is subjected to a pull F. Calculate the safe value of
F, if the permissible normal and shear stresses in the glue used are 3 N/mm2 and 2N/
mm2 respectively.
2
Given data: s n = 3 N/ mm 2, t = 2 N/ mm , sn
f
F F
Solution: tn
60°
(a) Normal stress
Figure 2.19
f = 30∞ (angle with the vertical )
2
Area, A = 50 ¥ 100 = 5000 mm
F
s x = Normal stress =
A
Ê sx + sy ˆ Ê sx - sy ˆ
sn = Á + cos 2f + t xy sin 2f Eq. 1.8a , DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Ê s + 0ˆ Ê s x - 0ˆ
sn = Á x + cos 2f + 0 ¥ sin 2f
Ë 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Ês ˆ Ês ˆ F F F F
s n = Á x ˜ + Á x ˜ cos 2f = + cos (60 ) = + cos (60 ) £ 3
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ 2A 2A 2 ¥ 5000 2 ¥ 5000
Solving we get F £ 20000 N
Take F = 20000 N.
42 Design of Machine Elements
0-0
tn = - sin 2f + t xy cos 2f = +t xy cos 2f
2
s 2 = -t xy = - 50 MPa (compressive )
The values of the angle f where either a maximum or minimum normal stress
occurs
2t xy 2 ¥ 50
tan2f = = =•
sx - sy 0-0
The values of the angle fs where either a maximum or minimum normal stress
occurs
sx - sy 0-0
tan 2fs = - =- = 0 , tan 2fs = 0 or fs = 0∞ or fs = 90∞
2t xy 2 ¥ ( 50 )
tangential, resultant stress and its obliquity on a plane making an angle of 30° with
vertical as shown in Figure 2.25. Also find the maximum shear stress.
sy
sn
sn
10.893°
sx tn sx
30°
f 458.26 MPa
tn
sy
Figure 2.25
Solution:
(a) Normal stress
Let us write the generalised biaxial state of stress equation
Ê sx + sy ˆ Ê sx - sy ˆ
sn = Á + cos 2f + t xy sin 2f Eq. 1.8a , DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Here, s x and s y are present and t xy = 0
500 + 300 ( 500 - 300 ) cos 60
sn = + + 0 = 450 N/mm 2 = 450 MPa
2 2
(b) Shear stress
Ê sx - sy ˆ
t = -Á sin 2f + t xy cos 2f Eq. 1.8 b, DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2 ˜¯
tn
tanf =
sn
Ê 86.6025 ˆ
f = tan -1 Á = 10.893o
Ë 450 ˜¯
The angle made by the resultant and the normal stress on an oblique plane is
10.893°
46 Design of Machine Elements
Ê sx - sy ˆ Ê 500 - 300 ˆ
t max = - Á ˜ = -Á ˜¯ = -100 MPa
Ë 2 ¯ Ë 2
Ê sx + sy ˆ Ê sx - sy ˆ
sn = Á + cos 2f + t xy sin 2f Eq. 1.8a , DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Ê sx - sy ˆ
t = -Á sin 2f + t xy cos 2f Eq. 1.8 b, DDHB, p. 5
Ë 2 ˜¯
Ê 200 - ( -100 ) ˆ N
tn = -Á
Ë ˜¯ sin 60 + 0 = - 129.9 = - 129.9 MPa
2 mm 2
State of Stresses 51
Problem 2.13. For the stress element shown in Figure 2.29, find the principal stresses
and their directions. (VTU June/July 2014)
sy = 120 MPa
txy = 80 MPa
sn
txy = 80 MPa
f
tn
sx = 180 MPa sx = 180 MPa
txy = 80 MPa
Figure 2.29
Given data:
s x = 180 MPa , s y = 120 MPa , t xy = 80 MPa
Solution:
Principal stress
Maximum principal stress
2
sx + sy Ê sx - sy ˆ
s1 = + Á
2 ˜¯
2
+ t xy (Eq.. 1.8c, DDHB, p. 5)
2 Ë
2
180 + 120 Ê 180 - 120 ˆ 2
s 1 = + Á
Ë ˜¯ + 80 = 150 + 900 + 6400 = 150 + 85.44 = 235.44 MPa
2 2
The values of the angle f where either a maximum or minimum normal stress
occurs can be found as follows:
2t xy
tan2f =
sx - sy
(Eq. 1.8e, DDHB, p. 5)
54 Design of Machine Elements
2
Ê 30 + 20 ˆ
t max = Á + 152 = ± 29.155 MPa
Ë 2 ˜¯
Ê s - s2 ˆ
or t max = Á 1
Ë 2 ¯
˜ (Eq. 1.8f , DDHB, p. 5)
Ê 34.1547 - (-24.155) ˆ
t max = Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ = ± 29.155 MPa
The values of the angle fs where either a maximum or minimum normal stress
occurs can be found as follows:
sx - sy
tan 2fs = -
2t xy
(Eq. 1.8g , DDHB, p. 5)
30 - ( -20 ) 50
tan 2fs = - =-
2 (15) 30
2fs = -59.03∞
or fs1 = - 29.518∞ and fs 2 = -29.518 ∞ + 90∞ = 60.481∞
Also
fs1 = f p1 + 45 = 15.481∞ + 45∞ = 60.481∞ and fs 2 = 15.481∞ + 135∞ = 150.482∞
Ès x t xy t xz ˘
Í ˙
s ij = state of stress at a point = Ít yx sy t yz ˙
Í ˙
ÍÎt zx t zy s z ˙˚
State of Stresses 55
In a triaxial state of stress, there are six faces on which normal and shear forces act and
there will be three principal stresses and three principal planes. The principal stresses
are obtained by solving the cubic equation.
s 3 - I1 s 2 - I 2 s + I 3 = 0
where
I1 = s x + s y + s z
2 2 2
I 2 = s x s y + s y s z + s x s z - t 12 - t 23 - t 31
Ès x t xy t xz ˘
Í ˙
I 3 = det Ít yx sy t yz ˙ = det ÈÎs ij ˘˚
Ít
Î zx t zy s z ˙˚
Problem 2.15. Find the principal stress for the following state of stress condition that
exists in an element.
Ï80 20 0 ¸
Ô Ô
s ij = Ì20 0 20 ˝ MPa
Ô 0 20 -40 Ô
Ó ˛
Solution:
State of stress is given. We can determine principal stresses. The three invariants are
I1 = s x + s y + s z = 80 + 0 - 40 = 40 MPa
2
I 2 = s x s y + s y s z + s x s z - t 12 2
- t 23 2
- t 31 = 80 ¥ 0 + 0 ¥ -40 + (-40 ¥ 80 ) - 20 2 - 0 2 - 20 2
= -4000 MPa 2
80 20 0
I 3 = det 20 0 20 = -16000 MPa 3
0 20 -40
80 MPa
60 MPa
sn
f
120 MPa tn 120 MPa
60 MPa
80 MPa
Figure 2.38