Chapter CONCEPT OF STRESS

2.1 Normal Stress

2 2.2 Shearing Stress
2.3 Bearing Stress in Connections
2.4 Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety
2.5 Stress Under General Loading
2.6 Maximum Stresses

2.1 Normal Stress

Distributed forces within a load-carrying member can be represented by a statically
equivalent system consisting of a force and a moment vector acting at any arbitrary point
(usually the centroid) of a section. Relating stresses to external forces and moments is a
two step process as shown in Figure 2.1.

Normal Stress is the intensity of internal distributed force that is normal to the surface of
an imaginary cut surface. The normal stress acting in the direction of the axis of a slender
member (rods, cables, bars, columns, etc.) is called the axial stress. Generally, In the
consideration of materials view, stress is a variable that can be used as a measure of
strength of a structural member.
Consider a prismatic bar shown in
Figure 2.2, the intensity of
internal distributed forces on an
imaginary cut surface of a body is
called the stress on a surface. The
axial forces produce a uniform
stretching of the bar, it is called
the bar is in tension. Plane aa is a
cross section that is perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis, and A is
cross section area.
Assumptions:
• The material of the bar is homogeneous (uniform density) and isotropic (same
directional properties)
• The bar is prismatic (uniform cross section), with no stress raisers such as holes,

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 notches, or threads, etc.
• The bar should have no residual stresses
and should not be subjected to temperature
changes
• The axial force P acts through the centroid
of the cross section (centric loading, to
avoid buckling
• The section (where stress is computed) is remote from a loaded end (Saint –
Venant´s principle)
The intensity of the force (force per unit area) is called stress, assuming that the stress has
uniform distribution, then
F P
 = lim  ave = .......... .......... .....( 1 )
A→0 A A
The normal stress at a particular point may not be equal to the average stress but the
resultant of the stress distribution must satisfy:
P =  ave A =  dF =  dA.......... .( 2 )
A

When the bar is stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is compressed,
the stress are compressive stress. Sign convention of the normal stress is: tensile stress as
positive and compressive stress as negative.
Stress Units:
𝑁
SI unit: (Pa, Pascal), N⁄mm2 (MPa), 1 MPa = 106 Pa, 1 GPa = 109 Pa
𝑚2
𝐼𝑏
USCS unit: (psi) , kips⁄in2 (ksi), 1 ksi = 103 psi
𝑖𝑛2

1 psi = 6 , 895 Pa & 1ksi = 6.895 MPa

Example 2.1
Given: a stepped bar fixed at end D and loading as
shown in Figure 2.3. If 𝑃 20 𝑘𝑁, 𝑑𝐴𝐵 =
25 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑𝐵𝐶 = 30 𝑚𝑚, , 𝑑𝐶𝐷 = 35 𝑚𝑚.
Find:
1. Internal forces in each segment?
2. The largest stress in the bar?

SOLUTIONS:

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 Example 2.2
Given: A solid circular post ABC (see figure) supports a load 𝑃1 = 2500 𝑙𝑏 acting at the top.
A second load P2 is uniformly distributed around the shelf at B. The diameters of the upper and
lower parts of the post are 𝑑𝐴𝐵 = 1.25 𝑖𝑛 and 𝑑𝐵𝐶 = 2.25 𝑖𝑛., respectively.
Find:
a) The normal stress in the upper part of the post?
b) If it is desired that the lower part of the post have the same compressive stress as the upper
part, what should be the magnitude of the load P?
SOLUTION:

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 Example 2.3
Given: Two solid cylindrical rods (1) and (2) are joined together at flange B and loaded, as shown
in Fig. 1.3. The diameter of rod (1) is d1 = 24 mm and the diameter of rod (2) is d2 = 42 mm.
Find: Using the method of section, determine the normal stresses in rods (1) and (2)?
Assumptions: The two rods are welded together B. the weight of the bar is
neglected.
SOLUTION:

2.2 Shear Stress ():

Shear stress: The intensity of internal distributed force that is
parallel to the surface of an imaginary cut surface is called the
shear stress. There are three kinds of shearing stresses:
• Direct shear (mostly due to normal loads) – discussed in this
chapter
• Torsional shear (mostly due to torsional loads) – discussed
later.
• Shear stress or flexural shear (due to transverse loads) –
discussed later.

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The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is defined as the shear of the section and is equal
to the load P.
P F
 = = .......... ......( 3 ) in the case of single shear
ave A A
P F
 = = .......... ....( 4 ) in the case of double shear
ave A 2A
P F
 ave = = .......... ......( 5 ) in the case of nth bolts
A nA

Example 2.4:
Given: For the connection shown in Fig. P1.19, if the diameter of each bolt is
7/8 in, and the load is P is 45 kips.
Find:
1. Determine the average shear stress in the bolts?
2. The tensile stress in the plate (2x0.2 in2) at a section passes through three
bolts?
Assumptions: the weight of the bolted joint can be neglected.
SOLUTIONS:

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 2.3 Bearing Stress(b):
• Bearing stress: The compressive normal stress that is
produced when one surface presses against other is called
the bearing stress. In other words, bearing stress is a
compressive stress that occurs as a result of contact (point
or surface) between two loaded members.
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of the members they connect.
• The resultant of the force distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force exerted on the pin.
Corresponding average force intensity is called the bearing
stress,
 bearing = Axial load,P / Projected area, AP ,
P P
b = = .......... .....( 6 )
Ap td

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 Example 2.5(P2.18):
Given: Two plates are joined by four rivets of 20-mm diameter, as shown in Figure P2.18. If the shearing,
tensile, and bearing stresses are limited to 80, 100, and 140 MPa respectively.
Find: The maximum load P.

2.4 Allowable Stress & Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less
than the ultimate strength of the material. The factor of safety, ns, is the ratio of
maximum load that produces failure of the member to the load allowed under service
conditions:
𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒏𝒔 = … … … … . . (𝟕)
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
The allowable load is also called the service load or working load. This ratio, must
always greater than unity, ns >1. The factor of safety may also be defined by:
𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝒏𝒔 = … … … . . (𝟖)
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

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 The allowable stress is also known as the applied stress, working stress, or design stress,
and it represent the required strength.
Factor of safety considerations:
• uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
• types of failure
• maintenance requirements and deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

Selection of a factor of safety:

1. 1.25 to 2 for known materials used under controllable conditions and subjected to
loads and stresses that can be readily determined with certainty. It is used where
low weight is a particularly important consideration.
2. 2 to 3 for average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected to
loads and stresses that can be determined.
3. 3 to 4 for average materials used in uncertain environments or subjected to
uncertain stresses.

2.5 Stress Under General Loading

• A member subjected to a general combination of loads is cut into two segments by a plane
passing through Q.

• ∆𝐴𝑖 , will be considered positive if the outward normal to the surface is in the positive i
direction.
• Stress component is positive if numerator and denominator have the same sign. Thus σij is
positive if: (1) ∆𝐴𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐹𝑗 are both positive. (2) ∆𝐴𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐹𝑗 , are both negative.

• The distribution of internal stress components may be defined as,

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  F x dFx
x = lim =
A→0 A dA
………….(9)
Fy dFy Fz dFz
 xy = lim = &  xz = lim =
A→0 A dA A→0 A dA
• The double subscript notation is interpreted as follows: The first subscript indicates the
direction of a normal to the plane or face on which the stress component acts; the second
subscript relates to the direction of the stress itself.
• Symmetric Shear Stresses: Represented by a pair of symmetric shear stress points towards
the corner or away from the corner. Thus, we now examine properties of shearing stress by
studying the equilibrium of forces. For equilibrium in 2-D as shown in the Figure 2. , an equal
and opposite internal force and stress distribution must be exerted on the other segment of the
member.
• Stress components are defined for the planes cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy the
 Fx =  Fy =  Fz = 0
conditions for equilibrium:
Mx = My = Mz =0

…………….(10)
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
M z = 0 = ( xy A).dx − ( yx A).dy
………(11)
 xy =  yx

• similarly, yz =  zy and  xz =  zx

• Stress cube showing all positive stress components. It follows

that only 6 components of stress are required to define the
complete state of stress, written as:

𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜏
𝜎𝑖𝑗 [ 𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ] , 𝑖, 𝑗 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜎𝑧
• Sign Convention: See section 1.6. It can be summarize as:
i. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a positive
direction relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
ii. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a negative
direction relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
iii. When the normal points in a positive direction while the stress points in a

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 negative direction (or vice versa), the stress is negative.
iv. In accordance with this sign convention, tensile stresses are always positive
and compressive stresses always negative. Figure 1.2 depicts a system of
positive normal and shear stresses.
• Typical Cases of Stress:
1. Triaxial Stress: when the element is subjected only to stresses
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑧 ( 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0), acting in mutually perpendicular
directions is said to be in a state of triaxial stress. Such a state of stress can be
written as,
𝜎𝑥 0 0
𝜎 =[0 𝜎𝑦 0]
0 0 𝜎𝑧
An example of equal triaxial compression is found in a small element of liquid
under static pressure.
2. 2-D or Plane stress: in this case only the x, and y faces
are subjected to stresses𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 =
𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0. The plane stress matrix is written as,
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎 = [𝜏 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝑥𝑦

3. Pure Shear: In this case, the element is subjected to

plane shearing stresses only Fig. Typical pure shear
occurs over the cross sections and on longitudinal planes
of a circular shaft subjected to torsion.
4. Uniaxial Stress: When normal stresses act along one direction only, the one
dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial tension or compression.

2.6 Design of Bars For Axial Loading:

1. Evaluate the mode of possible failure.
2. Determine the relationship between load and stress.
3. Determine the material strength.
𝜎
4. Select the factor of safety, 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄𝑛𝑠 , and the cross sectional dimensions are
obtained as,
𝑃
𝐴=
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙

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 Example 2.6:
What is the maximum possible value of the clamping force C
in the jaws of the pliers shown in the figure, if 𝑎 =
3.75 𝑖𝑛, & 𝑏 = 1.60 𝑖𝑛, and the ultimate shear stress in the
0.20-in. diameter pin is 50 ksi? What is the maximum
permissible value of the applied load P if a factor of safety of
3.0 with respect to failure of the pin is to be maintained?

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 Example 2.7:

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