Chapter STRAIN AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES

3.1 Deformation
3 3.2 Normal Strain
3.3 Shear Strain
3.4 Thermal Stress
3.5 Components of Strain
3.6 Stress–Strain Diagrams
3.7 Hooke’s Law
3.8 Poisson’s Ratio
3.9 Generalized Hooke’s Law
3.10 Strain Energy
3.1 Deformation:
Consider a body subjected to external forces
that cause it to take up the positions shown by
dashed lines in Figure 3.1.Observed that, the
deformation (straining) can be described by
the following two types:
1. Rigid body displacement
• Translation
• Rotation
• Combination of these
2. Elastic deformation
• Occurs due to a change in shape when acted up on by a load (strain) in the axial, bending or
torsion (angle of twist) directions.
Deformation versus strain (ε or γ):
– Change in the relative position of two points within a body
• Axial strain, ε (elongation (+) or contraction (-))
• Bending strain, ε (can be zero, positive or negative)
• Torsional strain, γ (can be positive or negative)
• Combination of the above
Principle of superposition: is the small displacement assumption and linear behaviour of
materials, which is valid whenevere the following conditions are satisfied:
– The quantity (displacement or stress) to be determined is directly proportional to the loads that
produce it (linear elasticity; be in the linear elastic range (Hooke‘s law) of the stress strain
diagram).
– The loading does not significantly change the size and shape of the member.

3.2 Normal Strain:

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 The concept of normal strain is illustrated by considering the
deformation of a prismatic bar as shown in Figure 3.2: (a) original bar;
with original length, L. (b) loaded bar, the length increases an amount δ.
Defining the normal strain ε, as the unit change in length. Strain in the
axial direction is called normal strain; and is calculated as:
c h ange ∈lengt h , δ δ
ε= , ε = … … … … … … … .(3.1)
original lengt h , L L
Normal strain is positive(+) when there is elongation, otherwise
(contraction) negative (-).

Example 3.1:
Given: A stepped round bar as shown is subjected to a load P that
0. produces axial deformation in each portion of the bar as shown in

45 1. Figure 3.3.
A B 3 C P Find: the strain in portions AB and BC and the total strain in the
c
m1. c bar.

0. m
Assumptions: the bar weight is neglected.
SOLUTION:
5 5 ε AB=
0.0045 m
=0 . 009
m m 0 .5 m
0.0135 m
ε BC = =0 .0087
1 .5 m

Using the superposition principle: total Strain,

ε total=ε A B + ε BC =0 . 009+0 . 0087=0.0177
On the otherhand, if we use the definition of strain (change in
length / original length) as applied to the entire bar,
(0.0045 m+0.013 m)
ε AC = =0.00875
(1.5 m+ 0.5 m)
Why is this result different than the previous one? Which is
correct? How do we explain this?
Comments:

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 Example 3.2:

Given: The ends of bar shown in Figure 3.4,

are subjected to an axial load P. The total
eleongation of the bar betoween joints A and
C is 0.15 in. in segment (2), the normal strain
is measured as 1,300 µin/in.
Find:
1. The elongation of segment (2).
2. The normal strain in segment (1).
Assumptions: The bar weight is neglected.
SOLUTION:

3.3 Shear Strain:

The shearing or shear strain (γ) is the tangent of the total change in
angle occuring between two originally perpendicular lines(n and t) in a
body during deformation as shown in Figure 3.5.
Shearing strain is positive (+) if the right angle between the reference
lines decrease, otherwise, the shearing strain is negative(-).
π '
γ nt = – θ … … … … ..(3.2)
2
 Both normal and shear strains are indicated as dimensionless

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quantities.
Example 3.3:
Given: A thin, triangular plate ABC is uniformly deformed into a
shape ABC′, as shown by the dashed lines. (Figure 3.6)
Find:
(a)The normal strain along the centerline OC.
(b)The normal strain along the edge AC.
(c)The shear strain between the edges AC and BC.
Assumptions: the edge AB is rigidly attached to the frame. The
´ Ć are straight lines.
deformed edges A Ć=B
SOLUTION:

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3.4 Components of Strains:
 For one-dimensional strain, the concidering deformation of a bar
under axial loading as shown in Figure 3.2, is represented by the
end points of the lines which experience displacement u and u+
Δu. Thus the normal strain at a point is:
∆u ∂u
ε x = lim = … … … … .(3.3)
∆ x →0 ∆x ∂x
 In the case of two-dimentional strain as shown in Figure 3.7, the
normal and shear strains at a point are:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂ v
ε x= , ε y= , γ xy = + … …(3.4 )
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ y
 Average Strains: the values of normal and shear strains are the same as
the strain at a point. The average stains are,
∆u ∆v ∆u ∆v
ε x= , ε y= , γ xy = + … … (3.5), and u and v resprctively, are
∆x ∆y ∆x ∆ y
the x- and y-directed displasmens of a point.
Example 3.4:
Given: A 0.4-m by 0.4-m square ABCD is drawn on a thin panel or
flat plate of an aircraft prior to loading. Subsequent to loading, the
square has the dimentions shown by dashed lines in Figure 3.9.
Find: The average values of strain components at A?
Assumption: Deformation of the panel is uniform.
SOLUTION:

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3.5 Thermal Stress:
Most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. The strain due to a
temperature change of ΔT is called thermal strain and is obtained by:
ε T =α ∆ T ,∧δ T =α ∆ TL … … … … . ( 3.6 )
Where ε T :Thermal strain , α :coefficient of thermal expantion ,
L :original length ,∧δ T :thermal elongation .
Total Strains: strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads are
essentially independent.the total normal strain in a body acted on both temperature changes and
applied load is given by :
ε total=ε σ +ε T … … … … …(3.7)

Example 3.5:

Given: At a temperature of 40°F, a 0.08-in. gap exists

between the ends of the two bars shown in Fig. P2.18.

−6
Bar (1) is an aluminum alloy [α= 12.5 × 10 /°F] and bar

−6
( 2) i s s t a i n l e s s s t e e l [ α = 9 . 6 × 10 /°F]. The
supports at A and C are rigid.

Find: The lowest temperature at which the two bars

contact each other?

SOLUTION:

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 3.6 Mechanical Properties of Materials:
Mechanical properties of engineering materials loaded in tension and
compression are determined as per:
1.ASTM : American Society for Testing of Materials
2.JIS : Japanese Industrial Standards
3.CNS : Chinese National Standards,..... etc.
 Ductile materials can undergo large inelastic strains prior to fracture. For example, structural steel and
many alloys of other metals, and nylon, are characterized by their
ability to yield at normal temperatures. Percentage elongation is 5 or
more.
 Brittle materials (for example, cast iron or concrete) exhibits little
deformation before rupture and, as a result, fails suddenly without
visible warning. Percentage elongation is less than around 5.
 A homogeneous solid displays identical properties throughout. For
example, if a bar made of the same material is divided in to several small
pieces (of any shape and size) and the density (weight or mass / volume)
of each piece is determined to be same then the material is
homegeneous.Exceptions?
 If the properties of a material are identical in all directions at a point,
the material is said to be isotropic (Ex. mild steel).
 A nonisotropic, or anisotropic, material displays direction-dependent properties (Ex. Composite
materials).
 An orthotropic material is a special case of anisotropic
material in which the material properties differ in two
mutually perpendicular directions (Ex. graphite, wood).
 By definition, an orthotropic material has at least 2
orthogonal planes of symmetry, where material properties
are independent of direction within each plane.
 In contrast, a material without any planes of symmetry
is fully anisotropic.
 A material with an infinite number of symmetry planes

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(i.e. every plane is a plane of symmetry) is isotropic.

Conventional stress strain diagram:

 The tensile test: The most common test is tension test for metals, to
obtain the stress-strain diagram of materials.
 Yield strength
 Offset Yield strength (Proof strength): is the stress determined by
the intrsection of the line (drawn through a strain of 0.002 or 0.2%,
parallel to the initial slope of the curve) -ε curve (point B- Figure
3.16).
 Ultimate and fracture stresses
 Geometry change of specimen: The ductility of material in tension
can be characterized by its:
Lf −¿ L
i. Percent elongation= o
×100 ¿
Lo
A o−¿ A
ii. Percent reduction∈area= f
×100 ¿
Ao
 Offset yield strength
 True stress and true strain:
Engineering strain (ε) and True strain (ε t ¿:
Engineering strain
L f −¿ L
ε= o
… … .. ( 3.12 ) ¿
Lo
where Lf: final length, and Lo: original length.
True strain (ε t ¿: the increment of this strain is defined as,
dL
dε t = … … … … .(3.13)
L
and from equation (3.13) we get,
L
=1+ ε … … … … .. ( 3.14 )
Lo
By integration of equation (3.13) and using equation (3.14), the true
strain is:

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 L
dL L
ε t=∫ =ln =ln ( 1+ε ) … … … (3.15)
Lo Lo Lo
Where Lo : original length, L: instantaneous length, ε: is the engineering strain.

Engineering stress()and True stress(t):

Engineering stress ,
P
σ= … … .. ( 3.16 ) .
Ao
Assumed material is incompressible and the volume constan.
As a result,
A o . Lo= AL … … … … ..(3.17) ,
where the left and right sides of this equations represent the
original and the instantaeous volume, respectively. If P is the
current load, then,
P PL L
σ t= = =σ =σ ( ε +1 ) … … ..(3.18)
A A o Lo Lo
Where Ao : original area, A: instantaneous area, and : is the engineering stress.
Figure 3.21 illustrated the the stress-strain diagrams for a
mild steel:
 The curve, OABCF, represent the true stress-true
strain relationship.
 The curve, OABCDF, represent the engineering
stress-engineering strain relationship.
 The differences between the curves are magnified
in the strain hardening rate. In particular, there is a
large divergence within the necking region. Why?
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior:
• If the strain disappears when the stress is removed, the material is said to behave elastically.
• The largest stress for which this occurs is called the elastic limit.
When the strain does not return to zero after the stress is removed, the material is said to behave plastically.

3.7 Hooke’s Law:

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 Is the linear relationship between stress and strain for linear elastic
homogeneous and isotropic materials
 For Below the yield stress:
σ =Eε , E=Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
 The slope of -ε diagram beyond the yield stress is called tangent modulus, Et
dσ
: Et = . Wherease, the ratio of stress to strain at any point on the curve
dε
σ
above the yield stress is called secant modulus, Es: E s= , as shown in Figure 3.24.
ε

• For the shear stress-strain diagrams,τ =Gγ ,G=shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity .
• Strength is affected by alloying, heat treating, and manufacturing process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.
3.8 POISSON’S RATIO:

• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

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 σx
ε x= ,& σ y=σ z =0
• E
•The elongation in the x-direction is accompanied by a contraction in the other directions. Assuming that the
ε y =ε z ¿ 0
material is isotropic (no directional dependence),

lateral strain εy εz
ν=| |=− =−
•Poisson’s ratio is defined as, axial strain εx εx

•Typical values of  for steel ranges from about 0.25 to 0.3, while for aluminum materials it is of the order of
0.33. Maximum value of  for linear elastic materials is 0.5.
VOLUME CHANGE – dilatation: for the axial loading condition represented in Figure 3.27, we have
σ y =σ z=0 , and σ x is the axial stress. The transverse strains are releated to the axial strain as,
σ
x
ε y =ε z =−νε x =−¿ ν ... ...... ....(a) ¿
E .
The initial volume of the element, V o =dxdydz
The final volume, V f =( 1+ ε x ) dx . ( 1+ ε y ) dy . ( 1+ ε z ) dz
Introducing eq.(a), we have:
V f =[ 1+ ( ε x + ε y +ε z ) ] dxdydz

¿ V o ( 1+ε x −2 ν ε x )
∴ ΔV =V f −V o=V o ε x ( 1−2 ν ) … … … ..(b)
The unit volume change, or dilatation is defined as,
∆V
e= … … … … … … ..(3.19)
Vo
Substitution of eqs. (b) and (a) into (3.19) yields
1−2 ν
e=( 1−2 ν ) ε x = σ x … … … … .(3.20)
E
• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
3 ( 1−2 ν ) p
e=− p =−
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus
3 ( 1−2 ν )
1
• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be negative, therefore 0< ν < 2
3.9 Generalized Hooke’s law:

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For an element subjected to multi-axial loading, the normal strain
components resulting from the stress components may be determined from
the principle of superposition. This requires:
1)strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
• With these restrictions:

σ x νσ y E
2 ( x
ε x= − , σ x= ε + νε y )
E E 1−ν
σ νσ E
ε y= y − x , σ y= 2 ( y
ε + νε x )
E E 1−ν
τ xy =Gγ xy . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .( 3 .22 )
 Relation Among E, , and G:

E
=G. . .. .. .. . .. .(3 .23 )
2 ( 1+ν )

3.10 Strain energy:

Uniaxial Stress:
2
σx
Strain energy , U =∫ dv
2E
2 2
dU σ Eε
Strain energy density , U o , , is : U = x = x
dV 2E 2

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:Strain energy (shear stress)
2
τ xy
Strain energy , U =∫ dv
2G
2
dU τ xy 1
Strain energy density , U o , , is : U= = τ γ
dV 2 G 2 xy xy

Example 3.10

PROBLEM (3.31): Given: Figure P3.31 shows a steel block subjected to an axial compression load of
400 kN. After loading, if dimensions b and L are changed to 40.02 and 199.7 mm, respectively, and a = 60
mm, b = 40 mm, L = 200 mm. y

Find:
b=40 mm
400 kN x
(a) Poisson's ratio.
a=60 mm
(b) The modulus of elasticity. L=200 mm
z
(c) The final value of the dimension a.
(d) The shear modulus of elasticity.
SLUTION:

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Example 3.11
PROBLEM (3.33) The following data are obtained from a tensile test of a 12.7-mm-diameter
aluminum specimen having a gage length of 50 mm. After the specimen ruptures, the minimum
(neck) diameter is found to be 8.8 mm.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stress, MPa Strain Stress, MPa Strain
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

35 0.0005 284 0.0062

70 0.0010 305 0.02
104 0.0014 319 0.05
139 0.0017 326 0.08
172 0.0024 312 0.12
207 0.0030 291 0.15
242 0.0035 256 0.20
259 0.0039 (Fracture)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plot the engineering stress-strain diagram and determine:
(a) The modulus of elasticity.
(b) The proportional limit.
(c) The yield strength at 0.2 %.
(d) The ultimate strength.
(e) The percent elongation in 50 mm.
(f) The percent reduction in area.
(g) The true ultimate stress.
(h) The tangent and secant modules at a stress level of 310 MPa.

SOLUTION:
σ (MPa ) Et
326
310
300
242 275
200
Es
10
0.002 0.00 0.006
Nε
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 M

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 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Example 3.12
PROBLEM (3.54) The aluminum rod, 50 mm in diameter and 1.2 m in length, of a hydraulic
ram is subjected to the maximum axial loads of ±200 kN. What are the largest diameter and the
0.05 m
largest volume of the rod during service?
200 kN
Given: E = 70 GPa, = 0.3. 1.2 m
SOLUTION:

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Also,

31