Chapter CONCEPT OF STRESS

2 2.1 Normal Stress

2.2 Shearing Stress
2.3 Bearing Stress in Connections
2.4 Allowable
Stress and
Factor of
Safety
2.5 Stress Under General Loading
2.6 Maximum Stresses

2.1 Normal Stress

Distributed forces within a load-carrying member can be represented by a statically
equivalent system consisting of a force and a moment vector acting at any arbitrary point
(usually the centroid) of a section.
Assumptions:
Consider a prismatic bar, the axial
forces produce a uniform stretching
of the bar, it is called the bar is in
tension. Plane a-a is a cross section
that is perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis, and A is cross
section area.
 The material of the bar is
homogeneous (uniform density) and Fig. 2.1:
Concept
isotropic (same directional
properties)
 The bar is prismatic (uniform cross section), with no stress raisers such as holes,
notches, or threads, etc.
 The bar should have no residual stresses and should not be subjected to
temperature changes
 The axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross section (centric loading, to
avoid buckling
 The section (where stress is computed) is remote from a loaded end (Saint –
Venant´s principle)
The intensity of the force (force per unit area) is called stress, assuming that the stress has
uniform distribution, then

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 ΔF P
σ = lim σ ave = . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. (1 )
ΔA →0
ΔA A
The normal stress at a particular point may not be
equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy:
P= σ ave A =∫ dF =∫ σ dA .. .. . .. .. . .( 2)
A

When the bar is stretched, the resulting stress are tensile stress, if the bar is compressed,
the stress are compressive stress. Sign convention of the normal stress is : tensile stress as
positive and compressive stress as negative.
Stress Units:
N 2 6 9
SI unit: 2 (Pa, Pascal), N /mm (MPa), 1 MPa=10 Pa , 1 GPa=10 Pa
m
Ib 2 3
USCS unit: 2 (psi) , kips /¿ (ksi), 1 ksi=10 psi
¿
1 psi=6 , 895 Pa∧1 ksi=6.895 MPa

Example 2.1
Given: a stepped bar fixed at end D and loading as
shown in Figure 2.3. If
P 20 kN , d AB=25 mm , d BC =30 mm , , dCD =35 mm.
Find:
1. Internal forces in each segment?
2. The largest stress in the bar?

SOLUTIONS:

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 Example 2.2
Given: A solid circular post ABC (see figure) supports a load P1=2500 lb acting at the top. A
second load P2 is uniformly distributed around the shelf at B. The diameters of the upper and lower
parts of the post are d AB=1.25 ∈¿ and d BC =2.25∈¿., respectively.
Find:
a) The normal stress in the upper part of the post?
b) If it is desired that the lower part of the post have the same compressive stress as the upper
part, what should be the magnitude of the load P?
SOLUTION:

Example 2.3
Given: Two solid cylindrical rods (1) and (2) are joined together at flange B and loaded, as shown
in Fig. 1.3. The diameter of rod (1) is d1 = 24 mm and the diameter of rod (2) is d2 = 42 mm.
Find: Using the method of section, determine the normal stresses in rods (1) and (2)?
Assumptions: The two rods are welded together B. the weight of the bar is
neglected.
SOLUTION:

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 2.2 Shear Stress
Three kinds of shearing stresses:
• Direct shear (mostly due to normal loads) – discussed in this chapter
• Torsional shear (mostly due to torsional loads) – discussed later.
• Shear stress or flexural shear (due to transverse loads) – discussed later.
The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is
defined as the shear of the section and is equal to the load
P.
P F
τ ave= = . . .. .. .. . .. .. . ..(3 )
A A in the case of single shear
P F
τ ave= = . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(4 )
A 2A in the case of double
shear
P F
τ ave= = . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ..(5 )
A nA in the case of nth bolts

Example 2.4:
Given: For the connection shown in Fig. P1.19, if the diameter of each bolt is
7/8 in, and the load is P is 45 kips.
Find:
1.Determine the average shear stress in the bolts?
2.The tensile stress in the plate (2x0.2 in2) at a section passes through three
bolts?

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Assumptions: the weight of the bolted joint can be neglected.
SOLUTIONS:

2.3 Bearing Stress

Bearing stress: is a compressive stress that occurs as a
result of contact (point or surface) between two loaded

Pin
is
members.
also
Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on in
the points of contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.
she
The resultant of the force distribution on ar

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 the surface is equal and opposite to the force exerted on the
pin. Corresponding average force intensity is called the
bearing stress,
σ bearing = Axial load, P / Projected area, AP ,
P P
σ b = = . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(6 )
A p td

Example 2.5(P2.18):
Given: Two plates are joined by four rivets of 20-mm diameter, as shown in Figure P2.18. If the shearing,
tensile, and bearing stresses are limited to 80, 100, and 140 MPa respectively.
Find: The maximum load P.

2.4 Allowable Stress & Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less
than the ultimate strength of the material. The factor of safety, ns, is the ratio of maximum
load that produces failure of the member to the load allowed under service conditions:
failure load
n s= … … … … ..(7)
allowable load

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The allowable load is also called the service load or working load. This ratio, must
always greater than unity, ns >1. The factor of safety may also be defined by:
material strength
n s= … … … ..(8)
allowable stress
The allowable stress is also known as the applied stress, working stress, or design stress,
and it represent the required strength.
Factor of safety considerations:
• uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
• types of failure
• maintenance requirements and deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures integrity
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

Selection of a factor of safety:

1. 1:25 to 2 for known materials used under controllable conditions and subjected to
loads and stresses that can be readily determined with certainty. It is used where
low weight is a particularly important consideration.
2. 2 to 3 for average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected to
loads and stresses that can be determined.
3. 3 to 4 for average materials used in uncertain environments or subjected to
uncertain stresses.

2.5 Stress Under General Loading

•A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into two
segments by a plane passing through Q.
•The distribution of internal stress
components may be defined as,

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 σ x= lim ΔΔAF =dF
dA
x x

ΔA → 0

= lim ∧τ = lim
ΔF dFy ΔF y z dF z
τ xy = xz =
ΔA
ΔA →0
dA ΔA ΔA →0
dA ………….(9)

The double subscript notation is interpreted as follows: The first subscript indicates the direction
of a normal to the plane or face on which the stress component acts; the second subscript relates to
the direction of the stress itself.
•Equality of Shearing Stresses: We now examine properties of shearing stress by studying the
equilibrium of forces. For equilibrium, an equal and opposite internal force and stress distribution
must be exerted on the other segment of the member.
•Stress components are defined for the planes cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For equilibrium,
equal and opposite stresses are exerted on the hidden planes.
•The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy the
∑ F x=∑ F y =∑ F z =0
conditions for equilibrium: ∑ x ∑ y ∑ z
M = M = M =0 …………….(10)

•Consider the moments about the z axis:

∑ M z =0=( τ xy ΔA ) . a−( τ yx ΔA ) . a
τ xy =τ yx ………(11)

similarly, τ xz=τ zx and τ yz=τ zy

It follows that only 6 components of stress are required to define
the complete state of stress, written as:

[ ]
σ x τ xy τ x z
σ ij τ xy σ y τ yz , i, j=x , y , z
τ xz τ yz σ z

 Sign Convention: See section 1.6. It can be summarize as:

i. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a positive direction
relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
ii. When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a negative direction
relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive.
iii. When the normal points in a positive direction while the stress points in a
negative direction (or vice versa), the stress is negative.
iv. In accordance with this sign convention, tensile stresses are always positive and
compressive stresses always negative. Figure 1.2 depicts a system of positive

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 normal and shear stresses.

 Typical Cases of Stress:

1. Triaxial Stress: when the element is subjected only to stresses
σ x , σ y ,∧σ z ( τ xy =τ xz =τ zy =0 ) , acting in mutually perpendicular directions is
said to be in a state of triaxial stress. Such a state of stress can be written as,

[ ]
σx 0 0
σ= 0 σy 0
0 0 σz

An example of equal triaxial compression is found in a small element of liquid

under static pressure.
2. 2-D or Plane stress: in this case only the x, and y faces are subjected to stresses
σ x , σ y ,∧τ xy but σ z =τ xz=τ zy =0 . The plane stress matrix is written as,

σ=
[ σ x τ xy
τ xy σ y ]
3. Pure Shear: In this case, the element is subjected to plane
shearing stresses only Fig. Typical pure shear occurs over the
cross sections and on longitudinal planes of a circular shaft
subjected to torsion.
4. Uniaxial Stress: When normal stresses act along one direction only, the one
dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial tension or compression.

2.6 Design of Bars For Axial Loading:

1. Evaluate the mode of possible failure.
2. Determine the relationship between load and stress.
3. Determine the material strength.
4. Select the factor of safety, σ alw . =σ max . /n s, and the cross sectional dimensions are obtained
as,
P
A=
σ all

Example 2.6:

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What is the maximum possible value of the clamping force C
in the jaws of the pliers shown in the figure, if
a=3.75∈,∧b=1.60∈¿ , and the ultimate shear stress in the
0.20-in. diameter pin is 50 ksi? What is the maximum
permissible value of the applied load P if a factor of safety of
3.0 with respect to failure of the pin is to be maintained?

Example 2.7:

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