paper: ho et al

Ultimate concrete strain and equivalent

rectangular stress block for design of
high-strength concrete beams

Synopsis can have substantially higher compressive strength than normal- J. C. M. Ho

High- and normal-strength concretes have different strength concrete, its Young’s modulus, tensile strength and shear
BEng, MPhil
stress–strain characteristics and therefore high-strength strength do not increase in direct proportion with the compressive
Research Student,
concrete beams should not be designed in the same way as strength. Moreover, high-strength concrete has different stress- Department of Civil
normal-strength concrete beams. In this study, the non-linear strain characteristics and is generally more brittle. Hence, struc- Engineering, The
flexural behaviour of high-strength concrete beams has been tures made of high-strength concrete should not be designed in the University of Hong
analysed and compared to that of normal-strength concrete same way as those made of normal-strength concrete. The exist- Kong, Hong Kong
beams. It was revealed that because of the gradual change in ing codes of practice need to be expanded or modified to cater for
stress–strain characteristics of the concrete, the ultimate the design of structures incorporating high-strength concrete. A. K. H. Kwan
concrete strain varies significantly with the concrete grade. High-strength concrete may be used in columns, beams and BSc (Eng), PhD,
Moreover, the tension reinforcement does not always yield at walls etc. As a higher compressive strength leads directly to an CEng, MICE, MHKIE
the point of peak moment and thus the maximum compressive increase in axial load capacity, high-strength concrete finds its Senior Lecturer and
strain of the concrete when the tension reinforcement yields, most useful application in columns.For this reason,there has been Associate Dean of
which is needed for evaluation of the balanced steel ratio, is not extensive research on the structural performance of high-strength Engineering,
the same as the ultimate concrete strain. Nevertheless, concrete columns5, 6. Relatively, the use of high-strength concrete Department of Civil
Engineering, The
compromised values of ultimate concrete strain that can be in beams is not as popular. Nevertheless, it is believed that high- University of Hong
used for evaluation of both flexural strength and balanced steel strength concrete, having a substantially higher strength/weight Kong, Hong Kong
ratio without producing significant errors have been derived. ratio than normal-strength concrete, will sooner or later prove its
Lastly, the existing concrete stress–strain curve given in the usefulness in long-span beams. Many experimental studies on the
British Standard BS 8110 for beam design has been reviewed strength and ductility of high-strength concrete beams have been H. J. Pam
and modification to cater for high-strength concrete proposed. carried out7,8, but there have been only limited theoretical studies ME, PhD, MIEAust,
on the post-peak behaviour of high-strength concrete beams9. Up CPEng, MIPENZ,
Notations to now, application of high-strength concrete to walls is still rare. MHKIE
Asc, Ast = areas of compression and tension reinforcement More research is needed before high-strength concrete will be Associate Professor,
b= breadth of beam section more commonly used in walls. This paper deals with beams only, Department of Civil
Engineering, The
d= effective depth of beam section although some of the conclusions might be applicable also to
University of Hong
d1 = depth of compression reinforcement columns and walls. Kong, Hong Kong
dn = neutral axis depth To develop guidelines for the strength and ductility design of
dnb = neutral axis depth during balanced failure high-strength concrete beams, it is necessary to analyse the non-
Ec, Es = Young’s moduli of concrete and steel reinforcement linear flexural behaviour of high-strength concrete beams up to Received: 05/01
fcy, fcu = cylinder and cube compressive strengths of concrete the post-peak stage. Since the stress–strain curve of concrete Modified: 02/02
Accepted: 03/02
fci = stress at inflection point on descending branch of changes with the concrete grade, the actual stress–strain curve of Keywords: High
stress–strain curve the concrete should be used in the analysis. Compared to that of strength concrete,
fco = in situ uniaxial compressive strength of concrete normal-strength concrete,the stress–strain curve of high-strength concrete beams,
fyc, fyt = yield strengths of compression and tension reinforce- concrete has the characteristics that: design, flexural
properties, analysis,
ment strain, reinforcement,
h= total depth of beam section • the ascending branch is more linear; BS 8110
εc, εce = strain in concrete and strain in concrete at extreme • the strain at peak stress is larger; and
compression fibre • the descending branch is steeper.
εco = strain in concrete at peak stress
εci = strain at inflection point on descending branch of A number of stress–strain curve models have been developed for
stress–strain curve high-strength concrete10, 11 but many of them are applicable
εcu = ultimate concrete strain only within limited strength ranges. To allow comparison
εp = residual plastic strain in steel reinforcement between normal- and high-strength concrete beams, a
εs = strain in steel reinforcement stress–strain curve model that is applicable to both normal- and
εsc, εs = strains in compression and tension reinforcement high-strength concretes should be employed.
εyt = yield strain of tension reinforcement The authors have recently developed a new method of
φ= curvature of beam section analysing the non-linear flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete
ρb = balanced steel ratio of beam section beam sections that not only uses the actual stress–strain curves
ρbo = balanced steel ratio of beam section with no compres- of the materials but also takes into account the stress-path
sion steel dependence of the constitutive properties of the materials12.
ρc, ρt = compression steel ratio (ρc=Asc/bd) and tension steel Application of the method to analyse the post-peak behaviour of
ratio (ρt=Ast/bd) reinforced concrete beams has revealed that at the post-peak
σc, σs = stresses in concrete and steel reinforcement stage, the neutral axis depth keeps on increasing, and beyond a
σsc, σst = stresses in compression and tension reinforcement certain point on the moment–curvature curve the strain in the
tension reinforcement starts to decrease. To cater for such strain
Introduction reversal, the stress-path dependence of the stress–strain relation
The higher strength and other obvious advantages of high- of the steel reinforcement must be taken into account. In fact, the
strength concrete have resulted in it becoming more and more numerical results have proved that negligence of the stress-path
popular1, 2. However, most of the existing codes of practice for the dependence of the material properties in the previous analysis
design of reinforced concrete structures3, 4 that were developed methods developed by others can lead to significant errors when
based on previous experience with normal-strength concrete, do the analysis is extended to the post-peak stage.
not cover high-strength concrete.Although high-strength concrete The above analysis has also revealed that due to a gradual

26|The Structural Engineer – 20 August 2002

 paper: ho et al

change in stress–strain characteristics of the concrete, the ulti- 120

mate concrete strain in the extreme compression fibre at the point
of peak moment and the parameters of the equivalent rectangu-
lar stress block for the concrete compression zone, required for 100 fco = 40 MPa
evaluation of the flexural strength, vary significantly with the fco = 60 MPa
concrete grade. In this paper, a numerical study, aiming to evalu-
80
ate the ultimate concrete strain and the equivalent rectangular fco = 80 MPa

stress (MPa)
stress block parameters of normal- and high-strength concrete
fco = 100 MPa
beams, is reported. The afore-mentioned method of analysis was 60
employed for the study. It was found that the ultimate concrete
strain varies with the concrete grade, steel yield strengths and
40
steel ratios in a fairly complicated manner. Moreover, the
maximum concrete strain when the tension reinforcement yields,
which is needed for evaluation of the balanced steel ratio, is not 20
quite the same as the ultimate concrete strain at the point of peak
moment. Nevertheless, for each set of concrete grade and tension
reinforcement yield strength, a compromised design value of ulti- 0
mate concrete strain that may be used for evaluation of both flex- 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007
ural strength and balanced steel ratio has been derived and the strain
parameters of the equivalent rectangular stress block determined
accordingly.These results should be useful for extending the exist-
ing codes of practice to cover high-strength concrete.

Method of analysis
The concrete stress–strain curve model developed by Attard and
Setunge13, which has been shown to be applicable to a broad range fy σs = fy
stress

of concrete strength from 20 to 130MPa, was used. In this model,

the main parameters employed to establish the stress–strain
curve were the initial Young’s modulus Ec, peak stress fco, strain
at peak stress εco, and the stress fci and strain εci at the inflection
point on the descending branch of the curve. The stress–strain σs = Es (εs – εp)
curve is given by the following equation:

A _ f c /f co i + B _ f c /f co i
2

v c /f co = .…(1)
1 + _ A - 2 i _ f c /f co i + _ B + 1i _ f c /f co i
2

Es εp Es
in which σc and εc are the stress and strain in the concrete, and A
and B are coefficients dependent on the concrete grade. It should strain
be noted that the peak stress fco is actually the in situ uniaxial
compressive strength of the concrete, which may be determined Fig 1. (top) mentally, starting from zero. For a given curvature, the strains
from the standard cube or cylinder strengths using appropriate Stress–strain curves of developed in the section were first evaluated based on an
correction factors. Fig 1 shows some typical stress–strain curves concrete derived from assumed, or the previous value, of neutral axis depth. From the
so derived. Attard and Setunge’s strains evaluated, the corresponding stresses developed in the
For the steel reinforcement, a linearly elastic–perfectly plastic model concrete and the steel reinforcement were determined from their
stress–strain curve model was adopted. To cater for strain rever- Fig 2. (above) respective stress–strain curves. Axial equilibrium of the section
sal, the stress-path dependence of the stress-strain relation was Stress–strain curve of was then checked. Normally, the axial equilibrium condition was
taken into account by assuming that the unloading path follows steel with stress-path not immediately satisfied and there was an unbalanced axial
the initial elastic slope, as shown in Fig 2. When the strain is dependence allowed force.An iterative procedure of successively adjusting the neutral
increasing, the stress in the steel is given by: for axis depth until the unbalanced force was negligibly small was
used to satisfy the axial equilibrium condition. Having deter-
at elastic stage: σs = Es εs .…(2a) mined the neutral axis depth that would satisfy the axial equi-
after yielding: σs = fy .…(2b) librium condition, the resisting moment of the section was
evaluated from the moment equilibrium condition. This gave a
in which σs and εs are respectively the stress and strain in the steel, Fig 3. (below) pair of curvature and moment values.The numerical process was
Es is the Young’s modulus and fy is the yield stress. On the other A beam section repeated for each prescribed curvature value and continued until
hand,when the strain is decreasing,the stress in the steel becomes: subjected to bending the curvature was large enough for the resisting moment to
moment increase to the peak and decrease to half of the peak value.
σs = Es (εs – εp) .…(3)
b
where εp is the residual strain at the end of the last strain increas- εce
ing cycle. dl
Asc d
n
εsc
Three basic assumptions were made in the analysis:
compression zone
• plane sections before bending remain plane after bending; d
• tensile strength of the concrete may be neglected; and h
• there is no bond-slip between the reinforcement bars and the
concrete.
They are all commonly accepted and are nearly exact except in
deep beams or in localised areas near cracks. Ast εst

The non-linear flexural behaviour of the beam section was

analysed by applying prescribed curvature to the section incre- beam section strain distribution

20 August 2002 – The Structural Engineer|27

 paper: ho et al

Fig 4. 3.5
1.8
Complete fco = 90MPa
moment–curvature 1.6 3.0 fco = 90MPa
curves of some beam 1.4
sections analysed fco = 60MPa 2.5

moment (MNm)

moment (MNm)
1.2
1.0 2.0
fco = 30MPa fco = 60MPa
0.8 1.5
0.6 fco = 30MPa
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.0 0.0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.5 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
curvature (rad/m) curvature (rad/m)
a) Under-reinforced and with compression b) Over-reinforced and with compression
reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 0.5, ρc = 1%) reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 1.5, ρc = 1%)

3.0 1.6
fco = 90MPa 1.4
2.5
1.2 fco = 90MPa
moment (MNm)

moment (MNm)
2.0
1.0
fco = 60MPa
1.5 fco = 60MPa 0.8
0.6
1.0
fco = 30MPa
fco = 30MPa 0.4
0.5
0.2
0.0 0.0
0 0.05 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
curvature (rad/m) curvature (rad/m)
c) Over-reinforced and with no compression d) Under-reinforced and with no compression
reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 1.5, ρc = 0%) reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 0.5, ρc = 0%)

Results of analysis
Sections analysed
The beam sections analysed are the same as the one shown in Fig
3. These beam sections are given constant dimensions of b =
300mm, h = 600mm, d = 550mm, and d1 = 50mm.They represent
typical doubly reinforced rectangular beam sections. For para-
metric study, the in situ concrete compressive strength fco was
varied from 30 to 100MPa to cover both normal- and high-strength
concretes, the compression steel ratio ρc (= Asc/bd) varied from 0 to
2% to cover the case with no compression reinforcement added
and the case with compression reinforcement added, and the
tension steel ratio ρt (= Ast/bd) varied from 0 to 2 times the balanced
steel ratio to cover both under-reinforced and over-reinforced
sections. On the other hand, the tension and compression rein-
forcement bars were assumed to have yield strengths of either fy
= 250MPa (when mild steel is used) or fy = 460MPa (when high-
yield steel is used), and a constant Young’s modulus of Es =
200GPa.
plotted in Fig 5. It is seen that initially, the neutral axis depth
remains almost constant. As the curvature increases and the
concrete becomes inelastic, the neutral axis depth gradually
decreases or increases depending on whether the section is under-
reinforced or over-reinforced. However, regardless of whether the
section is under-reinforced or over-reinforced, after entering into
the post-peak stage, the neutral axis depth starts to increase
rapidly such that the distance between the tension reinforcement
and the neutral axis decreases quite quickly with the curvature
and beyond a certain point on the moment–curvature curve, the
strain in the tension reinforcement starts to decrease causing
strain reversal. This strain reversal phenomenon in the tension
reinforcement occurs in all beam sections. On the other hand, the
strain in the compression reinforcement always increases monot-
onically.
Failure mode and balanced steel ratio
Three failure modes have been observed:

Complete moment–curvature curve and general behaviour
Some selected moment–curvature curves of the beam sections
analysed are plotted in Fig 4, from which it can be seen that the
moment–curvature curves of under-reinforced and over-reinforced
sections have very different shapes. In the case of an under-rein-
forced section, the moment–curvature curve is almost linear
before the peak moment is reached and there is a fairly long yield
plateau at the post-peak stage before the resisting moment drops
more rapidly till complete failure, imparting a relatively high
ductility to the beam section. However, in the case of an over-rein-
forced section, the moment–curvature curve is more like a single
smooth curve with a sharp peak, imparting a relatively high brit-
tleness to the beam section. It is, therefore, evident that the flex-
ural ductility of a beam section is highly dependent on whether
the beam section is under-reinforced or over-reinforced.
To study in detail the non-linear flexural behaviour of the beam
sections, the variations of the neutral axis depth dn, the concrete
strain at extreme compression fibre εce, the steel strains in the
tension reinforcement εst, and the steel strain in the compression
reinforcement εsc with the curvature φ in some typical sections are
• tension failure under which the tension reinforcement yields
before the concrete fails
• compression failure under which the tension reinforcement
remains unyielded even when the concrete has failed
completely; and
• balanced failure under which the tension reinforcement just
yields when the concrete fails.
Generally, tension failure is more ductile whereas compression
failure is more brittle. For given concrete strength, reinforcement
yield strengths and compression steel ratio, there is a tension
steel ratio that will lead to balanced failure. Such a tension steel
ratio is called balanced steel ratio (denoted hereafter by ρb) and
the corresponding beam section is regarded as a balanced section.
At a tension steel ratio smaller than the balanced steel ratio
(when the section is under-reinforced), tension failure will occur
and at a tension steel ratio larger than the balanced steel ratio
(when the section is over-reinforced), compression failure will
occur. Since the failure mode will affect the flexural ductility, it is
important to determine the balanced steel ratio so that the failure

28|The Structural Engineer – 20 August 2002

 paper: ho et al

Fig 5. 600 0.035 600 0.018

Variations of neutral
axis depth, concrete 500 0.030 0.016
500

neutral axis depth (mm)

neutral axis depth (mm)

strain and steel strain 0.014
with curvature for 0.025
400 400 0.012
beam sections with 0.020 dn

strain

strain
fco = 60MPa 300 0.010
dn 300 εce
0.015 0.008
200 εst 200 0.006
0.010
100 0.004
0.005 100
εce εst 0.002
0 0.000 0 0.000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
curvature (rad/m) curvature (rad/m)
a) Under-reinforced and with no compression b) Over-reinforced and with no compression
reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 0.5, ρc = 0%) reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 1.5, ρc = 0%)

600 0.035 600 0.018

0.016
500 0.030 500
neutral axis depth (mm)

neutral axis depth (mm)

0.014
0.025
400 400 0.012
dn
0.020 0.010

strain

strain
300 300 εsc
dn 0.015 0.008
εst εce
200 200 0.006
0.010
0.004
100 εce εsc 100
0.005 εst 0.002
0 0.000 0 0.000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
curvature (rad/m) curvature (rad/m)
c) Under-reinforced and with compression d) Over-reinforced and with compression
reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 0.5, ρc = 1%) reinforcement (ρt /ρb = 1.5, ρc = 1%)

mode may be predicted. strength and compression steel ratio, the ultimate concrete strain
In this study, the balanced steel ratio was evaluated by a trial remains more or less constant when the tension steel ratio is
and error process of analysing beam sections with different smaller than the balanced steel ratio.However,as the tension steel
tension steel ratios and checking in each section whether the ratio increases to beyond the balanced steel ratio, the ultimate
tension reinforcement has ever yielded. It has been found that at concrete strain increases quite abruptly to a certain maximum
a relatively low tension steel ratio, the tension reinforcement value. Then, as the tension steel ratio further increases, the ulti-
yields right at the point of peak moment. However, at a relatively mate concrete strain gradually decreases. Fig 6 illustrates the
high tension steel ratio close to the balanced steel ratio,the tension variation of the ultimate concrete strain in beam sections with fco
reinforcement does not yield at the point of peak moment, but = 60MPa, fyc = fyt = 460MPa and ρc = 0, 1 and 2 %. Similar varia-
rather yields within the yield plateau range after the point of peak tions have been observed in all the other cases analysed.
moment. So long as the tension reinforcement yields before the Although the variations of the ultimate concrete strain with the
section fails completely, regardless of when it does, the section is compression and tension steel ratios are quite complicated, the
regarded as an under-reinforced section. If the tension reinforce- actual value of ultimate concrete strain used in the design has
ment just yields before strain reversal, the beam section is little effect on the calculated value of flexural strength. From the
regarded as a balanced section and its tension steel ratio taken practical application point of view, it is better to adopt a single
as the balanced steel ratio. design value of ultimate concrete strain for a given set of concrete
The balanced steel ratios so obtained for singly reinforced grade and reinforcement yield strengths regardless of the
sections are listed in Table 1. For doubly reinforced sections, it is compression and tension steel ratios, provided the error so intro-
found that at fixed concrete strength and reinforcement yield duced in the calculated value of flexural strength is acceptably
strengths, the balanced steel ratio ρb increases linearly with the small.
compression steel ratio ρc. Correlating the balanced steel ratio to During the non-linear analysis, it was found that near the peak
the compression steel ratio, the following equation has been of the moment–curvature curve,the concrete strain at the extreme
derived: compression fibre εce increases substantially while there is little
change in the resisting moment. To study the range of variation
ρb = ρbo + (fyc/fyt) ρc ….(4) of εce near the peak of the moment–curvature curve, the values of
εce at 97% of the peak moment before and after the resisting
in which ρbo is the balanced steel ratio of the beam section when
no compression reinforcement is provided, and fyc and fyt are the
yield strengths of the compression and tension reinforcement
Table 1: Balanced steel ratio ρbo of singly reinforced sections
respectively. The value of ρbo increases with the concrete strength fco (MPa) ρbo (%)
fco but not in direct proportion because the percentage increase in fyt= 250MPa fyt = 460MPa
balanced steel ratio is generally smaller than the percentage 30 6.92 3.19
increase in concrete strength. However, the value of ρbo decreases 40 8.69 3.96
as the yield strength of the tension reinforcement fyt increases. 50 10.39 4.69
60 12.01 5.39
Ultimate concrete strain at peak moment 70 13.56 6.05
The ultimate concrete strain εcu is defined as the concrete strain 80 15.05 6.69
at extreme compression fibre εce when the beam section develops 90 16.47 7.29
its peak resisting moment. It was found that for a given concrete 100 17.83 7.87

20 August 2002 – The Structural Engineer|29

 paper: ho et al

moment has reached the peak (denoted by εcu’ and εcu’’ respec- 3500
tively) have been evaluated for each beam section. Since 97% of
the peak moment is virtually the same as the peak moment, any
value between εcu’ and εcu’’ may be chosen as the design value of 3000
ultimate concrete strain.
To be applicable throughout the ranges of compression and
2500
tension steel ratios covered in this study, the design value of ulti-
mate concrete strain for the given concrete grade and reinforce-
ment yield strengths should be greater than the maximum value 2000
of εcu’ and smaller than the minimum value of εcu’’ within the entire

εcu
ranges of compression and tension steel ratios considered. In all
cases, the minimum value of εcu’’ is found to be larger than the 1500
maximum value of εcu’.This allows the choice of any value between
the maximum value of εcu’ and the minimum value of εcu’’ as the 1000
design value of ultimate concrete strain without causing more
than 3% error in the evaluation of flexural strength.
It has been found that the maximum values of εcu’ and the 500
minimum values of εcu’’ are independent of the compression rein-
forcement yield strength but dependent on the tension reinforce-
0
ment yield strength.Therefore,for each given set of concrete grade
and tension reinforcement yield strength, one single value of ulti- 0.4 0.6
mate concrete strain independent of the other structural parame-
ters may be adopted.The maximum value of εcu’ and the minimum
value of εcu’’ so obtained for each set of concrete grade and tension Fig 6.
reinforcement yield strength are presented in Table 2. Variation of ultimate
concrete strain with
Maximum concrete strain when tension reinforcement yields tension steel ratio
In this study, the balanced steel ratios have been evaluated by a when fco = 60MPa and
trial and error process of analysing the non-linear flexural behav- fyc = fyt = 460MPa
iour of beam sections with different tension steel ratios and finding
the tension steel ratio that will lead to balanced failure. Such a
process is rather time consuming and is not really practical for
day-to-day design works.
The balanced steel ratio may be evaluated directly if the
maximum concrete strain when the tension reinforcement yields
under the condition of balanced failure is known. Denoting such
a maximum concrete strain by εcu’’’ and the yield strain of the
tension reinforcement by εyt, the neutral axis depth dnb may be
calculated as:
dnb = dfcu / d fcu + fyt n
''' '''
.…(5)
Using this value of dnb, the balanced steel ratio ρb may be deter-
mined from the axial equilibrium condition, which gives:
tb = f # v c dx/d + v sc t c p /f yt
d nb
.…(6)
0
ρc = 0%
ρc = 1%
ρc = 2%
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
ρt /ρb
always fall within the maximum value of εcu’ and the minimum
value of εcu’’.Thus, for the evaluation of both flexural strength and
balanced steel ratio, a compromised design value has to be
adopted. It is proposed that when the value of εcu’’’ falls outside the
range between the maximum value of εcu’ and the minimum value
of εcu’’, the maximum value of εcu’’ (bracketed in Table 2) should be
adopted and when the value of εcu’’’ falls within the range between
the maximum value of εcu’ and the minimum value of εcu’’, the value
of εcu’’’ (bracketed in Table 2) should be adopted.The recommended
design values so determined are listed in separate columns in
Table 2. In all cases, these design values of ultimate concrete
strain yield calculated values of flexural strength, and balanced
steel ratio are accurate to within 3% error.
Equivalent rectangular stress block for beam design
In actual design practice, an equivalent rectangular stress block
instead of the actual stress-strain curve is often used for evaluat-
ing the static effect of the compression force developed in the
concrete, as illustrated in Fig 7. The rectangular stress block is
defined by two parameters: the depth and the average stress of
the stress block, which are herein expressed as α dn and β fco
respectively. Since the rectangular stress block must be statically
equivalent to the actual compression force developed in the
concrete, the coefficients α and β defining the depth and the

From the above equation, ρbo may be obtained as: average stress of the stress block are governed by the axial and
moment equilibrium conditions, from which α and β may be
# v c dx/ _ d f yt i
d nb
t bo = .…(7) determined as:
0

#
dn
This explains why ρbo decreases as fyt increases. If the compression v c x dx
reinforcement yields before the concrete fails (before the _1 - a/2 i d n = 0
.…(8)
#
dn
maximum concrete strain reaches the value of εcu’’’), which v c dx
0
happens in all the beam sections analysed, then σsc = fyc and the
#
dn
balanced steel ratio ρb will become the same as that given by v c dx
0
Equation (4). bf co = .…(9)
ad n
The εcu’’’ values were found to be independent of the compres-
sion steel ratio and the compression reinforcement yield strength. The values of α and β so obtained using the stress–strain curve
Hence, for each given set of concrete grade and tension reinforce- model developed by Attard and Setunge, with the concrete strain
ment yield strength, one single value of εcu’’’ independent of the
other structural parameters may be used. The εcu’’’ values so Table 2: Determining design value of ultimate concrete strain (in µε) for each case
obtained are listed in Table 2. fco fyt = 250MPa fyt = 460 MPa
(MPa) max. min. value design max. min. value design
Design value of ultimate concrete strain value value of value value value of value
From Table 2, it can be seen that in all cases the minimum value of εcu’ of εcu’’ εcu’’’ of εcu of εcu’ of εcu’’ εcu’’’ of εcu
of εcu’’ is larger than the maximum value of εcu’, and in most cases 30 2620 (3675) 4330 3675 2840 (3880) 4960 3880
the value of εcu’’’ is slightly larger than the minimum value of εcu’’. 40 2630 (3520) 3930 3520 2780 (3700) 4400 3700
The choice of any value between the maximum value of εcu’ and 50 2645 (3445) 3720 3445 2765 (3580) 4050 3580
the minimum value of εcu’’ as the design value of ultimate concrete 60 2675 (3400) 3570 3400 2770 (3515) 3840 3515
strain will not cause more than 3% error in the evaluation of flex- 70 2705 (3365) 3465 3365 2780 (3465) 3660 3465
ural strength. On the other hand, the choice of the value of εcu’’’ as 80 2735 (3340) 3375 3340 2795 (3430) 3550 3430
the design value of ultimate concrete strain will give exact result 90 2765 3315 (3300) 3300 2810 (3395) 3435 3395
for the balanced steel ratio. However, the value of εcu’’’ does not 100 2795 3290 (3245) 3245 2830 3360 (3340) 3340

30|The Structural Engineer – 20 August 2002

 paper: ho et al

εcu εcu portion should remain unchanged and only the value of ultimate
concrete strain should be adjusted to cater for the design of high-
strength concrete beams. However, since the shape of the curve
has been simplified and is somewhat different from the true
αdn
dn shape, the design values of ultimate concrete strain presented in
Table 3 (these are exact values which should be used only together
with the actual stress–strain curve of the concrete) should not be
βfco
used directly.The design values of ultimate concrete strain should
be determined such that when used in conjunction with the given
parabolic-rectangular stress–strain curve, accurate results for
both flexural strength and balanced steel ratio would be obtained.
BS 8110 uses the cube compressive strength to define the
concrete grade.Thus, for a given concrete grade specified in accor-
dance with BS 8110, the value of the cube compressive strength fcu
εst is known but the value of the in situ uniaxial compressive strength
fco is yet to be determined. No guideline has been given in BS 8110
strain distribution stress distribution as to how fco should be determined.The value of 0.67 fcu specified in
BS 8110 for the stress level within the constant stress portion of
Fig 7. the stress–strain curve is not really the peak stress fco that would
Table 3: Parameters of equivalent rectangular stress block Equivalent rectangular be reached by the concrete; it is just the average stress within the
from present study stress block for compression zone near the peak stress region, as shown in Fig 8.
fco fyt = 250MPa fyt = 460 MPa concrete compression Thus, the value of fco should not be taken as 0.67 fcu.
(MPa) design α β design α β zone Although no guideline has been given in BS 8110 for the deter-
value of value of mination of fco,extensive tests have been carried out to correlate the
εcu (µε) εcu (µε) peak stress fco to either the cylinder strength fcy or the cube compres-
30 3675 0.880 0.866 3880 0.897 0.844 sive strength fcu. From the test results presented by Ibrahim and
40 3520 0.856 0.852 3700 0.876 0.828 MacGregor14, it can be seen that the fco to fcy ratios of eccentrically
50 3445 0.838 0.841 3580 0.856 0.818 loaded specimens vary between 0.8 to 1.2 with an average value
60 3400 0.823 0.830 3515 0.839 0.808
of 0.95 while the fco to fcy ratios of concentrically loaded specimens
70 3365 0.809 0.820 3430 0.825 0.799
vary between 0.7 to 1.1 with an average value of 0.85. For simplic-
80 3340 0.797 0.811 3180 0.813 0.789
ity,it is suggested that a constant fco to fcy ratio of 0.9 should be used.
90 3300 0.783 0.806 3395 0.802 0.779
Assuming that the cylinder strength fcy is equal to 0.8 of the cube
100 3245 0.765 0.806 3340 0.785 0.778
strength fcu, the value of fco may be taken simple as 0.9 × 0.8 = 0.72
at extreme compression fibre taken as the proposed design value of fcu.Thus,the stress–strain curve of a concrete with cube strength
of ultimate concrete strain, are tabulated in Table 3. equal to fcu may be taken as the corresponding curve derived by
Having determined the ultimate concrete strain and the Attard and Setunge’s model (the model being used in this study)
parameters of the rectangular stress block, the balanced steel for a concrete with fco = 0.72 fcu.The flexural strength and balanced
ratios may be evaluated directly using Equation (5) and the follow- steel ratio of the concrete beam section may then be evaluated
ing equation. using the rigorous nonlinear analysis presented in this paper.
As before, for each given set of concrete grade and tension rein-
ρbo = α β (fco/fyt) (dnb/d) .…(10) forcement yield strength, only a compromised value of ultimate
concrete strain that would yield reasonably accurate results for
The balanced steel ratios obtained from the above equation have the flexural strength and balanced steel ratio can be derived. It is
been found to be in good agreement with those listed in Table 1. not easy to determine such a compromised value of ultimate
Even in the worst cases, the error of estimation using the above concrete strain. To begin with, it is suggested to first evaluate by
equation is less than 3%. iteration the value of εcu’’’ which, when substituted into Equations
(5) and (7),would yield a balanced steel ratio equal to that obtained
Review of concrete stress–strain curve in British by rigorous non-linear analysis. The values of εcu’’’ so obtained are
Standard presented in Table 4. When used together with the parabolic-
In the codes of practice,such as the British Standard BS 81103 and rectangular stress blocks given in BS 8110, these values of εcu’’’
the ACI Building Code ACI 3184, simplified concrete stress–strain Fig 8. would yield exact results for the balanced steel ratio.
curves are specified for beam design.As these stress–strain curves Concrete stress–strain The values of εcu’’’ are found to be dependent on the tension rein-
were originally developed for beams made of normal-strength curve given in BS 8110 forcement yield strength. In actual practice, it is simpler to use a
concrete, they may not be applicable to high-strength concrete
beams. Herein, only the stress–strain curve given in BS 8110 is
reviewed for possible extension to cater for the design of high-
fco
strength concrete beams; possible extension of ACI 318 to allow
for the use of high-strength concrete has already been studied by 0.67fcu
a number of researchers14.
Fig 8 shows the concrete stress–strain curve given in BS 8110.
The stress–strain curve consists of two portions: a parabolic curve
and a constant stress curve.Hence,the static effect of the compres-
stress

sion force developed in the concrete may be evaluated using a

combination of two stress blocks, one being a parabolic stress
block and the other being a rectangular stress block, of which the
stress/strain limits are as specified in BS 8110.This stress–strain
curve has been in use for the design of normal-strength concrete
beams for decades.Since it is already well proven in producing safe
and reliable reinforced concrete beam designs, only minimum
changes that are strictly necessary to cater for the design of high-
strength concrete beams should be made. Ec = 5.5√fcu kN/mm2
To maintain simplicity and compatibility with the existing
practice, it is proposed that the current division of the 2.4 x 10-4√fcu εcu strain
stress–strain curve into a parabolic portion and a constant stress

20 August 2002 – The Structural Engineer|31

 paper: ho et al

Table 4: Design value of ultimate concrete strain to be the ultimate concrete strain. It is independent of the compres-
used with BS 8110 sion steel ratio and the compression reinforcement yield
fcu fyt = 250MPa fyt = 460 MPa design
strength, and thus for each given set of concrete grade and
(MPa) ρbo εcu’’’(µε) ρbo(%) εcu’’’(µε) value of tension reinforcement yield strength, a single design value of
εcu (µε) maximum concrete strain may be used for the evaluation of
30 5.37 3850 2.53 4220 4035 balanced steel ratio.
40 6.70 3450 3.10 3710 3580 • Although the ultimate concrete strain is not equal to the
50 7.99 3270 3.66 3475 3373 maximum concrete strain when the tension reinforcement
60 9.24 3165 4.20 3340 3253 yields, compromised design values of ultimate concrete strain
70 10.46 3105 4.72 3250 3178 that may be used for the evaluation of both flexural strength
80 11.63 3065 5.22 3180 3123 and balanced steel ratio without causing more than 3% error
90 12.76 3040 5.71 3140 3090 in either flexural strength or balanced steel ratio have been
100 13.86 3020 6.18 3105 3063 derived and presented, together with the corresponding equiv-
alent stress block parameters, in Table 3.
single design value for each given concrete grade regardless of the
tension reinforcement yield strength. Such a single design value Lastly, the existing stress–strain curve given in the British
for a given concrete grade may be determined as the average of Standard BS 8110, which was originally developed for the design
the two εcu’’’ values for fyt = 250MPa and fyt = 460MPa. The design of normal-strength concrete structures, has been reviewed for
values so derived are listed in the last column of Table 4. From possible extension to cover high-strength concrete. For simplicity
these values, it can be seen that the design values of ultimate and compatibility with the existing practice, it is suggested that
concrete strain for grade 30 and grade 40 concretes are larger than the shape of the stress–strain curve should be maintained and
3500µε. Since a constant ultimate concrete strain value of 3500µe only the value of ultimate concrete strain should be adjusted to
has long been used for normal-strength concrete and the use of a cater for the design of high-strength concrete beams. By first
smaller design value is on the conservative side, it is suggested starting with design values of ultimate concrete strain that would
that this same value should continue to be used for concretes of produce accurate results for the balanced steel ratio,neglecting the
grade not higher than 40. For concretes of grade higher than 40, relatively small effect of the tension reinforcement yield strength
the design value of ultimate concrete strain decreases as the and then checking whether these values would yield reasonably
concrete grade increases. Setting the design value at 3500µε for accurate results for the flexural strength, compromise design
concretes of grade 40 or lower and fitting a curve for those design values of ultimate concrete strain that are dependent only on the
values for concretes of grade higher than 40, the following equa- concrete grade can be derived. These compromise values,
tion for the design value of ultimate concrete strain is obtained. presented in Table 4, may be used for the evaluation of both flex-
ural strength and balanced steel ratio without causing more than
εcu = 3500 when fcu≤ 40MPa .…(11a) 3% errors in either flexural strength and balanced steel ratio. An
εcu = 3500 – 60 (fcu – 40)1/2 when fcu > 40MPa .…(11b) empirical equation for evaluating the design value of ultimate
concrete strain for a given concrete grade has also been derived.
It has been checked that the use of the above equation for the eval-
uation of ultimate concrete strain would produce less than 3% Acknowledgement
error in the balanced steel ratio within the range of structural The work described herein was carried out with financial support
parameters studied. provided by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (R.G.C.
The design values of ultimate concrete strain given by the Project No. HKU 7012/98E).
above equation might also be used for the evaluation of flexural
strength if the errors produced are within acceptable limits. Using
such design values of ultimate concrete strain and the parabolic-
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32|The Structural Engineer – 20 August 2002