Solar Energy Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 109-113, 1951 0038-092X/81/080109--05502.

00/0
Printed in Great Britain~ © 1981 Pergamon Press Ltd.

NEW HEAT TRANSFER FACTORS

FOR FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

PETER J. LUNDE
Hartford Graduate Center, The Center for the Environment and Man, Inc., Hartford, CT 06120, U.S.A.

(Received 13 April 1980; revision accepted 29 January 1981)

Abstract--New expressions for the heat transfer factor FR based on inlet, outlet and mean fluid temperature are
derived for use with the Hottel-Whillier collector model by the use of restrictive heat transfer assumptions. The
new factors are simple algebraic functions which are shown to be equivalent to the generally accepted exponential
relationships in realistic collector applications. Their utility is demonstrated through a set of equations by which
efficiency curves based on inlet, outlet or mean fluid temperatures may be converted to an alternate basis if the flow
rate and the slope and intercept of one efficiency curve are known.

INTRODUCTION loss coefficient (considered constant), Tc the local

The Hottel, Whillier and Bliss flat plate solar heat col-
lector model [1-4] is a well regarded part of the solar
literature. Use of the resultant "overall efficiency" or
"heat transfer" factor FR--which interrelates fin
efficiency, fluid heat transfer coefficients and flow rate
with the basis collector characteristics--is nearly uni-
versal when collector performance is to be based on the
collector inlet temperature.
In this paper a new derivation is presented which
yields algebraic expressions for overall efficiency factors
based on either inlet, mean, or outlet fluid temperatures.
It is based on the assumption that the heat collection rate
and the temperature gradient along the collector plate-to-
fluid heat transfer path (but not the collector tem-
peratures) are constant over the entire collector. The
resultant expressions for heat transfer factors do not
become indeterminate as the flow approaches infinity and
can be solved explicitly for any variable. They can be
used to convert collector efficiency curves from one
basis to another or to find new curves for a new flow rate
or fluid.
The factor based on inlet temperature is shown to be
essentially interchangeable with FR over the ordinary
range of flows found in practical flat plate solar collector
operation.
DERIVATION
Let the basic Hottel-Whillier collector model describe
the performance anywhere along a collector fluid flow
path as
average collector temperature, Ta the ambient tem-
perature; and A the area considered. The efficiency of
the collection plate as a fin extending from the fluid
circulating tubes is ~F.
Referring to Fig. l, let the running (i.e. continuously
variable) temperature of the fluid as it passes through the
collector be Tt, with inlet temperature Ti and outlet
temperature To. Let the total area for fluid heat transfer
inside the tube be AfT, and the running area traversed
from the inlet to a given distance from the inlet be At.
Let the similarly traversed collector area, also a running
variable (which may be different because of extended
surface), be Ac. Let the fluid heat transfer coefficient be
U1t and the proportion of the total surface which is
covered by tubes directly exposed to radiation (and thus
having a fin efficiency of 1.0) be r. The cumulative heat
collected at a given distance from the inlet is Q, running
from zero to QT, the total heat collected. The fluid mass
flow rate is W, and its specific heat is c.
Assuming that the heat collection rate and con-
sequently the temperature difference between the fluid
and the collector surface are everywhere constant,
Q = U~Af(T~ - TI) (2)
Q, AI, Tc and Tf are measured anywhere (but all at the
same place) along the fluid path. The total heat absorbed

Q = ~ p [ ' r a l A - UL(Tc - T,)A] (1)

where Q is the heat collection rate, ~'a the trans-

missivity-absorptivity product; UL the collector heat

tlf there is significant fin-to-fluid heat transfer resistance

through the tube wall or the fin-to-tube bond, that should be
incorporated into U~ using conventional heat transfer potential
theory.
~ rj I

Fig. 1. Nomenclature for derivation of E.

109
I10 P.J. LUNDE

by the fluid in reaching that same point is also given by Substituting eqn (8) for T~,

Q = Wc(T1 - T,) (3)

dQ_~IF r a l d A ~ - U L [ T , ' QT[AI ~ l'~-Ta]dA,,.
differentiating each equation with respect to traversed area
At gives Integrating over the entire fluid path length
dQ . . . . dT~
dA--S- wca- (4)
,r
"0--~Jo dQ = r a l f?., dA~ - UL(T~ - To) f?" dAc

(Tj is a constant), and since (T~ - TI) is constant, OrUL r A ' ' T I - 1\
i

(10)
A,~ 30 \W~+ UN da'"
dQ = U~(T~ - T~). (5)
dA~ Since the fluid and collector area can obviously be
related by
Eliminating dQ/dA~ between eqns (4) and (5) and in-
AI = KA¢.
tegrating to a point along the fluid path,

T/ _Us Then the last integral can be written

fT, d T ' - W c c ( T ~ - T') fo A'da±
oA~r / K A ~ [ K A 2 A,. ] A~r
which gives
KA2~r + A~T AITA~T AcT
Ul -2Wc Us = 2Wc ÷ UI"
TI = T, +-~cc Tc - Ti)At. (6)
(11)

If eqn (2) is written for the end of the fluid path the final Integrating eqn (10) then gives
values are given,
AcT A~T
QT = U~(T~ - TI)A~T. (7) Q--L= I"alAcT - UL(T' - To)AcT - Q T U L [ ~ c + U--~T

Solving for TI, eqn (7) becomes Solving for the overall collected heat flux q = QT[AcT,

TI = T¢ QT q = Fi[rM - UL(TI - T~)] (12)

UrArT
where F~ is the heat transfer factor,
which is substituted into eqn (6) to give an expression for
the collector temperature as a function of the traversed 1
F, = (13)
collector area AI, 1 + ULAc ULAc"
~?-~ U,A----;÷ 2Wc
QT r As 1i
To = T, (8)
In eqn (13) Ac and AI represent the total area con-
sidered-usually the entire collector. Equation (13) is set
Rewriting the basic collector equation (1) for differential equal to the new variable E to conveniently distinguish
areas of tube and fin, it from the usual heat transfer factor FR as well as to
make its basis clear.
dQ = ~v[raI -- UL(T¢ - Ta)] dA6n The heat transfer efficiency factor derivation need not
have been oriented toward use of T~ as the basis for eqns
+ [raI - UL(Tc - T.)] dAt.be.
(12) and (13). If the outlet temperature is used as a base
the same sort of derivation gives
If A,.~/A¢T = r and AnJAcT = ( l - r ) then dA~.=
(1 - r) dA~, d A , . ~ = r dAo and
q = Fo[ral - UL(To - Ta)] (14)
dQ = ['0F(1 -- r)+ r]['raI - UL(T¢ - T.)] dA¢. where
1
If an average fin efficiency is defined as Fo = 1 ULAc LILAc" (15)
_'w-q'--
~F UfA~ 2 Wc
~v = "0F(1 -- r)+ r (9)
Or the heat transfer efficiency factor can be based on
then for a collector differential area, average or mean fluid temperature, giving

dQ -- ~v[~'aI dAc - UL(T~ - T~)dAc]. q = F,.['raI - UL(T,. - Ta)] (16)

 New heat transfer factors for flat plate solar collectors 111

where approximates the form of Fa in the useful range of flows

because it has been derived using assumptions that are
F. =
1 ULAc" (17) valid in that range.
~ U~Ar
APPLICATION TO EFFICIENCY CURVES
If eqns (12), (14) and (16) are divided by I, three
VALIDATION
collector efficiency curves are derived,
Equation (12) is the conventional collector perfor-
mance equation using the new heat transfer factor.
Equation (13), defining E, compares with a proper com- (19)
bination of Bliss's equations (63) and (48)[4] which can
be restated in the nomenclature of this paper as
(2o)
wc r. r ULA~ //ULA~ 1\)
F a : ~LA~I,--exp[-----~C / t~IAI +-~F)f. (]8)
(21)
The similarity between eqns (18) and (13) is not readily
apparent, yet they give similar results with realistic col-
Designating the operating parameters (T, - T=)/I, (T,, -
lector parameters. The reason for this becomes apparent
on examination of Fig. 2. There the outlet temperatures
To)/L and (To - Ta)/I as the collector efficiency function
fc, all three curves can be plotted on a single graph. The
of air from a commercially successful air collector? are
y-intercepts are F:a, Fr,'ra and Fore, respectively; the
plotted vs the reciprocal of the flow rate as calculated by
slopes F~UL, FmUL, and FOUL, respectively; and since
eqns (12) and (13), and by eqn (|8). As long as the flow is
the x-intercepts are each equal to the ratio ea/UL the
high enough that the temperature rise is less than half the
curves meet at the x-axis. Figure 3 shows such a plot,
potential rise to stagnation the expressions are
calculated from manufacturer's information that gave the
equivalent. Solar collectors that are economically viable
upper line only. Any curve can be quickly calculated
are always operated with enough flow to meet this con-
from one of the others if the flow rate is known. For
dition. The recommended flow for the collector depicted
instance, if the mean collector efficiency curve ~,, is
in Fig. 2 is about 4 times this minimum, and at the rated
known, the inlet temperature efficiency curve "0, can be
flow rate the two methods predict a heat transfer factor
calculated as shown below.
within 0.2 per cent of one another.
Equation (13) is first multiplied by ~'a and the algebraic
The calculated values for E and FR are also plotted on
expression is then divided through in numerator and
Fig. 2. Notice that the E curve is not a linearized version
denominator by ~'a. The resulting expression can be
of Fa. Nor is the E curve derivable from an infinite
written
series expansion of the exponential in Fa by the reten-
tion of an integral number of expansion terms.$ It closely 1
F:a= 1 .~ A, (22)

J40 To calculated rstaq'134*C-

1.0 F,.¢a 2Wc(calUL)
with F/ ,-" ~ "r-
. 120 (eqn 1 3 ) . ~ '''~ 0.8 where Fr~ is given by eqn (17). In this manner the
• /.~'~'T o calculated
I00 ~ /~.~ with F• (eqn 18) _ y-intercept of the ~/i curve can be simply determined if
06 ~
8O
the y-intercept (Fm~'a) and the x-intercept (~a/UL) are
i F/~ _ 0.4 known for "0m, the efficiency curve based on the mean

_~ 40
_/o .g.f
operating 0.2
ui" coolant temperature. Table 1 [5] lists all the possible
conversions between the three curves from similar
(~ 2o flow
I I I I I I 0.8
02 04 06 0.8 1.0 1.2
llwc,'C • mZlW
0.6 - %
Fig. 2. Outlet temperature from an air collector calculated using
E and FR (left axis), with E and FR shown on fight axis. For
this collector ~-a = 0.76, UL = 4.43 W / oC • m,2 I = 789 W / m2, T~ =
23.9°C, T, = -1.1°C, U! = 11.95 W/°C . m 2, Ac = A/, -~ = 1. ¢/ O.4

0.2
tThe temperatures were calculated from outlet-based collector
efficiency curve parameters estimated from Fig. 1 of Solaron
Corp. series 2000 brochure No. 202-1 as (0.64) y-intercept and I
(0.98°F hr ft:/Btu) x-intercept, at an air flow of 2 standard ft 3 of o 0.04 o.o8 o J2 o.16 o.zo
air per min per ft 2 collector area. (Solaron Corp., 720 S. Colorado
fc, *C m21W
Blvd., Denver, CO 80222, U.S.A.) The same information is
presented in SI units as the upper line in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. All three collector effÉciency curves for an air collector
~;Expansion of each, however, shows the first two terms to be having properties listed in the Fig. 2 caption at a flow capacity
identical. rate of wc = 12.2 W/°C . m2 (2scfm/ft=).
!12 P. J. LUNDE

derivations. The flow capacity rate is represented there

by wc, the area-normalized flow capacity rate, equal to
Wc/Ac.
There are many other applications for the useful ap-
plications for the useful expressions derived in this
paper. W h e n the flow rate is changed, the original
efficiency curve can be modified by deriving the 7,-
curve and then changing that to an rl~ curve using the
correct flow rate. If r a and ~F are known, all the
collector parameters can be simply determined because
eqn (13), unlike eqn (18), can be solved explicitly for any
of the variables. Using this technique, the efficiency
II II II 13 curve can be corrected for a change in heat transfer fluid
(which will change UI) with little difficulty (see example
5-9, Ref. [5]).
0
CONCLUSIONS
I[ II
I.:L For flat plate collectors operating in economically
u
,.... viable applications, eqns (13), (15) and (17) give suitable
II [I I[ heat transfer factors for collector efficiency equations
based on inlet, mean and outlet fluid temperatures, res-
pectively. These equations are more useful than the
conventional exponential relationship because they can
be solved explicitly for any variable and do not become
indeterminate as the flow approaches infinity. Through
_= their application, simple equations can be derived with
which to convert any efficiency curve to one based on an
alternate fluid temperature if the flow rate is known, and
II II

I
II II II curves based on a particular fluid and flow rate can be
if
adjusted to another flow rate without other information,
provided the fluid heat transfer coefficient is considered
0 ] I¢"1 constant. When a new heat transfer fluid is used the heat
transfer coefficient changes, and a new heat transfer
factor can be derived if the transmissivity-absorptivity
II II [I
,¢ product and the absorber plate fin efficiency are known.
E li II II
II

NOMENCLATURE
A or A~, collector area, m 2
AI heat transfer area for collection of heat by the heat
E transfer fluid, m 2
C specific heat of the heat transfer fluid, LUkg°C
E
F~,F,,Fo heat transfer factors based on inlet, outlet and mean
temperatures of collector heat transfer fluid tem-
peratures as defined by eqns (13), (15) and (17)
u:~a; II F~ heat transfer factor based on inlet fluid temperature
II I as defined by eqn (18)
ii
Q heat collection rate, J/see or W
Q~ total heat collected, J
0 q heat collection rate, W/m ~
I solar flux on tilted surface, W/m 2
I-'-_5 i-iL ~L5 o¢.2 To ambient temperature, °C
II II II n
I[ T~,To, T~, inlet, outlet, and mean heat transfer fluid tem-
¢2 peratures, °C
II II II ii z UL heat loss coefficient from collector, W/m2C
F- W fluid mass flow rate, g/see
W fluid mass flow rate per unit collector area, g/see • m 2
~F, "OF fin efficiencies, dimensionless
Tel collector transmissivity-absorptivity product,
dimensionless

REFERENCES
1. H. C. Hottel and B. B. Woertz, The performance of flat-plate
solar-heat collectors. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs 64, 91-104
(1942).
 New heat transfer factors for fiat plate solar collectors 113

2. A. Whillier, Solar energy collection and its utilization for
house heating. Sc.D. Thesis, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (May 1953).
3. H. C. Hottel and A. Whillier, Evaluation of flat-plate solar-
collector performance. Trans. Conf. Use of Solar Energy,
University of Arizona, Vol. II, pp. 74-104 (1958).
4. R. W. Bliss, Jr., The derivations of several 'plate-efficiency'
factors useful in the design of fiat-plate solar heat collectors.
Solar Energy 3, 55 (1959).
5. P. J. Lunde, Solar Thermal Engineering. Wiley, New York
(1980).