Solution of Algebraic & Transcendental Equation

Graeffe’s Root Squaring Method:

Graeffe’s root squaring method is a direct method of finding roots of a polynomial with real coefficient.
Graeffe’s methods transforms a polynomial Pn ( x ) into another polynomial of the same degree but whose
roots are the squares of the roots of the original polynomial. Because of the squaring property, the roots of
the new polynomial will be spread apart more widely than in the original one when the roots are greater
than one (01) in absolute value. Repeating this process until the roots are really far apart, we can compute
the roots directly from the coefficients.
Let, P0 ( x ) =( x−1 )( x−2 )( x−3 ) … … … … … … … … … … … … …(1)

Then we consider another function P1 ( y ) such that,

P1 ( y )=−P0 ( x ) P0 (−x )

¿ [−( x−1 ) ( x−2 )( x−3 ) ] [(−x −1 )(−x−2 )(−x−3 )]

¿ ( x−1 ) ( x−2 )( x−3 )( x +1 ) ( x +2 ) ( x+3 )

¿ ( x 2−1 ) ( x 2−4 ) ( x 2−9)

P1 ( y )=( y−1 ) ( y−4 ) ( y−9 ) … … … … … … … ….. … … … . … …(2)

[Where, y=x 2]

We know that the roots of p0=0 are x 1=1, x 2=2 and x 3=3.

Also, from equation (2) the roots of p1 ( y )=0 and y 1=1 , y 2=4 and y 3=9.

It shows that , the roots of p1 ( y )=0 are squire of the roots of p0 ( y )=0 , then we can obtain the roots of
p0 ( x ) from, x 1=√ y 1 ; x 2=√ y 2 ; x 3=√ y 3

Now let us repeat the procedure for finding the roots of p1 ( y )

Consider a third polynomial p2 ( z ) =−p 1 ( y) p1 (− y )

¿ ( z−1 ) ( z−16 ) ( z−81)………………………(3)

Then the roots of equation (3) are

z 1=1(¿ y 12) y 1 (¿ x 12 ) x1

z 2=16(¿ y 22 ) y 2 ( ¿ x 22 ) x2

z 3=81(¿ y 32 ) y 3 (¿ x 32) x3

Iteration: 2 Iteration: 1
Thus in after the second iteration, we can estimate the roots of original equation p0 ( x ) from the relation
z i=( x¿¿ i¿¿ 2)2 =xi4 , i=1,2,3 … … … … … … . . ¿¿
Suppose, we have done the squaring process k-times and the roots of the final equation are r i then
k

r i=x (i2 k )=( x i )2 ………………( 4 ) [k ¿ number of iteration ]

Now let us consider a third degree polynomial in standard form as

p0 ( x ) =a3 x3 + a2 x 2 +a1 x+ a0 ………………….... ( 5 )

Then by considering another function p1 ( y ) as previous we will get,

p1 ( y )=− p0 ( x ) p0 (−x )

¿−( a 3 x 3 +a2 x2 + a1 x +a0 )( −a3 x 3+ a2 x 2−a1 x +a 0)

¿−( a 3 x 3 +a2 x2 + a1 x +a0 )( a3 x3 −a2 x2 + a1 x−a0 )

¿ a23 x 6−( a22−2 a1 a3 ) x 4 + ( a21−2 a 0 a 2) x 2−a20

¿ b3 y 3 +b2 y 2+ b1 y+ b0 …………………… ( 6 )

Where, y=x 2

b3 =a23

and,
2
b2=−( a 2−2 a1 a3 )
b1=( a21 −2 a0 a2 )
b0=−a20
} …………………………………………….… ( 7 )

We can thus show that for a general polynomial of degree n,

P0 ( x ) =an x n+ an−1 x n−1 +⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+a 0 ………………… ( 8 )

After 1st squaring process,

b n=a2n
bn−1=−( a2n−1−2a n−2 a n )
bn −2 =−( a 2n−2−2 an−1 an−3 +2 an an−4 )
……………………………………………… ……
b 0=−a 0
2
………………… ( 9 )
}
This process can be repeated a values by b value in equation ( 9 ) each time. Let us suppose that our finial
equation after k iterations i.e. squaring k times is

Bn y n+ Bn −1 y n−1+ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯+ B0 =0 ……………..… ( 10 )

Assuming that the roots of equation ( 10 ) are no more widely separated, we have

| y 1|≫| y 2|≫| y 3|≫ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯| y n|

 B n−1 B B
Then, y 1 ≈− , y 2 ≈− n−2 … … … …. y n ≈− 0
Bn Bn−1 B1
B n−i 2 k

That is, y i ≈− =( x i ) ................................................... (11), [i=1,2,3 , … … … , n]

B n−i+1

Bn−i
√| |
k
2
Thus, x i=2k th root of x i= ................................................. (12)
Bn−i+1

The main advantage of Graeffe’s root squaring method over other methods is that it does not require any
initial guessing about roots. The method is also capable of giving all the roots but the limitation is that the
polynomial should have only real coefficients.