Energy 60 (2013) 1-167

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Energy
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Production and characterization of biodiesel obtained from Sapindus CrossMark

mukorossi kernel oil
M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah
Department of Energy, Tezpur University, Napaam 784028, Assam, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Sapindus mukorossi is a tree available in northeastern region of India. Fruit of S. mukorossi has
Received 10 January 2013 some traditional usage and its kernel contains 39% (w/w) oil. Prospect of S. mukorossi oil for biodiesel
Received in revised form 11 June production is investigated with reference to some relevant properties. The fatty acid profile of oil extracted from
2013 Accepted 25 July 2013
Available online 28 August 2013
S. mukorossi is found comparable with similar seed oils attempted for biodiesel production in this region.
Since the acid value of S. mukorossi is found to be 15.6 mgKOH/g, so biodiesel is prepared using two
stage transesterification. In the first step, alcohol to oil molar ratio of 6:1 with 1 wt% of H 2SO4, results the
maximum reduction in acid value (acid value 1.89 mgKOH/g) within 60 min. In the second step, 10:1 alcohol to
Keywords:
oil molar ratio and 1wt% NaOCH3 gives the optimum yield of biodiesel. Finally, the biodiesel is
Sapindus mukorossi
Acid value NMR
confirmed by the peaks appeared j ^________ properties of the biodiesel are obtained
using standard ASTM techniques and found to conform to the existing norms.
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction specific factors influencing the choice of feedstocks for

Addressing for a solution of diminishing petroleum reserves and climate
change, potential renewable energy sources have been adopted as a replacement of
conventional energy sources [1-3]. Like other renewable sources, biodiesel is also
gaining interest due to its renewability, environmental friendly and diesel like
behaviour [4,5]. Biodiesel, defined as FAME (fatty acid methyl esters) of
vegetable oils, animal fats, or waste cooking oils, has appeared as a technically
viable possibility for replacing petro-diesel [6,7]. Technologically, biodiesel can
compete with petro-diesel, not requiring major engine modifications [8]. Biodiesel
has favourable lubrication properties [9] and better emission characteristics [10].
Poor oxidation stability, higher density and lower calorific value are some of its
limitations [11,12]. However, most of the limitations associated with the use of
biodiesel are addressed by adding suitable additives or by blending with petro-
diesel [13,14].
Even though biodiesel production capability has noticeably been increased in
developed countries as well as in developing countries like Brazil, Indonesia,
Malaysia and India [15], but economically viable production still remains as a
major issue. It is reported that the cost of raw material is the prime contributor to
the biodiesel production cost [16-18]. There are also some region
biodiesel production. Soybean oil is so far the leading
feedstock for production of biodiesel in U.S. [19]. Sunflower,
canola, palm, cottonseed are the major biodiesel production
sources in Brazil [20]. India, although produces edible oils, is
not self-sufficient even to fulfil its domestic requirements.
Considering this issue, edible oils cannot be utilized for
production of biodiesel in India. Thus, the raw materials
which are presently intended for biodiesel production in India
are non-edible vegetable oils like Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot)
[21], Pongamia glabra (Karanja) [22], Hevea brancilis (Rubber) [23] and
Madhuca indica (Mahua) [24]. These are commonly found in the
forests of India. In addition to above species, identification of
new feedstocks for biodiesel production have been carried out
with promising results. Potentiality of Thevetia peruviana [25],
Terminalia belerica [26], Schleichera triguga [27] and Calophyllum inophyllum
L. [28] are demonstrated through such recent research efforts.
The effort to identify new sustainable and non-edible feedstock has been
continued in India. In this move, Sapindus mukorossi kernel has been considered
to investigate its prospect and feasibility as feedstock. S. mukorossi is fairly large,
deciduous tree; usually up to 20 m tall with about 1.8 m girth [Fig. 1 ] and it
belongs to the family Sapindeacea. The species flourishes well in deep loam soil
and does best in areas experiencing nearly 150—200 cm of annual rainfall. Round
shaped fruits are about 1.8—2.5 cm diameter [Fig. 2]. The shells appear golden
 2 M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah / Energy 60 (2013) 159—167
yellow when harvested but become darker red once dried. Flowers appear during
May to June and the matured fruit harvesting period is during October to
Fig. 1. A matured Sapindus mukorossi tree.
November [29,30]. The wood is hard and light yellow in colour and is utilized for
rural building construction, oil and sugar presses, and agricultural implements.
S. mukorossi seed is rich in saponin content. Saponin is a natural detergent
commonly used for cleaning. The fruit pulp is used as traditional soap. The pulp
has also other traditional medicinal usages like expectorant, emetic and
contraceptive. The saponins produced from the pulp are also used as a textile
auxiliary and an emulsifier in insecticides [29]. Fruits of S. mukorossi are reported
to contain sesquiterpenoidal glycosides and six different fatty ester of tetracyclic
triterpenoids. Leaf of S. mukorossi contains different type of flavanoids like
quercetin, apigenin, kaempferol and rutin. Various types of triterpene, saponins of
oleanane, dammarane and tirucullane type can also be isolated from the galls,
fruits and roots of S. mukorossi [30]. However, extensive commercial exploitation
of fruits of S. mukorossi is not visible till now, though prospect of pulp as a
valuable chemical has already been demonstrated. The
Fig. 2. Whole seed and kernel of Sapindus mukorossi.
economic viability of planting the tree and harvesting its
fruits is anticipated to enhance with the prospect of by-
product utilization. If pulp is considered as raw material for
chemical industry, kernel could be useful by-product for
biodiesel. Thus, additional utilization of S. mukorossi seeds for
biodiesel production would enhance the economic situation of
planting of S. mukorossi in forest land. Although the information
regarding the yield could not be confirmed from literature, it
is learnt that a single tree produces about 123 kg of fruits per
annum.
In view of the above prospects, this study has been aimed to investigate the
feasibility of biodiesel production from S. mukorossi kernel oil through
appropriate experiment. Optimization of some production parameters is also done.
Further, fuel properties of biodiesel are also investigated and compared with the
ASTM and European standard specifications.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The experiments are carried out in the Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Assam, India. Raw materials used in the study are S. mukorossi oil
(seeds procured from forest of Assam, India), methanol (synthesis grade) of assay
>99% and water content <2%; petroleum ether (bp. 40—60 ° C) and sodium
sulphate dry (purified) purchased from Merck Limited, Mumbai, India. Sulphuric
acid (85% pure) and sodium metal, procured from Qualigen Fine Chemicals,
India, are used as catalyst.
2.2. Preparation of vegetable oil
Fruits of S. mukorossi are kept in oven for drying at 80 °C for 4 h. Dried fruits
are shelled to obtain kernels. Seeds are repeatedly dried in oven to reduce its
moisture content up to 3%. For determination of the weight percentage of different
components viz., mesocarp (fleshy cover), endocarp (hard coat) and seed (kernel),
the weights of these components are separately measured.
The oil is extracted from the milled kernel by petroleum ether with the help of
Soxhlet extraction system using standard procedure generally followed for oil
extraction [22,26,31]. The extracted oil is used for the determination of properties
as well as for production of biodiesel. Oil content is estimated on the basis of
weight of seed kernel.
 M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah / Energy 60 (2013) 159—167
Fig. 3. Flowchart of 2-
stage transesterification
process.
2.3. Preparation of biodiesel
2.3.1. Experimental setup
Biodiesel is prepared by acid esterification (pretreatment) followed by alkaline
transesterification. The setup for both esterification and transesterification consist
of a 500 ml three necked reaction flask equipped with a reflux condenser, an rpm
controlled magnetic stirrer with hot plate and a thermocouple thermometer. The
details of the esterification (pretreatment) and alkaline transesterification are given
below.
2.3.2. Pretreatment
Methanol and vegetable oil at 6:1 ratio is taken in the reaction flask, and the
mixture is heated up to 55 °C. After attaining the temperature, 1 wt% of anhydrous
sulphuric acid is added drop-wise to the mixture. The reaction is continued for 60
min, maintaining a constant stirring speed of 600 rpm. After esterification, the
product
3
is shifted to a separating funnel, followed by 3 h of decantation. The upper layer
contains mixture of unreacted methanol and free fatty acid. A layer containing
mixture of mono, di-, tri-glycerides and methyl-ester formed during reaction is
settled at bottom [32]. The unreacted methanol is then removed from the mixture
using rotary vacuum evaporator. The lower layer is then separated from the
mixture. The acid value of the product is determined (ASTM D664) to ensure
completion of the reaction, so that the product could be taken to the second stage
of transesterification reaction. Acid value of the feedstock was reduced to 1.89 mg
KOH/g (FFA (free fatty acid) ~ 0.94%). The product obtained after acid
esterification is dried in an oven for 3 h. After cooling to room temperature, it is
passed over anhydrous sodium sulphate to remove the left over moisture.
2.3.3. Alkaline transesterification
The cooled dried product of first stage esterification is subjected to alkaline
transesterification. In this stage, the product of first stage
Table 1
Fatty acid profile4 of Sapindus mukorossi oil in comparison to oils of similar oil bearing tree species.
M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah / Energy 60 (2013) 159—167
Fatty acid Molecular formula
% by weight
mukorossi a
indicac Pongamia Hevea
Sapindus mukorossi
b
glabra brasiliensis
Myristic acid C14H28O2 0 1 0 0 0
Palmitic acid C16H32O2 5.5 4 16.0—28.2 11.3 10.2
(75.1) (51.3) (46.1)
Palmitoleic acid C16H30O2 0.3 0 0 0 0
C H O
Stearic acid 18 36 2 2.3 0.2 20.0—25.1 9.8 8.7
(89.8) (76.5) (73.5)
C H O
Oleic acid 18 34 2 58.4 62.8 41.00—51.00 45.25 24.7
(26.9) (29.1) (136.4)
C H O
Linoleic acid 18 32 2 5.4 4.6 8.9—13.7 24.7 39.6
(52.2) (78.2) (86.4)
Arachidic acid C H O
20 40 2 7.5 4.4 0.0—3.3 0 0
(127.2)
Linolenic acid C H O
18 30 2 17.1 1.6 0 2.9 16.3
Behenic acid C22H44O2 1 22.4 0 3.2 0
Erucic acid C H O
22 42 2 0.4 0 0 0 0
Lignoceric acid C H O
24 48 2 0.2 0 0 0 0
Unidentified — 1.9 0 0 0 0
Saturated fatty acids — 16.5 31 47.9 24.3 18.9
Unsaturated fatty acids — 81.6 69 57.3 72.9 80.6
Figures in the bracket indicates the percentage difference with reference to Sapindus mukorossi oil. a Values of present work. b Values reported by Sengupta et al. c Values are reported in
range.

is taken in 500 ml reaction flask and kept over the hot plate magnetic stirrer at 65 2.4. Determination of properties of vegetable oil and FAME
°C for about 30 min. Methanol in specific (detail discussed later) proportion is then
Fig. 4. (a)
added Yield
into theofoil.
Sapindus
Whenmukorossi
the mixturebiodiesel by varying reaches
temperature the methanol to oilfreshly
65 °C, with reaction time,
prepared (b) Yield of Sapindus
Fatty acid compositionof the oil is determined by Gas chromatography
mukorossi biodiesel by varying the catalyst concentration with reaction time.
NaOCH3 (sodium methoxide) in specific (detail later) proportion is added to the technique using standard procedure (AOCS Official Method 1998; Ce 1—62 and
mixture as catalyst and allowed to stir up to 120 min at 600 rpm. After completion Ce 2—66) in Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India. The
of the reaction, excess methanol is separated from the mixture with the help of formation of methyl ester is confirmed by the study of 1H NMR and 13C NMR
rotary vacuum evaporator. The mixture is then transferred into a separating funnel spectroscopy. The NMR analyses of the biodiesel sample were performed on a
and allowed to settle. After about 6 h of decantation, two distinct layers of methyl Varian Unity INOVA 400 NMR spectrometer (Varian Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA)
ester (biodiesel) and glycerol are formed. After separation of glycerol, unreacted operating at 400 MHz and using CCl 4 as the solvent. Other fuel properties are
methanol is removed by rotary vacuum evaporator. Biodiesel is washed for 7—8 evaluated according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
times with distilled water to remove the trace amount of glycerol present in it. standard) standard methods.
Finally, biodiesel is dried by passing over heated sodium sulphate. The
measurements at each stage are recorded to determine the yield of biodiesel. 3. Results and discussion
Series of repeated experiments are conducted for the second stage
transesterification with varying molar ratio (alcohol: oil) and catalyst concentration 3.1. Characteristics of S. mukorossi seed oil
to determine the optimum parameters for the highest conversion. The flowchart of
2-stage transesterification process of S. mukorossi is shown in Fig. 3. It is found that the fruit of S. mukorossi consists of 15% kernel, 10% mesocrap
and 75% endocarp. Kernel of S. mukorossi contains 39% w/w oil. Fatty acid
profile and other oil properties are presented and discussed below.

3.1.1. Fatty acid profile of S. mukorossi oil
The fatty acid profile of S. mukorossi oil is presented in Table 1. The fatty acid
profiles of S. mukorossi oil reported by Sengupta et al. [33] and three similar types
of tree born non-edible seed oils are also presented in Table 1.
It is found that 16.5% of the S. mukorossi oil is saturated while 81.6% of oil is
unsaturated. Amongst the saturated fatty acid, arachidic acid is the highest (7.5%),
followed by palmitic acid (5.5%). The other saturated fatty acids are stearic acid
(2.3%), behenic acid (1%) and lignoceric acid (0.2%). Amongst the unsaturated
fatty acids, oleic acid (58.4%) is the most dominant one. The other types of
unsaturated fatty acids include linolenic (17.1%) and linoleic acid (5.4%). Trace
amount of erucic acid (0.4%) and palmitoleic acid (0.3%) are also present.
It is observed that the minor components of palmitoleic, behenic, erucic and
lignoceric acid obtained in the present study were not reported by earlier study.
Oleic acid is the dominant fatty acid of S. mukorossi oil in both studies. The acid
profiles of S. mukorossi oils of this work differ from Sengupta et al., particularly
for linolenic and behenic acids. The varietal difference of the plants might be the
reason of compositional variation which requires further investigation.
The fatty acid profile of S. mukorossi oil differs from that of other four types
of oil. S. mukorossi oil is richer in arachidic acid while poorer in palmitic acid as
compared to the other varieties of oils considered in this study. Like pongamia, a
small amount of behenic acid is present in S. mukorossi, and also contain
lignoceric acid which is absent in all the oils considered for the study. Amongst
the
 M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah /Energy 60 (2013) 159—167
un-saturated fatty acids, oleic and linolenic are the major components in S.
mukorossi oil. Share of oleic is higher in S. mukorossi oil than all the oils
considered in the present study. On the other hand, linolenic percentage in S.
mukorossi is higher than that of pongamia and hevea. It is further noted that a small
amount of erucic acid is present in S. mukorossi, which is absent in all cases.
3.1.2. Properties of S. mukorossi oil
The properties of S. mukorossi oil are presented in Table 2. The density of S.
mukorossi oils at 15 °C is 923 kg/m3. It is also observed that S. mukorossi oil is
lighter than pongamia, and madhuca by 0.86%, and 3.85%, respectively, but
heavier (1.41%) than hevea oil. Viscosity of S. mukorossi oil is 32.1 mm2/s, which
is higher than madhuca, and pongamia by 30.59%, and 23.18%, respectively.
However, viscosity of hevea is 51.51% more than S. mukorossi oil. Calorific value
of S. mukorossi oil is found to be 38 MJ/kg, which is higher than madhuca
(5.26%), but lower than pongamia (6.20%). The acid value of S. mukorossi (15.6
mgKOH/g) is more than pon- gamia (1.21 mgKOH/g), but lower than that of
madhuca and hevea. Acid value mainly depends on the harvesting and storage
condition of the seed. For the present study, S. mukorossi seeds have been collected
from a nursery where those are stored for 5—6 months after harvesting. This may
be the reason of higher acid value of S. mukorossi oil. Flash point of S. mukorossi
oil is 159 °C, which is lower as compared to madhuca (232 °C) and hevea (198
°C). The cloud point and pour point of S. mukorossi are found as 8 °C and 6 °C,
respectively. The ash content of S. mukorossi oil (0.02 wt %) is lower than that of
madhuca (0.9 wt%). Carbon residue value for S. mukorossi oil is 1.10 wt%, which
is also lower than pongamia (8.55%) and madhuca (70.22%).
3.2. Biodiesel process parameters
Due to higher acid value of S. mukorossi oil (15.6 mgKOH/g), a pretreatment
stage is required prior to alkaline transesterification for successful production S.
mukorossi biodiesel. It is observed that molar ratio of 6:1 with 1 wt% of H 2SO4,
resulted the maximum reduction in acid value (acid value 1.89 mgKOH/g) within
60 min. For this experiment, temperature is kept constant at 55 °C.
The methanol/oil molar ratio (4:1, 6:1, 8:1, 10:1 and 12:1) is varied to find the
effect of varying amount of methanol on biodiesel production. In all the five
experiments, 600 rpm rate of agitation; 65 ° C reaction temperature and 1.00 wt%
NaOCH3 are employed. The optimum yield (92.5%) of S. mukorossi biodiesel is
gained at methanol/oil molar ratio of 8:1 (Fig. 4(a)). Higher quantities (beyond 8:1)
of methanol had an adverse effect on biodiesel production. This is evidenced by
steadily lowering yields with increasing molar ratio from 10:1 to 12:1 ( Fig. 4(a)).
At methanol to oil molar ratios greater than 8:1, separation of esters from glycerol
was difficult. The unreacted methanol, when present, can suppress the gravity
decantation so that the apparent yield of biodiesel decreases because traces of
5
glycerol may remain in the biodiesel phase. Similar results are also obtained by
Kafuku and Mbarawa [34] and Anwara et al. [35] while transesterifying Moringa
oleifera and Hibiscus esculentus oils, respectively.
While studying the effect of catalyst amount on biodiesel yield, different sets
of experiments are carried out with varying the amount of catalyst, keeping molar
ratio 8:1 and temperature 65 °C and stirring speed at 600 rpm as constant ( Fig. 4
(b)). The effect of NaOCH 3 concentration on the transesterification of the oil is
observed with its concentration varying from 0.5 to 1.5 wt%. Experimental results
show changes in ester yield with different catalyst concentration. As the sodium
hydroxide concentration increases, the yield of ester content also increases.
Insufficient amounts of NaOCH3 resulted in incomplete conversion of triglycerides
into the esters, as indicated, from its lower ester yield. The ester content reached an
optimal value as the NaOCH3 concentration reached 1 wt%, and further increases
in catalyst concentration caused decrease in ester production (Fig. 4 (b)). A large
amount of soap is observed while adding excess amount of sodium methoxide (1.5
wt%). Similiar observations are also noticed by earlier researchers [27,34,36] and
explained that increased saponification occurs due to the addition of excess
alkaline catalyst.
The product formation is confirmed by the peaks appeared in 1H NMR and 13C
NMR. The representation of each peak is as shown in Table 3 and depicted in Fig.
5(a) and (b).
The appearance of singlet signal at d 3.64 in 1H NMR and d 51.20 in 13C NMR
represent methoxy protons and methoxy carbon of the ester functionality on
conversion of oil to methyl ester. The NMR spectra also confirm that the biodiesel
is free from glycerol as no signal corresponding to glycerol moiety appears in 1H
NMR and 13C NMR spectra for S. mukorossi biodiesel. Proton and carbon NMR
spectra obtained in this study is comparable with Thevetia peruviana methyl ester
as reported in literature [25].
3.3. Properties of S. mukorossi biodiesel
Alkaline transesterification gives 92.5% conversion of triglycerides to
biodiesel. The different properties of S. mukorossi oil (Table 2) and biodiesel
(Table 4) are presented. The fuel properties of S. mukorossi oil and biodiesel are
determined with standard methods and compared to ASTM D 6751-07b and EN
14214-07 and petro-diesel, obtained from Numaligarh Refinery (Table 4). The EN
14214-07 standard shows that biodiesel should have a density value of 860—900
kg/m3. The density of S. mukorossi oil is found to decrease in S. mukorossi
biodiesel (876 kg/m3), well within the specified limit of ASTM as well as European
standard specifications (Table 4). According to EN 14214: 07 and ASTM D 6751-
07b, desirable viscosity ranges are 3.5—5.0 and 1.9—6.0 mm 2/s, respectively.
Viscosity of S. mukorossi biodiesel is 4.63 mm2/s, which is within the range of
ASTM D 6751-07b and EN 14214-07 standard specification. The major fatty acid
components present in
 M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah /Energy 60 (2013) 159—167
S. mukorossi oil are oleic, linolenic, palmitic and arachidic acid, and the viscosity
values of corresponding methyl esters at 40 °C are reported previously as 4.51
mm2/s, 3.14 mm2/s and 4.38 mm2/s, respectively, except for methyl arachidate, for
which no value was reported [37]. Thus, the observed viscosity value for S.
mukorossi biodiesel is explained by its constituent fatty acids. Cetane number of
S. mukorossi biodiesel is 56, which falls in the range of EN 14214: 07 as well as
ASTM D 6751-07b specification [Table 4]. The S. mukorossi biodiesel has CP and
PP values of -1 °C and -4 °C, respectively. These values are higher than those
specified for petroleum diesel but falls within the range of ASTM D6751-07b
standard specification.
Sulphur content of S. mukorossi (102 ppm) biodiesel is lower than diesel
considered for the present study (250 ppm). However,
6
sulphur content of the biodiesel does not conform to the norm
of EN 14214-07. Higher content of sulphur in the resulting
biodiesel might have originated due to the processing steps.
The presence of sulphur in parent oil could not be confirmed.
The use of sulphuric acid as catalysts for the esterification
step and the use of anhydrous sodium sulphate for the drying
of the oil and the biodiesel could be the cause of this high
sulphur content. Therefore, alternative acid catalyst such as,
p-toluenesulphonic acid may be investigated for its efficacy
in esterification step. Similarly, possibility of using alter-
native physical drying technique (such as 4 A molecular
 M. Chakraborty, D.C. Baruah / Energy 60 (2013) 159—7
sieve) [38] instead of anhydrous sodium sulphate for removing
moisture from the biodiesel sample may be attempted to
ensure sulphur free fuel.
Water content of S. mukorossi biodiesel is 86 mg/kg and found to conform to
the limit of EN 14214-07 standard specification.
Figures in the parenthesis represents percentage change in properties w.r.t. Sapindus mukorossi. NA-Not available.
S. mukorossi biodiesel shows better lubricating property as compared to petro-
diesel. Lubricity is measured in terms of wear scar diameter, which is found as
0.181 mm for S. mukorossi biodiesel, much less than that of diesel (0.450 mm).
Oxidation stability is measured in terms of Induction period, which is found to be
1.20 h for S. mukorossi biodiesel. Induction period is well below the standard
norm as per EN 14214-07. Thus, proper antioxidant additives may need to be
identified through experiments to enhance the oxidation stability of S. mukorossi
biodiesel. Again, S. mukorossi biodiesel contain 74.1 wt% Carbon, 14.1 wt%
Hydrogen and 10.6 wt% Oxygen.
The distillation characteristic of hydrocarbons has extensive implication on
engine performance and safety. The distillation characteristics show that the
boiling range of S. mukorossi biodiesel is 193 °C—383 °C, 93% of which is boiled
off at 350 °C. The IBP (initial boiling point) of diesel obtained from Numaligarh
refinery is 145.2 °C with uniform boiling range. According to ASTM standard
specification, 90% distillation recovery of biodiesel should be within 360 °C. FBP
(final boiling point) of Pongamia glabra (430 °C) biodiesel is much higher than S.
mukorossi (383 °C) biodiesel and petro-diesel (370 ° C). As reported, the presence
of high boiling point components can significantly affect the degree of formation
of undesirable solid combustion deposit [13]. Thus, S. mukorossi has favourable
distillation characteristics considering the specification prescribed by ASTM
D6751-07b.
4. Conclusions
The present investigation aims to investigate the forest tree (S. mukorossi) oil
seed as a potential source of biodiesel feedstock. Fatty acid methyl ester is
prepared under optimized reaction parameters, with a pretreatment stage followed
by alkaline catalytic transesterification. It is observed that the oil content of this
species is comparable with similar tree seed oils, which have also been identified
as promising source of biodiesel feedstock. Moreover, the fuel characteristics of
biodiesel obtained from S. mukorossi falls within the existing biodiesel standards.
Therefore, promotion of these tree species in the forest areas of India could
favourably help the National Biodiesel programme.
Acknowledgements
The work is dedicated to the memory of Late Prof D Konwer. The authors
acknowledge the help of CFTRI, Mysore, Numaligarh Refinery Ltd. and
Department of Chemical Sciences, Tezpur University by way of providing the
platform for some of the laboratory works. One of the authors (MC) is also
grateful to UGC for providing financial assistance in the form of meritorious
fellowship for carrying out this work. The valuable suggestions received from one
of the Anonymous reviewers improved the manuscript and therefore, Authors are
grateful to him/her.
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