Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters

Q1 Q1
U1
U1 LT3092 R3
3x.6 Floating High-Voltage Current Sources LM317L R3

A simple pull-up resistor is commonly used within cir-
cuits, for example to bias a circuit, to act as the load for
an amplifier stage, to kickstart a regulator, etc. But the re-
sistor’s current is linear in the voltage drop, which can be
inconvenient when it has to operate over a range of volt-
ages: The available current falls as the signal rises toward
the supply voltage (when you may need it most to drive the
output stage, say). Its finite impedance also limits ampli-
fier gain, according to G=gm Rpullup. A good current source
provides an excellent solution to these shortcomings; it is
often a superior replacement for the humble pull-up resis-
tor.
Most of the current sources, current sinks, and current
mirrors we’ve discussed required using the ground bus or
a power-supply rail; that is, they were three-terminal cir-
cuits. But for many applications what you need is a “float-
ing” (two-terminal) current source. It’s a bit tricky, though,
because a two-terminal current source requires an active
component that’s always on, powered from the same cur-
rent that it’s regulating.
You can make a simple 2-terminal current source with
a self-biased depletion-mode FET (JFET or MOSFET), a
subject we introduced in §3.2.2 (there built with JFETs),
and which makes a later appearance in connection with
voltage regulators in §9.3.14 (there built with depletion-
mode MOSFETs). In §3.2.2B we discussed the problem
of predictability of ID caused by poorly specified transfer
characteristics (ID versus VGS ), and in §3.2.2D we intro-
duced the JFET cascode (Fig. 3.27) to mitigate the varia-
tion of ID with drain voltage.
The unpredictability of the simple two-terminal self-
biased current source (§9.3.14, Figure 9.36D,E; repeated
here later as Figure 3x.52A) can be addressed by com-
bining a regulating IC with a depletion-mode MOSFET.
In the main volume we hinted at this technique (Fig-
ures 3.114 and 9.104), but there’s a gotcha lurking in
those circuits, because they depend on the relatively large
gate–source back-bias of about −2 V, for the suggested
IXTP08N50 depletion-mode MSOFET at the operating
current, to power the IC. This problem can be circumvented
by boosting Q1 ’s gate voltage with a zener, raising the
MOSFET’s source terminal well above the dropout volt-
IN
Z1 Z1
IN SET OUT
OUT
ADJ
R1
R2 R1
1.25V R
I= + 50μA I = 10μA · ( R2 + 1)
R1 1
A. Imin = 5mA B. Imin = 0.5mA
Figure 3x.51. Floating (two-terminal) current sources. The nega-
tive gate–source voltage VGS of depletion MOSFET Q1 creates a
current through R1 to power active zener Z1 .
age of regulator U1 ; see Figure 3x.51. These circuit require
a minimum operating current (to bias the zener and power
the regulator), but they are quite effective at high currents,
particularly if the voltages aren’t too high. A similar ap-
proach is shown in Figure 3x.56, and later in Figure 3x.68
in the context of high-voltage precision two-terminal cur-
rent sources.
In this section we’re going to concentrate on low-current
high-voltage two-terminal current sources, with an empha-
sis on circuits with low capacitance, and aimed particularly
at achieving better constancy of current with variations in
voltage (i.e., raised output impedance), and the extension
of operating voltage to the kilovolt scale. In a later chapter
(in §4x.23) we describe an amplifier whose performance
relies on a high-voltage current source with low capaci-
tance; that application does not require precision, or un-
usually high dynamic impedance. In this section, however,
we’ll see how well one can do with circuits that are rela-
tively simple.38
3x.6.1 Raising output impedance with a cascode
Figure 3x.52A shows the simple self-biased depletion-
mode current source, where R1 sets the operating current ID
to a value at which the voltage drop ID R1 equals the gate–
source voltage VGS appropriate to that current (refer back to
Figure 3.23). For a given value of R1 the current will show
some variation with changes in drain voltage, because the
38
In some respects we’ll succeed too well – for example producing dy-
namic impedances greater than 1010 Ω, not needed for any application
we can think of!
 194 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters

FET with fixed VGS is not a perfect current source, that is,
it does not have infinite output resistance (Figure 9.41 il-
lustrates this problem).
The cascode does its magic by protecting the current-
setting transistor from drain voltage variations, as seen in
Figure 3x.52B (where it is applied to a depletion-mode
MOSFET, illustrated with the handy LND150). Here Q1
sets the current with self-biasing resistor R1 , while Q2
clamps Q1 ’s drain-source voltage to the value of Q2 ’s gate–
source voltage;39 that is, VDS1 =VGS2 .
plateaued to its saturation value, and is thus somewhat sen-
sitive to drain voltage (see Fig. 3.13). Ideally you’d like Q2
to be operating with somewhat more than 1 V; you could
use a MOSFET with larger VGS(off) , perhaps41 a BSS126
(with VGS ≈−1.45 V at ID =0.5 mA), but it’s best to avoid a
large-geometry MOSFET because the latter generally have
undesirably large capacitances.
5%
LND150 cascode current source
no cascode

Current Change, ∆I / Io
4% cascode
500μA MΩ
Q2 100μA 20
LND150 3%
500μA

Q1 2% MΩ
Q1 LND150 100μA 20 0
Q3
LND150
2N3904
1% 9 0 MΩ

R1 R1 1.7GΩ
0%
0 100 200 300 400 500
A. B. DC Voltage (V)

Figure 3x.52. Depletion-mode MOSFET 2-terminal current Figure 3x.53. Measured current variation for the circuits of
source. A. Simplest self-biased circuit. B. Cascode Q2 isolates Fig. 3x.52. Points represent equilibrium values of dc current in still
Q1 from voltage swings, raising output impedance. Further air. The output resistance is dominated by thermal effects; the dy-
refinements follow in Fig. 3x.54, where they are labeled C and D. namic impedances are 10×–100× higher.

We set up both circuits, selecting values of R1 to produce
100 µ A or 500 µ A drain currents, and measured the current
variation over the full specified 500 V drain-source voltage
range. Figure 3x.53 shows the results, along with approxi-
mate values of the equivalent output resistance.40 The cas-
code improves constancy of current by a factor of five to
ten, with quite respectable output impedances (1.7G Ω at
100 µ A, 90 MΩ at 500 µ A).
You might well wonder why there’s any variation at all.
A good question. And the answer is that the VGS of Q2
varies a bit with drain voltage, and, because it sets Q1 ’s
drain voltage, it causes Q1 ’s drain current to vary. This
second-order effect would ordinarily be insignificant, but it
matters here because Q1 is operating at very low VDS (typ-
ically less than a volt), where its drain current has not yet
39 BJT Q3 , wired as a low-capacitance ∼ 6 V zener, protects Q2 ’s gate in
the event of drain-source breakdown.
40 A note about this graph, and those following: For the common case of
a current source pulling up to a positive supply rail, increasing voltages
across the (two-terminal) current source correspond to more negative
node voltages within the components of the current source. And the
highest voltage drops correspond to the (low-side) output near the neg-
ative supply rail.
There’s another effect at work here, namely thermal drift
from Pdiss = IDVDS self-heating in the transistor (recall the
tempco of ID , seen in Fig. 3.14, reflected in the measured
thermal drift of Fig. 3.22A). This affects particularly the
simple current source (Fig. 3x.52A), where the current-
setting transistor Q1 bears the full brunt of the power dis-
sipation. When measuring the currents for Figure 3x.53,
we typically saw very little initial current change when the
voltage was stepped, followed by a slow rise (on a time
scale of a minute or so) to a new equilibrium value. Put an-
other way, the dynamic resistance of the current source is
far larger than its dc resistance, by an estimated factor of
10×–100×. That puts the signal-frequency impedance up
in the 10’s of gigaohms, far better than needed for any real-
world application.42 We’ll pick up the small-signal thread
presently (§3x.6.3 on the facing page), after a short digres-
sion on power dissipation.
41
We reconfigured the circuit of Figure 3x.52B, replacing Q2 with a
BSS126. That raised Q1 ’s VDS from 1.13 V to 1.56 V (for 100 µ A), and
from 0.73 V to 1.32 V (for 500 µ A). This change doubled the measured
static (dc) output resistances, increasing them to 3 GΩ and 230 MΩ (for
100 µ A and 500 µ A, respectively).
42 Are the authors merely lacking in imagination? Send us your suggested
applications.
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters 3x.6.2. Reducing power dissipation 195

3x.6.2 Reducing power dissipation enough. But keep in mind that (a) resistors are allowed to
get hotter than semiconductors; and, perhaps most impor-
Happily, these thermal effects can be mitigated signifi-
tant, (b) we want to mitigate the degradation of circuit per-
cantly by bridging the drain-source terminals with a resis-
formance that is caused by heating of the active devices
tor (R2 in Fig. 3x.54C), chosen to bypass a bit less than
(i.e., semiconductor temperature coefficients of ID , etc.),
the full current at maximum voltage. Your first reaction
so it’s better to offload the heat to the simple-minded (and
might well be “That can’t work, because a resistor is not a
non-critical) resistors.45
constant current source.” Your second thought, if you stick
with it, is a resounding “Yes! It works just fine, as long as to 500V
the transistor is still in conduction, because R1 sees the to- 500μA
tal current, and adjusts Q1 ’s drain current as needed.” Good to 500V
thinking. 750k
0.5mA 1/8W
Another benefit is the ability to operate at a higher cur- R4 Q3
BSS126
750k 750k
rent without exceeding the transistor’s maximum temper- 1/4W 1/8W
250ºC/W
ature. For the single transistor circuit of Figure 3x.54C, LND150 Q1 R4
170ºC/W 750k
for example, the transistor would dissipate 250 mW at the 1/4W Q1
maximum voltage of 500 V, raising the junction temper- LND150
ature43 (TJ ) an impressive ∆TJA = Rθ JA Pdiss = 42◦C above R1
1kΩ*
ambient44 (see §9.4 for for a discussion of thermal calcu- (select) R3
1k*
lations). That’s not a good situation, because the inside of (select)
a box full of powered electronics may be around ∼ 50◦ C,
max ∆TJA:
or even 60◦C, thus a transistor temperature of as much 42ºC → 14ºC (TO-92)
as 125◦ C, which is our nominal design limit for reliable C. 88ºC → 30ºC (SOT-23) D. Q3 max ∆TJA: 63ºC → 20ºC
power electronics; and if we were to try to go up to 1 mA,
Figure 3x.54. Reducing power dissipation with a shunt resistor,
we’d see a scary 125◦ C rise to 180◦C.
implemented as a series pair to respect maximum voltage ratings
It’s easy to figure out the reduction in transistor dissipa-
of the resistors (see Fig. 9.112). Thermal resistances shown are
tion, which we’ve plotted for several current-bypass ratios for Q1 in a TO-92 package, and for Q2 in SOT-23 with minimum
in Figure 3x.55. With the values shown we’ve bypassed pad sizes. These “C” and “D” circuit refinements follow on the sim-
a fraction η = 0.66 of the current at the maximum op- ple current sources of Fig. 3x.52A and B. See Fig. 3x.57 for ex-
erating voltage of Vmax = 500 V, reducing the worst-case tending this trick to higher voltages. Warning: the LND150 has a
dissipation of a SOT-23 to 33% of 250 mW, or 83 mW. non-standard pinout; it is not the same as the BSS126!
So the SMT transistor’s maximum heating above ambient
amounts to ∆TJA = 21◦ C (thus a very reasonable TJ ≈ 81◦C
even at a tropical 60◦ C ambient temperature).
3x.6.3 Small-signal output impedance
You can exploit this same benefit with the cascode cur-
rent source, as in Figure 3x.54D. An analogous thermal Plots of current versus voltage, like those in Figure 3x.53,
calculation for the cascode transistor (that’s the one that can be characterized by an output resistance ro , as we’ve
gets hot, here) shows that the peak dissipation is reduced done there. But there’s another way of thinking about the
from 250 mW to 80 mW, lowering the transistor’s worst- origin of the current change that is helpful in revealing
case heating from ∆TJA = 63◦ C down to 20◦ C. (See Fig- the important factors that limit the ideal of infinite ro . To
ure 3x.66 for helpful plots of ID versus VGS for the BSS126 keep things simple, imagine the case of a single FET with
and LND150 small depletion-mode MOSFETs.) grounded source terminal.
Readers in a cranky frame of mind may object that
45
we’re not accomplishing much here, because the same to- An important note: Most of the measurements above were made with
tal amount of heat has to be dissipated either way. True though-hole parts mounted on a solderless breadboard. This had the ef-
fect of isolating the current-programming semiconductor from the heat-
43 Well, it’s not really a junction, but that’s the conventional language, producing resistors. To achieve similar results with SMT components
given the historical fact that junction transistors (BJTs) predated the on a PCB, you may need to isolate the critical part (for example in its
oxide-insulated field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) used here. SOT-23 package) from the hot parts, with a slot cutout in the PCB. A
44 For the through-hole TO-92 package; for the BSS126’s surface-mount 1 mm-wide slot curved around the part should work well. Read on, for
package it would be 63◦ C. analogous performance results with components mounted on a PCB.
 196 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters

1 MOSFET) to program the output current are inherently in-

Transistor Dissipation (P / IoVmax )

Vmax accurate, owing to their manufacturing spread; see for ex-

= η Io
R
ample the measured histogram in Figure 3.17, or the mea-
no resistor sured transfer characteristics in Figure 3.25. Although you
can generally expect a smaller spread within a given man-
η=0.5
0.5 ufacturing batch of MOSFETs, you cannot depend upon
η=0.66 finding the same characteristics in some other batch, or in
η=0.8 the parts made by a different manufacturer. In other words,
η=1 if you need to create a current with an accuracy better than,
say, ±50%, you’ll have to select the value of the source
0 bias resistor to match the particular FET.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
DC Voltage (V/Vmax )
I0 I1 = 67mV (±6%)
Q1 R1
Figure 3x.55. Fractional reduction of transistor power dissipation 250μA ±6% LND150
for the circuit technique of Figure 3x.54. The parameter η is the I2 =
Vmin
fraction of total current that is bypassed through the shunt resis- R2 + R3
U1
tor at maximum voltage; η = 0.66 is a good choice, with maximum LM334 R3
R2 Vmin = (1 + ) VGS(@ I0 )
transistor dissipation just 34% of the maximum total. R2
50k
R1 e.g., for I0 = 250μA
Written in terms of small-signal variations, the meaning 291Ω and Vmin = 3V,
R3
of a drain output resistance rd is that a drain voltage vari- 100k if VGS @ 250μA = 1V,
I1
I2 = 20μA
ation vds produces a drain current variation id according I1 = 230μA
to id = vds /rd . Recalling that id = gm vgs , we can substi- I2
and so R1 = 291Ω
tute to find that a drain voltage variation produces an ef-
fective gate–source change (analogous to Early effect) of Figure 3x.56. Cascode Q1 raises the output impedance (and ex-
vgs = vds /gmrd , or, effectively, a “feedback factor” tends the voltage range) of the LM334 programmable (and pre-
dictable) current source.
µ ≡ vgs /vds = 1/gm rd ,
where µ represents the effective change of gate–source A different approach is shown in Figure 3x.56, where
voltage as a fraction of change in drain voltage. an inexpensive programmable current-source IC47 is used
Now, here’s the interesting point: In the subthreshold re- as the current-setting portion of a cascode (analogous to
gion of drain current the quantity µ is relatively constant, Fig. 3x.52B, and see Fig. 2x.13). The LM334’s current
because gm is approximately proportional to drain current, is programmed (over a range of 1 µ A to 10 mA) with a
and ro is approximately proportional to 1/ID . That is, the single resistor R1 , according to I = 0.067/R1, where the
feedback factor µ is mostly a property of the particular coefficient of 67 mV is the nominal value at 20◦ C (it in-
FET (as discussed in detail in §3x.4); typically µ is 1/250 creases proportional to absolute temperature, “PTAT”).48
or less. And for our simple depletion-mode current source The programming accuracy is ±6% for the least expensive
it is the changes in vgs (proportional to µ ) that, when com- grade ($0.60 in unit quantity), and ±3% for the intermedi-
bined with the source resistor R1 , degrades the constancy ate grade ($1 in unit quantity). The LM334 by itself oper-
of current. To improve the constancy of current we need ates over a voltage range of 1 V to 40 V; here the cascode
to reduce µ ; that is accomplished nicely by the cascode, allows circuit operation to the breakdown limit of Q1 , or
effectively replacing µ with µ 2 .46 500 V. Because the cascode transistor’s gate–source volt-
age may be less than the minimum operating voltage of the
LM334, the divider R2 R3 is arranged to multiply VGS by
3x.6.4 Low-cost predictable current source
47
Current sources that depend on the ID -vs-VGS transfer See Figure 2x.13 for its elegant design.
48 The programmed current I1 includes the bias current through the pro-
characteristic of a depletion-mode FET (whether JFET or
gramming resistor R1 , the latter contributing about 6% to the total.
46 As will become evident, however, at higher currents and voltages Note: when used at higher currents and voltages, adjacent SMT parts
changes in VGS caused by local heating can far exceed changes due on the PCB will raise U1 ’s temperature, increasing its current by 25%
to VDS , forcing us to seek additional circuit improvements. per 100◦ C. Consider 1 mm slots for thermal isolation.
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters 3x.6.5. Current sources for higher voltages 197

a modest factor; here we’ve chosen to run the LM334 at pating up to 70 mW; the net current-source capacitance was
three times VGS . about 2.5 pF. By comparison, the set of three IXCP10M90s
You can extend the current or voltage range of this cir- in TO-220 packages was operated at 2 mA, with each tran-
cuit, and of the other current sources in this section, either sistor dissipating up to 2 W near its avalanche voltage; a
by using a transistor of higher voltage (Table 3.6), or by the clip-on heatsink was required. The Coss for these parts is
series-stacking technique described next. about 40 pF (presently we’ll see how to reduce the over-
all capacitance to less than 15 pF while retaining the 6 W
capability49).
3x.6.5 Current sources for higher voltages
ckts B,C
You can get depletion-mode MOSFETs with voltage rat-
I ckt A
ings to several kilovolts (e.g., the IXTH2N170, 1700 V; see Q1–Q5:
LND150
also Table 3.6), allowing variations of these circuits to op- 250μA VGS ≈ – 0.75V
erate into the kilovolt range. But such MOSFETs tend to be @ ID = 250μA to 1.2kV
expensive, hard to get, and usually of high current ratings V

with corresponding (and undesirable) large capacitances.

to 1.5kV to 1.2kV R6
For example, the IXTH2N170 is rated at 2 A, with an out- 3.3M
put capacitance Coss of 200 pF at 25 V (compared with 2 pF Q5

for the LND150, and 2.4 pF for the BSS126); it costs $16 Q3 R6
in unit quantity. 2.0M
R3 Q4 R5
Instead, you can extend the voltage range of MOSFETs 3k 3.3M
Q4
with a series string, rigged up to ensure that the total volt-
R5
age distributes itself without damaging the individual tran- Q2 2.0M
Q3 R4
sistors. Q3 1.5M
R2
3k
A. A simple scheme R4
Q1 2.0M Q1
The simplest (and least elegant) scheme is shown in Fig- Q1 Z2
ure 3x.57A: As the total voltage is increased, the transistor
with the lowest current initially rules, until it reaches its R1 R1 R1
3k 3k Z2 3k
avalanche voltage, or until its (imperfect) gradually rising
current brings the transistor with the next higher current
into play. The circuit works – but we’ll see presently that A. B. C.
adding a few components (circuit B) makes a circuit with
better properties. Figure 3x.57. Extending the voltage range of Fig. 3x.52’s
depletion-mode current sources. A. Simple series string. B,C. Cas-
Figure 3x.58 shows the measured current of Fig-
code with series stack.
ure 3x.57A, with three 900 V MOSFETs. With equal 2 kΩ
resistors for R1 –R3 the current rises smoothly, with an
equivalent output resistance of ∼ 25 MΩ. Evidently these B. Distributed series string
three transistors have well-matched transfer characteristics. A better way to extend the operating voltage is shown in
When the source resistors are mismatched, to simulate a the circuits of Figure 3x.57B and C, where a string of re-
±200 mV spread in VGS , the curve of current shows soft sistors R4 –R6 distributes the voltage span across a series-
steps at voltages corresponding to multiples of the 1.0kV– connected group of transistors Q3 –Q5 . The series stack
1.2kV avalanche voltage. serves as a high-voltage cascode transistor for current-
Figure 3x.59 shows the performance of an analogous cir- setting Q1 . As with Figure 3x.54, the shunt resistors do not
cuit, this time with a set of five LND150’s from a single compromise the high output impedance, because their (re-
manufacturing batch. This time we’re not so lucky: the cur- sistive) current is sampled by current-sensing resistor R1 .50
rent exhibits a set of soft steps, the steepest of which corre-
sponds to an incremental resistance of 60 MΩ (compared 49 Or, with IXTP01N100D depletion-mode FETs (see Table 3.6) reduce
with an overall slope of 250 MΩ). the capacitance further, to about 10 pF.
Comparing these two simple approaches, the set of five 50 In this circuit R4 is deliberately chosen smaller than the other resistors,
LND150s was operated at about 0.11 mA, with each dissi- to limit the maximum voltage across Q3 in order to reduce its VGS vari-
 198 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters

2.3 compared with Fig. 3x.59) scale. The equivalent output re-
2.0
IXCP10M90 (3 in series) sistance is an impressive 15 GΩ.52
2.2 There’s more to like about the series-stack circuits B and
1.5
C: (a) you can use a selected low-voltage transistor for Q1 ;
Current (mA)

2.1 1.0
1.8k, 1.9k, 2.0k (b) the effective capacitance is Coss /n, for n transistors in
5 10 15 20 25V
the string; (c) the power dissipation is spread equally across
2.0 Q3 –Q5 (unlike the situation in circuit A), and at high volt-
ages the gate equalizing resistors take more of the dissipa-
RGS = 2k, 2k, 2k tion; and (d) you can replace Q1 with an integrated current
1.9
spec’d VDS(max)
sink, for example an LM334 as in Figure 3x.56.
1.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.1%
Voltage (kilovolts) LND150 HV cascode current source
Current Change, ∆I / Io
Io =250μA
Figure 3x.58. Measured current variation for three 900 V
IXCP10M90’s configured as in Fig. 3x.57A. The unmatched resis- 15GΩ
tors (upper curve) illustrate the effect of a ±0.2 V scatter among the
transistors’ VGS .

125
15MΩ resistor
100
120 0%
50
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Current (μA)

115 0 DC Voltage (V)

0 2 4 6 8 10V
110
105
100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Voltage (kilovolts)
Figure 3x.59. Measured current variation for five 500 V LND150’s
configured (with equal 10k resistors) as in Fig. 3x.57A, illustrating
current variation from VGS scatter.
Circuit B is inferior to C, first because Q1 runs at a high
voltage, thus hot; and second because R4 robs current from
Q1 . Both of these effects raise Q1 ’s VGS , and thus the pro-
grammed current.51
The series-stack configurations (Fig. 3x.57B and C)
eliminate entirely the current steps of Figure 3x.57A, as
seen in the measured current error of Figure 3x.60. Because
the current hardly varies with applied voltage, we’ve here
plotted the current error, on a greatly expanded (×250,
ation, and thus the current variation of Q1 . Be sure to use resistors rated
for 500 V (or several lower-voltage resistors in series) for R5 and R6 .
51 In circuit C, R4 robs current from Q3 , changing both its VGS and Q1 ’s
VDS . Happily, though, a MOSFET’s VGS is not sensitive to changes in
VDS , see §3x.5.1.
LND150 (5 in series)
RGS = 10.0kΩ
Figure 3x.60. Greatly improved constancy of current is seen in
the measured current of seven LND150’s, configured as a cascode
with a 5-transistor series stack (Fig. 3x.57C). Compare with Fig-
spec’d VDS(max) ure 3x.59: Here the vertical scale is expanded ×250. See caution
in the footnote 52 on this page.
3
C. Some applications: HV amplifier; HV probe
We’ve used these techniques to make current-source loads
for high-Z high-voltage probes (§3x.9), and to make
current-source pull-ups for MOSFET driver stages in high-
voltage linear amplifiers, for example of the kind described
in §4x.23. For these kinds of applications we favor low-
current depletion MOSFETs, owing to their very low ca-
pacitance; for example, the BSS126 (600 V, IDSS =7 mA,
min) has typical capacitances of 21 pF, 2.4 pF, and 1.0 pF
(Ciss , Coss , and Crss , respectively) at VDS = 25 V. Nothing
comes for free, and the price you pay for low capacitance
is very limited power dissipation: the BSS126 comes only
52 As noted earlier, our measurements were made in a solderless bread-
board with a test circuit using TO-92 transistors and axial-lead resistors.
In addition to style C’s superior configuration, this served to isolate Q1
and its positive gate-voltage tempco from as much as 0.6 W generated
by the resistors and other transistors. Surface-mount parts on a PCB are
not so fortunate, suffering the effects of adjacent hot parts, especially at
higher currents.
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters
in a SOT-23 package, with a pathetic thermal resistance of
RΘJA =250◦C/W (on a PCB with “minimal footprint”).
As we’ll see presently, the simple circuits of Fig-
ure 3x.57 are adequate for non-critical applications, but
they suffer from non-constancy of current, which varies
somewhat as the voltage varies. That is because the (chang-
ing) resistor-string current changes the drop across R1 , thus
the bottom transistor’s VGS , and thus its drain current.
A second (and even larger) effect is caused by heating of
Q1 by adjacent hot parts, particularly when there’s a large
voltage drop across the current source. These may not be
important, if the goal is simply to provide a driver load that
is more like a current source than a resistor. But as we seek
to run our current sources at higher currents and voltages,
these increases make the power-dissipation problems that
much harder to solve. In the following sections we take a
deep dive into perfecting the high-voltage current source.
D. High-voltage current sources: 250 µ A
Let’s review the choices so far, all of which use small
SOT-23 MOSFETs. Starting with Figure 3x.52, the sim-
plest current-source (CS) in our lineup is circuit A, a single
depletion-mode MOSFET with a current-setting source re-
sistor. With available parts this circuit is limited to 500 to
600 V, and to currents no more than 0.5 mA for voltages
over 400 V due to excess heating. At power dissipations
above about 200 mW the VGS tempco of Q1 causes the cur-
rent to increase beyond its already uncertain value. Next in
circuit B we can go to somewhat higher currents, having
moved the power dissipation to Q2 , but we’re still limited
by using a single transistor. In Figure 3x.54C we added
resistors to handle half or more of the power dissipation.
But circuit C still suffers from the same VGS tempco degra-
dation of the current-setting transistor Q1 . This effect is
greatly reduced in circuit D by voltage-isolating cascode
Q3 , assuming that Q1 can be thermally isolated from the
other hot parts.
In Figure 3x.57 we stacked up series stages, allowing us
to go to higher voltages. But in circuit A only one MOS-
FET is working at a time, until it “fills up,” and we suf-
fer also from the same tempco problems we had with the
single FET in Figure 3x.52A. It’s far better to partition the
power dissipation among the series-stacked parts, so they’ll
all run cooler, as in Figure 3x.57B and C.
Figure 3x.60 shows how beautifully circuit C worked in
a breadboard, maintaining a steady 250 µ A with less than
0.1% variation all the way to 2.5 kV. This excellent perfor-
mance comes from having Q3 –Q5 doing the heavy lifting
(with cascode Q3 helped by reduced shunt resistor R4 ), and
3x.6.5. Current sources for higher voltages 199
also having isolated current-setting transistor Q1 (a TO-92
through-hole part, standing tall in the breadboard).
In a PCB implementation, though, it’s difficult to pre-
vent thermal coupling to Q1 , so it’s tempting to try a dif-
ferent approach – namely using a current-reference IC (or
equivalent) to set the pull-down current at the bottom of
the string. We saw this in Figure 3x.56, where U1 set most
of the CS current; but in that circuit a portion of the total
current flows through R2 R3 , and that is affected by Q1 ’s
tempco, so there is residual current variation with heating
(i.e., with total voltage across the CS). Higher resistor val-
ues would reduce the effect, but then we get to worry about
Q1 responding quickly to rapid changes in VDS . (We may
be tempted, but we’re not allowed to add a capacitor across
the resistors!) And there’s another degrading effect in that
simple circuit, because the current-reference IC (U1 ) hap-
pens to have a deliberate PTAT tempco (proportional to ab-
solute temperature), in which serious heating could cause
up to 25% increased currents.
Why all the fuss? At this point the reader can be ex-
cused for wondering why they are being dragged through
so many circuits? Why not just show the best HV current-
source circuit, and leave it at that? Well, as in engineering
generally, there is no overall “best” circuit. Many appli-
cations will be fine with simple circuits, but others require
more effort. The story of improving HV current-source per-
formance is the story of adding more and more parts. But
there’s no point in using a complex part-laden design for
a non-critical application. We do hope you’ll enjoy explor-
ing the options (as we did, designing them!) as we continue
with higher-voltage, higher-current versions.
270
260
Current (μA)
250
ckt “E”
240 ckt “D”
ckt “B”
230
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Voltage Across Current Source (V)
Figure 3x.61. Measured current versus voltage for the 250 µ A
current-source circuits of Fig. 3x.57B and Fig. 3x.62D and E, imple-
mented as surface-mount parts on a PCB. Even though the maxi-
mum power dissipation was only 300 mW, all three reveal increas-
ing thermal effects as they approach 1.2 kV.
200 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources
Q5 R6
R1
R2
R4–6
R5
Q4
Z3 Q3
Q3
R2 R2
R4
Q1
U1
R1 U1
NCP431
NCP431
D. E.
Figure 3x.62. Series-stacked HV current sources, with a 2.5 V voltage reference (ON Semi’s NCP431A) setting the current. All have
identical Q4 Q5 and R5 R6 series-stack wiring as shown in circuit D. The zeners are standard gate-protection diodes.
To explore issues with these circuits, we created produc-
tion PCBs, with small surface-mount parts. Figure 3x.61
shows measurements for three 250 µ A versions (two of
which we describe below). Plot B is for Figure 3x.57’s cir-
cuit B, whose current is set by Q1 ’s VGS . No surprise here
to see a 12% increase at 1.2 kV relative to that at 200 V.
If this 2-terminal current source were used as a pull-up in
a high-voltage amplifier, there would be an unsatisfactory
decrease of pull-up current as the signal swings from full
negative to full positive output.
Next step: stable current reference. In the preceding
collection of circuits, depletion-mode MOSFET Q1 set
the current through R1 . But this depends on its (poorly-
controlled) gate–source voltage, along with sensitivities to
temperature and drain-source voltage. The result was un-
desirable current variation with total voltage drop, which
is less than optimal in a current source, and additionally
not a good thing when we were already struggling with
excessive power dissipation. The next set of circuits ad-
dresses this shortcoming by using IC voltage references
(2-terminal shunt type) to set the R1 bias voltage, thus the
set-point current.
Look at Figure 3x.62, where we’ve used the NCP31A
2.50 V active shunt-mode (zener-like) reference, biased at
40 µ A by R2 (47.5k for the 250 µ A version). Emitter fol-
lower Q1 loaded with R1 then sets the major portion current
of the total current, about 210 µ A (IU1 =[2.5V−VBE]/R1 +
VGS /R2 ). Figure 3x.61 shows circuit Figure 3x.62D im-
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters
Circuit E:
250μA 2.0mA
9.09k 976Ω
47.5k 10.0k
2.0M 92k, 430k, 430k (E1)
330k, 330k, 330k (E2)
Q3
R4
R2 R4
Q1 Z2
Z2
Q1A,B
R1
R1
U1
NCP431
F.
proving the constancy of current, in this case a rise of 6%
(compared with 12% for Fig. 3x.57B); of this, 4% is due to
Q1 heating (40◦ C rise with −2.2 mV/◦ C tempco), and 2%
blamed on Ebers–Moll (Q1 ’s VBE drops by 37 mV due to
current dropping from 230 µ A to 57 µ A, see Fig. 2x.11).53
The next refinement (Fig. 3x.62E) was to eliminate the
2% Ebers–Moll effect by moving R4 to Q3 ’s source termi-
nal, so we now see the overall current rise reduced to 4%.
Where can we go from here? Well, how about a BJT
matched pair54 , to eliminate the VBE tempco effect? That’s
the circuit of Figure 3x.62F, whose current is given by
I=(2.50V+60mV)/R1 +VGS /R2 .
As we refine these circuits, we are using more parts!
Checking the parts counts for our high-voltage current
sources, circuits A–C (Fig. 3x.57) used 6, 10, and 11 parts,
respectively. After we added the U1 voltage reference, cir-
cuits D–F (Fig. 3x.62) had 12, 13, and 13 parts. But hey,
that’s not so bad – soon we’re going to top out at 16 parts
with our “perfect” version! But that’s OK, the various cir-
cuits all have eight required parts, associated with Q3 to Q5 ,
to handle the high voltage and high power, so the best cir-
53
To address these drifts, reader “whit3rd” suggests moving U1 ’s adjust
pin to Q1 ’s emitter in circuit D of Figure 3x.62. This is a good idea,
but note that U1 responds slowly to changes in Q1 ’s VBE . Making this
change in circuit E, where R4 has been moved to Q3 , would isolate Q1
from fast current changes, and hence VBE changes; and adding Q2 as in
Figure 3x.68H would also isolate U1 from voltage changes.
54 Such as a BCM847DS, a dual version of the BC847, see Table 8.1b.
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters 3x.6.5. Current sources for higher voltages 201

cuit uses only six more. And keep in mind, you’ll need an-
other four parts per kilovolt if you want to go to yet higher 2.2 2
E1 ckt “E2”
voltages. This is what comes with the territory.
D
1
ckt “D”

Current (mA)
E. High-voltage current sources: 2 mA
2.1
These basic circuits can run at higher currents, with appro- 0
0 5 10 15
priate component scaling and with attention to maximum ckt “E1”
low-voltage
power dissipation. Figure 3x.63 shows measured perfor- detail
2.0
mance for the circuits of Figure 3x.62, configured for 2 mA
with the resistor values shown. First we set the series resis-
tance of R4 –R6 to about 1 M, to take up about 1.25 mA at
1.25 kV, thus limiting the MOSFETs to less than 40% of 1.9
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
the total current at 1.25 kV. In circuit D R4 is returned to Voltage Across Current Source (V)
Q1 ’s emitter, giving a 9% rise in total current as the total
Figure 3x.63. Measured current versus voltage for the current-
voltage goes from 200 V to 1.2 kV. As with the 250 µ A cir-
source circuits of Fig. 3x.62.
cuits earlier, in circuit E we return R4 to Q3 ’s source, pro-
ducing a smaller 5% rise (when the resistor string is parti-
tioned as indicated in the circuit: version “E1”). Circuit F 2.0
circuit “E1”
offers further improvement with the same parts count.
The current sharing and power dissipation of the tran- transistors
1.5
sistors and of the resistors is plotted in Figures 3x.64 and
Current (mA)

3x.65, assuming equal sharing among each component

type. The worst-case MOSFET dissipation is 0.35 W with 1.0
equal current-sharing resistors R4 –R6 (but in our “E1” cir- resistors
cuit the upper two MOSFETs peaked at about 0.5 W).55 0.5

F. Current sources in high-voltage amplifiers

These HV current sources find application as pull-ups in
high-voltage amplifiers. For example, the high-voltage am-
plifier described in Figure 4x.137 uses a 250 µ A current-
source pull-up of either form A or B (Fig. 3x.57). We’re
often quite parsimonious with current drawn from high-
voltage supplies,56 and even 0.25 mA can seem quite a
55
In the E1 test we reduced R4 to a tenth of the total resistor string, to
put 90% of the resistor heating power to the parts farthest from current-
setting Q1 . With Q3 and R4 running cooler, Q1 ’s tempco effects were
reduced, leading to the improved result. But we shouldn’t celebrate,
because the four remaining hot parts pushed the surface of the PCB to a
toasty 150◦ C! The data looked fine, but the FLIR thermographic image
(see §9x.24.2) said otherwise. We’ll have more to say about those issues
later. The E2 test was like E1, except we used three 232k resistors, for
1.8 mA max at 1.2 kV, thinking it might be a good idea to reduce the
MOSFET currents to 20% of the total. But the resistor bank heated Q1 ,
causing the current to climb an extra 10% at 1.2 kV, and the 0.2-to-
1.2 kV current rise degraded to 12%.
56 One of our instruments had twenty-four 1.2 kV amplifiers, supplying
precision voltages for deflector and shim electrodes in a molecular
beam with a 10 kV trap. With such a collection of amplifiers, the ac-
cumulated current drains can really add up, so you need to practice
restraint.
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Voltage Across Current Source (V)
Figure 3x.64. Current in Q1 and R4 for the circuit of Fig. 3x.62E1.
lot. For that circuit, the 0.25 mA current-source pull-up al-
lowed the amplifier to have a reasonable +7.5 V/µ s slew
rate. But we often need higher slew rates;57 for exam-
ple, in §4x.23.9 we required 10 mA pull-up currents to
achieve S = I/C = 10mA/20pF = +500 V/µ s slew rates.
Clearly there’s benefit to be had from further stepping up
our current-source game to work to higher voltages and
higher currents.
The critical high-impedance low-capacitance node in the
HV amplifier of Figure 4x.137 is marked “X,” and the ca-
pacitance of that node is CX = Coss +Crss +Cpullup +Cstray .
The MOSFETs used in these amplifiers can be chosen from
Table 4x.5 in §4x.23.9. For the fastest possible amplifiers,
we’d be choosing parts near the top, where Coss +Crss is
15 pF or less. We’d like Cpullup of our current source to
57 In circuits like this, negative-going slew rates can be very fast, as much
as −500V/µ s, due to Q5 ’s very high current-sinking capability.
202 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources
0.5 circuit “E1”
Power Dissipation (W)
0.4
0.3 transistors
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 200 400 600
Voltage Across Current Source (V)
Figure 3x.65. Average power per MOSFET and per resistor for the
circuit of Fig. 3x.62E2.
be a small fraction of that, say no more than 3 pF. The 3-
transistor stacks we’ve been evaluating here should con-
tribute no more than 1 pF, if made with the small SOT-23
LND150 or BSS126 transistors. By contrast, the larger-
die (higher-power) depletion-mode MOSFETs from Ta-
ble 3.6 have Coss of 6 pF to 45 pF, so a series stack of
three MOSFETs would add 2 pF to 15 pF to the CX node.
Of these larger MOSFETs, the 400 V 150 mA DN2540N5
(with Coss = 12 pF) is the most attractive TO-220 part. A
stack of three would add 4 pF to CX , perfectly reasonable
given the 15 pF or more of existing node capacitance. This
MOSFET is well suited for use with 3 W to 5 W heatsinks,
each taking 2 to 4 mm2 of space.
Issues with small depletion-mode MOSFETs at high
currents. Looking at the role of Q3 in the circuits above,
it’s clear that depletion-mode MOSFETs are handy for cre-
ating bias voltages to power circuitry in 2-terminal current
sources. The BSS126 is a favorite part for use in the 0.5 mA
to 10 mA region. Like the lower-current LND150, it has
low Coss capacitance (2.4 pF versus 2.0 pF), but can work
at higher currents, as seen in the datasheet curves of Fig-
ure 3x.66. It has high transconductance at low currents, for
example at 250µ A, where VGS appears nearly independent
of current changes. But then notice the high VGS changes at
5 mA (a 20× higher current). Also notice the dramatically
higher ID versus VGS tempco at 5 mA, nearly +200 mV, or
about +25% per 100◦ C. This means its usefulness as a volt-
age reference within a current source will be poor at higher
currents and high temperatures, and we’ll have to work
harder to create effective current sources. Alternately we
could choose depletion-mode MOSFETs with higher mini-
mum IDSS currents, but these will have higher VGS voltages
at 5 mA and 10 mA. A good choice would be the 800 V
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters
20mA CPC3982 in a SOT-23 package, with a Coss of 2.2 pF
and a typical VGS of −1.25 V at 10 mA.58
400mW limit
CPC3982
10 25ºC 25ºC
Drain Current, ID (mA)
BSS126
125ºC
resistors
LND150
1
25ºC
800 1000 1200
0.1
–1.5 –1 – 0.5 0.0
Gate–Source Voltage, VGS (V)
Figure 3x.66. Transfer curves (typical) of the only available
depletion-mode MOSFETs in SOT-23 packages, as shown in their
respective datasheets.
Also, before designing in a BSS126 at 10 mA or above,
note that its datasheet’s minimum IDSS is 7 mA (with no
“typical”59 or maximum specified!). That means we might
need a slightly positive gate bias to reach 10 mA. A nice
way to finesse this is to use a high-current JFET (e.g.,
an MMBF4392, see Table 3x.1) for Q2 , for the critical
depletion-mode function. The JFET’s modest voltage rat-
ing means we’ll have to cascode it with a high-voltage
MOSFET (Q3 in Fig. 3x.68G). Then we add U2 , a 2.5 V ac-
tive zener (an LM385-2.5, that works to 15 µ A) to ensure
Q2 has enough headroom. Depletion-mode MOSFETs Q3
and up are allowed to work with slight positive voltages, up
to 0.5 V or so with typical TVS protection zeners like the
D1213A, so the BSS126 should be OK at 10 mA or even
15 mA.
G. High-voltage current sources: 5 mA and more
Going to higher currents means rising thermal dissipa-
tion . . . and problems! Figure 3x.67 shows measurements
on two PCB-built 5 mA 550 V (3 W) current sources, both
with 68k resistors for R4 to R6 ;60 for these tests we initially
used the circuits of Figure 3x.57B and Figure 3x.62D. Cir-
cuit B relies on Q1’s VGS voltage, with 274 Ω for R1 . A
58 Other examples of MOSFETs with low capacitance and higher min-
imum IDSS are the 800 V 100 mA CPC3980 (Coss = 5 pF), the 350 V
180 mA 350-volt DN3135 (Coss = 6 pF), or the 450 V, 120 mA DN3145
(Coss = 15 pF).
59
There’s a hint in the graphical transfer plot, which shows a zero-VGS
drain current of 22 mA.
60 And a third “perfect” current-source circuit, see §3x.6.5H below.
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters
better choice would have been circuit C, because in cir-
cuit B R4 of the series stack of resistors is returned to the
source of Q1 (instead of to Q3 ). Although R1 still moni-
tors and controls the current, at increasing voltages R4 robs
Q1 ’s current, decreasing its VBE and thus increasing the cur-
rent through R1 . The effect is exacerbated with Q1 ’s heat-
ing from adjacent components, and this resulted in an unac-
ceptable 34% current increase from 100 to 500 V, with con-
sequent severe rising temperatures and currents at 550 V.
By contrast, circuit D is active-zener based. We set
R1 = 402 Ω (for 5 mA current) and R2 = 10k (for 80 µ A
zener bias). As before, the R4 stack still robs current from
Q1 , but, owing to the 2.5 V bias at its base (large com-
pared even with a 60 mV change in VBE that would result
from a 10× change in current), the effect of R4 ’s chang-
ing current is minor. In a quick measurement (to keep it
from overheating) we saw circuit D’s current increase by
6.6% as we ramped the voltage to 500 V (plus some more
as the PCB warmed up); circuit E, with R4 returned to
Q3 ’s source, would have done better. It’s evident that more
complex circuits are appropriate at higher currents. But,
at these voltages and currents, both versions have three
very hot resistors and three hot transistors: in the case of
a 5.5 mA current source with 550 V across it, these six
surface-mount components are dissipating 3 W. Although
the voltage ratings of the transistors are sufficient for a
1.5 kV current source, the voltage is limited by dissipation,
not breakdown; that’s why we needed three transistors to
distribute the heat. Even so, we measured surface temper-
atures of +130◦C before turning off the supply. Evidently
additional thermal mitigation will be required – for exam-
ple by mounting the hot components on a small daughter-
board with modest airflow (a small fan).
5.5
ckt “J”
5.0
Current (mA)
ckt “D”
4.5
ckt “B” 5
D
4 use does not require input or output capacitors. It draws
3 B
4.0 2 a low 30 µ A quiescent current, and it should be tolerant of
low-voltage 1 six or more adjacent hot components, since its 2.5 V output
detail 0
0 5
3.5
100 200 300 400 500
Voltage Across Current Source (V)
Figure 3x.67. Measured current versus voltage for the circuits of
Figs. 3x.57B, 3x.62D, and 3x.68J.
3x.6.5. Current sources for higher voltages 203
There’s more than just overheating to worry about in
these circuits: Circuits D and E suffer from a substantial
positive tempco, (Q1 ’s VBE drops by 220 mV for a 100◦C
rise, a +13% effect). This overshadows the stable U1 volt-
age reference. Moving R4 to Q3 ’s source (circuit E) helps,
but Q1 still suffers from its temperature coefficient; that’s
where circuit F (with balanced VBE s) would show its stuff.
H. Perfect high-voltage current source
We’d like to have a “perfect” 2-terminal current source,
with its current set by precision resistors, etc., and inde-
pendent of total voltage. But instead we’ve been struggling
with high-voltage current sources whose currents change
with voltage and temperature. Thinking through the accu-
racy and stability problems of our designs, one thing that
stands out is their need for a bias current to power the
current-setting reference. What we need is a self-contained
reference that is self biased. Ideally it shouldn’t require an
output capacitor, so that we can make a current regulator by
simply adding a load resistor This ideal leads to circuits H
and J in Figure 3x.68.
We first looked at 3-terminal voltage references (see
Table 9.8) and found several that didn’t require output
capacitors; but they were all low-dropout (LDO) types,
which means they have high-impedance collector or drain
outputs, rather than a low-impedance emitter or source-
follower. They’ve managed to internally stabilize the cir-
cuit without an output capacitor, but the price you pay is
having to live with a slow control loop. Since our fastest
high-voltage amplifiers can complete their slewing in a mi-
crosecond, the current source needs to respond as fast. In
Figure 3x.68H, R2 and cascode Q2 isolate U1 with its sta-
bilizing C1 . Then we trust Q3 to provide the required fast
response. We’re rewarded with a perfect current source:
I = IQ +2.5V/R1, where IQ = 60 µ A.
An alternative is to find a 3-terminal low-voltage non-
LDO with very low quiescent current; the only one
we could find (in SOT-23 or smaller package) was the
ZMR250 from Zetex (Diodes Inc.), which turns out to be
J ideal (Fig. 3x.68J). It’s well characterized, and in normal
10 15 is specified to change by 1% (typ) per 100◦ C. It needs 1.5–
2 V overhead to operate, so we added Z1 (an NCP431A
active reference) to bias Q2 ’s gate. Now Q3 becomes the
high-voltage MOSFET, with R4 returned to its source ter-
minal.
You might worry that there’s a small error from Z1 ’s un-
certain current (set by Q2 ’s uncertain gate voltage across
204 3x.6. Floating High-Voltage Current Sources
R4
Q3
JFET
Q2 U2
C1
2.5V
LM385
R2
Q1
C1
U1
Z2 0.1μF
R1
NCP431
G. H.
Figure 3x.68. High-voltage current-sources suitable for 5 mA and up. In circuit G a JFET biases reference U1 at high currents. Circuits H
and J sport a perfect formula, I = IQ +2.5V/R1 , excellent at any current well above U1 ’s quiescent current IQ . Circuit H uses a precision
3-terminal shunt voltage reference; it’s LDO, and needs little overhead to operate. Circuit J uses a linear-regulator IC that needs several
volts to operate; we found that a small capacitor C1 is required for stability.
R2 ); but in fact there is no error because that current is me-
tered by R1 . We measured the current of this circuit (curve J
in Fig. 3x.67), and found it constant at 4.986 mA from
12 V clear up to 550 V. (When configured as a 2 mA cur-
rent source it measured a constant 1.980 mA from 10 V to
1.25 kV, having reached within 1% of that value by 6.5 V.)
The minimum compliance voltage for circuit J may be as
high as 10 V; so, though it’s “perfect,” it’s not best for every
situation.
Higher currents. The examples we’ve shown are aimed
at high-speed applications, where low capacitance is
paramount. But if you don’t need speed, you can take ad-
vantage of larger MOSFETs, in power packages, to create
higher current versions of these circuits. For example, you
could use a string of DN2540N5 (400 V, 150 mA, 12 pF)
or IXTP02N50D (500 V, 200 mA, 25 pF) MOSFETs, both
depletion mode types in TO-220 power packages.
Enhancement-mode MOSFETs. These circuits do not
require depletion-mode MOSFETs, except for the bi-
asing and current-setting transistors (e.g., Q3 in Fig-
ure 3x.62, or Q2 and Q3 in Figure 3x.68); all the others
can just as happily be enhancement mode. For example, the
enhancement-mode IXTY01N100 comes in a 25 W DPAK,
with a Coss of just 7 pF, and the IXTA08N100P comes in a
40 W TO-220 with just 18 pF of Coss . These are 1 kV parts,
chosen not for their high voltage rating, but for their low
capacitance. Also, keep in mind they’ll work fine at low
voltages.
Depletion-mode power MOSFETs. For readers antici-
pating a discussion of depletion-mode power MOSFETs,
we’re sorry not to have a section about these amazing and
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters
Q3 Q3 R4
R4
Q2
Q2 Z2
R2
Z2 R2
100 R3
2.7k
100
TVS Z1
U1 U1
2.5V
C1
R1 10nF
R1
LM4132 ZMR250
J.
super-useful devices in The x-Chapters. But we have not
ignored them, see §3.6.2 in the main volume, the high-
voltage discharge circuit in §9x.12, and the detailed Ta-
ble 3.6. There has not been much action in that scene,
so that table is up-to-date. It was missing the DN2470
DPak, and also the DN2530, which is a useful 13 pF part in
SOT-89 and TO-92 packages. The table is also missing the
800 V 20 mA CPC3982 in SOT-23 mentioned earlier (but
it does have the discontinued CPC3720, 3730, and 3714!).
A parting shot. It’s important to realize that, behind
an innocent-looking and perfectly constant output cur-
rent curve, the devil of excessively high temperatures may
be hiding. It’s essential to understand and address ther-
mal problems if you want to avoid premature component
failure. If significant power dissipation is anticipated, be
sure to couple surface-mount transistors and resistors to a
heatsink, using compliant thermally-conductive sheet ma-
terial such as Bergquist Gap Pad VO, or 3G Shielding Ther-
maWorx T600.
For circuits with high currents at high voltages, you’ll
need to use larger MOSFETs with higher power capabili-
ties, even though they have higher capacitance. For exam-
ple, a stack of three of the 12 pF or 25 pF parts mentioned
above will result in a 4 pF or 8 pF current source. Let’s say
this is used in a high-voltage amplifier, e.g., driving node
X in Figure 4x.137, with MOSFETs like the IXTP06N120
(1200 V, 0.6 A). The node’s Coss +Crss capacitance will be
18 pF already, so adding another 8 pF or 45% will be OK,
as long as you can compensate by increasing the current by
45%. But you might be increasing the current by a factor of
five, to achieve slew rates of 25 mA/26 pF=900 V/µ s! At
Art of Electronics – The x-Chapters 3x.6.5. Current sources for higher voltages 205

this point it’s clear that heatsinks alone will not do the job
– a fan will have to be added. Once you have the fan, its
airflow will cool the hot current-source heatsinks as well.