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Tailoring performance management systems: a sports merchandiser's case

Article  in  Sport, Business and Management: An international Journal · July 2012

DOI: 10.1108/20426781211243980

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Tailoring performance management systems: A sports
merchandiser’s case
Purpose: As sport gradually becomes a full-scale business, a debate about the
applicability and appropriateness of measures of performance has emerged. This
research aims to analyse how the special features of sport businesses influence the
performance management system of a sports merchandiser.

Design/methodology/approach: The research work examines a case study of a sports

retailer that manages the merchandising and image rights of a major European football
club. It was conducted using Otley’s (1999) performance management framework.

Findings: We found that organization objectives were clearly known by all managers
at all levels, despite not articulated in explicit statements, but conveyed in less formal
ways. The main finding is to explain how a performance management system can be
structured to effectively respond to the sports setting in which the company operates:
constant meetings, shared values, information exchange and fast response to events
substituted planning and forecasting.

Research limitations/implications: The nature of the case study research method

limits the generalizability of findings. Research in performance measures must have a
holistic approach.

Practical implications: Managers can use this comprehensive framework to analyse

the consistency of their performance measurement systems and to identify
opportunities for improvement. Also, understanding how this organization was
successful in communicating objectives and values can be of help.

Originality/value: The paper analyses a performance management system within the

special features of sport-related businesses.

Key words: Sport, merchandising, performance management, strategy

implementation, performance measures.

Paper type: Case study

Author(s):
Jordi Carenys (Accounting and Control Department, EADA Business School, Aragó, Spain)

Xavier Sales (Accounting and Control Department, EADA Business School, Aragó, Spain)

Citation:
Jordi Carenys, Xavier Sales, (2012) "Tailoring performance management systems: a sports
merchandiser's case",Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal, Vol. 2 Issue:
2, pp.115-126,

doi: 10.1108/20426781211243980

DOI
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/20426781211243980

1
Tailoring performance management systems: A sports
merchandiser’s case

1. Introduction
Football is the most popular sport in the world. It has successfully outmanoeuvred
many other team sports and has been accepted worldwide as the number one sport in
terms of media attention and audience reception (Horne and Manzenreiter, 2002) and it
attracts fans who have a close-to-religious attachment with the sport (Dolles and
Söderman, 2005).

In many European countries, professional football is a big business, with clubs

generating large turnovers and substantial profits (Derbaix et al., 2002). Specifically,
sport businesses have strategically implemented licensing business not only to increase
sales but also to establish brand awareness in the marketplace (Sherman, 2001).

Winning championships allows European football clubs to garner more fans, who in
turn generate more revenue for the clubs by attending games, buying team
merchandise, and attracting more sponsors. In time, clubs use this increased revenue to
attract the best players, so that they can win more championships. In addition,
attracting the best players to a club directly generates marketing revenue for the club.
Since the end of the 1990s, the so-called Bosman law and the growth in revenue
generated from television rights have both contributed to the rising cost of players
(Simmons, 1997).

Competing in this new financially driven environment requires great financial

resources, namely, an ability to exploit the value of the club’s brand and the players’
image through sponsorship, image rights, endorsement, licensing, and merchandising.

Merchandising today represents a growing part of the income of professional football

teams. According to Sports+Markt (2011), the clubs in Europe’s five top leagues
generated a turnover of €631 million in merchandising in the 2009–2010 season—a
rise of 6% from 2008. Merchandising accounts for 7.3% of the total revenue for the top
clubs in the ten European football markets. The best-selling merchandise item for all
European clubs remains the team shirt; a total of 13.7 million team shirts were sold
during the 2009–2010 season.

The importance of the relationship between sports and retailing has grown
tremendously over the past few decades; sport teams as well as individual athletes have
become quasi-brands, driving the sales of sport apparel bearing their names through
retail outlets (Runyan, 2009). As this commercial view of sport has emerged, the
debate about the importance of financial measures of performance has grown
(Chadwick, 2009). Indeed, Ferreira and Otley (2009) have gone so far to say that
administration of a commercial business should look beyond the measurement of
financial performance to the management of performance.

Our study analyses the performance management system of AU Merchandising (a

pseudonym). AU Merchandising was incorporated in order to manage the

2
merchandising rights, retail branded sport apparel, and licensed products of a major
European football club. This study aims to analyse how the special features of sport
businesses influence the performance management system of a sports merchandiser.

Lebas (1995) defines performance as ‘the potential for future successful

implementation of actions in order to reach the objectives and targets‘ while
performance management ‘creates the context for—and the measures of—
performance’. Therefore, performance management precedes performance
measurement and gives it meaning. Performance management systems must provide
information that is useful to managers in performing their jobs and to assist
organizations in developing and maintaining viable patterns of behaviour beyond
financial measures (Otley, 1999).

It has been pointed out, that sport management is different from mainstream
management (Chadwick, 2009). Indeed, the unique nature and context of sport from a
business perspective have been identified by many researchers (Hess and Stewart,
1998, Mangan and Nauright, 2000, Foster et al., 2006).

Foster et al. (2006) concluded that although sport and business share a common
concern for value creation, branding, funding new sources of revenue, product
innovation, and market expansion, sport is significantly more concerned with beating
rivals, winning trophies, and channelling the passions of both players (the employees)
and fans (the customers). This creates a specific environment that must consider that
the uncertainty that lies at the heart of sport –of the outcome of a match or tournament,
for instance– or the fact that managers must deal simultaneously with the potential
conflict between major commercial and managerial opportunities and the constraints of
history and heritage (Chadwick, 2009).

Analysis of the performance management system in a specific setting requires a

comprehensive description and evaluation of the features of the overall system. For this
purpose, this study uses Otley’s framework (1999), which offers a template against
which extant practices are both described and assessed and ensures a complete picture
of performance management system operation.

The rest of this article is structured as follows: The next section reviews literature on
retail and performance management (since no specific research on sport retailing and
performance management was found). The third section presents the framework used
to analyse the performance management system in the case company. The fourth
section describes the research methodology and data gathering techniques that were
used. In the fifth section, the data collected through research on the case company is
then presented and discussed, following the 5 question framework. The final section
provides conclusions, introduces implications arising from the study, and suggests
further research opportunities.

2 Retail and performance management

As the review of the literature did not reveal any academic research that had been
conducted on performance management and sports retail, we have used the limited
research on performance management and general retail as a valid referent in this
study. Performance management has attracted less attention than other functional

3
aspects of retailing (Frasquet et al., 2002). This has largely been found to be because,
in retail organizations, no measurable output is created until a transaction with a
customer occurs (Lusch and Jaworski, 1991); indeed, the efficiency of service
businesses such as retailing may be more difficult to evaluate than manufacturing
business efficiency in the sense that it is difficult to determine the appropriate amount
or type of resources required to produce service outputs (Sherman, 1984).

Despite this, there is a growing consensus that traditional performance management

mechanisms in retail, relying almost exclusively on financial performance measures,
such as return on investment models, are not enough to evaluate a company’s
competitive position and understand ‘how we are doing’ in an increasingly complex
environment (Dragun, 2004, Waweru et al., 2004, Sandino, 2007). Relying on
measures of profitability for planning and control has been a continuing problem for
retailing firms, regardless of whether measures are sales per square foot, sales per euro
of inventory, sales per employee-hour, or daily sales (Thomas et al., 1999). Dunne and
Rothenberg (1993) also pointed out the limitations of many of these measures of
performance in retailing. One fundamental managerial challenge for retailers in
developing strategic models is shifting from the treatment of financial figures as the
foundation for performance measurement to a broader configuration (Eccles, 1991).

3 Performance management framework

Performance management aims to create the context for successful implementation of
actions in order to reach the objectives and targets (Lebas, 1995). The process of
performance management begins with the establishment of a strategy. Given a chosen
strategy, the factors that are crucial to success must be identified and are the basis of
developing a set of key performance measures that will indicate the current position of
the enterprise in relation to its objectives (Otley, 1997). The next step is to set targets
that will be used to motivate and challenge managers to achieve them. The
establishment of a balanced portfolio of performance and reporting mechanisms is a
powerful means of managing performance in companies (Otley, 1997).

Nowadays there is widespread acceptance of the need for performance management to

be studied using a comprehensive approach (Covaleski et al., 2003, Chenhall, 2003),
taking research beyond the specific aspects of control systems (Malmi and Brown,
2008) and overcoming the limitations of existing frameworks (Ferreira and Otley,
2009). This interpretation follows Otley’s framework (1999) which offers a template
against which extant practices are both described and assessed.

Otley’s (1999) performance management framework was not developed to provide a

normative or prescriptive approach, but rather to offer a more comprehensive and
descriptive framework within which the features of an overall performance and control
system can be assessed and evaluated. Otley (1999) introduced a model based on five
areas represented as a set of questions; answering them acts as a guide for assessing
and evaluating the features of an overall performance management system for an
organisation:

1. What are the key objectives that are central to the organization’s overall
future success, and how does it go about evaluating its achievement for each of
these objectives?

4
 2. What strategies and plans has the organization adopted, and what are the
processes and activities that it has decided will be required for it to successfully
implement these? How does it assess and measure the performance of these
activities?

3. What level of performance does the organization need to achieve in each of

the areas defined in the above two questions, and how does it go about setting
appropriate performance targets for them?

4. What rewards will managers (and other employees) gain by achieving these
performance targets (or, conversely, what penalties will they suffer by failing to
achieve them)?

5. What are the information flows (feedback and feed-forward loops) that are
necessary to enable the organization to learn from its experience) and to adapt
its current behaviour in the light of that experience?

4. Research methodology
A case study is used to gather intimate and sensitive contextualised information
concerning real management practices (Keating, 1995). Our study aims to analyse how
the special features of sport businesses influence the performance management system
of a sports merchandiser. According to Yin (2003), case studies enable researchers to
investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real context when the limits
between the phenomenon and the context are not clear and when the main questions
that need to be answered are ‘how’ and ‘why’.

We collected data using both open and semi-structured questionnaires developed from
the existing literature, internal documents, and meeting observations (Annex 1 presents
a description of the fieldwork; Annex 2 lists the internal documents analysed). From
January to June 2009, we carried out various separate face-to-face interviews with
relevant managers at AU Merchandising. Interviews took place on the company’s
premises and were strictly limited to one and a half hours each.

We triangulated the information by interviewing individuals at different levels of the

organisation, observing meetings, and studying internal company documents. All
interviews were recorded for later reference. We also conducted a final interview with
the General Manager of the organisation to confirm the accuracy of the information
and clarify possible discrepancies.

5. Case study
AU Merchandising was incorporated in 2002 following an agreement between a
leading global sports licensing and merchandising company and Athletic United
(pseudonymous) football club with the aim of ‘(…) managing the merchandising rights
while respecting the historical values of the Club’ (General Manager). Athletic United
is recognized as one of the most important football clubs in the world, and it is located
in a major tourist-oriented European city (attracting 8 million visitors in 2009).
Through its history, it has long been associated with patriotic values and ‘fair play’,
and it has a strong media resonance. The Club’s large and global support base and their

5
international name recognition represent an enormous potential source for the
generation of club’s revenue.

AU Merchandising is responsible for the commercialization of the Club’s kit and

sports apparel as well as other sundry third-party licensed merchandise (e.g. key rings,
mugs, etc.) of Athletic United. Products are sold through seven stores in the city (one
of which is located at the Athletic United stadium, which contributes 70% to total
turnover); two more stores are placed outside the city in strongly tourist-oriented
locations. The stores are designed to allow customers to live the Athletic United
‘experience’, with television monitors replaying some of the team’s games, pictures of
the players, and club memorabilia prominently displayed. Sales of AU Merchandising
are strongly correlated not only to tourism flow to the city, but also to Athletic
United’s performance in competitions and signing of star players.

Question 1. Key objectives.

The main objective of AU Merchandising is: ‘(…) the exploitation of the
merchandising rights and all other forms of the image of the Club’ (General Manager).
Indeed, ‘we are not only a sport apparel retailer, we are also a souvenir shop’ (Retail
Manager), while not forgetting that the organization has different key stakeholders
with multiple and sometimes competing expectations:

‘Our business is addressed to tourists, but also always mindful of local

supporters. Therefore, it needs to be aware of the historical values of Athletic
United, patriotism, star players, old glories, supporter’s clubs, fair play tradition,
and the Club’s social responsibility’ (Retail Manager).

Despite not being articulated in explicit statements or formalised in a document, the

values of Athletic United were clear to managers at different levels and mentioned in
internal communications.

‘Managerial decisions are mediated by the fact that any transgression of the
values of the Club has a notorious media impact, it goes in the news right away
making everyone nervous’ (Retail Manager).

‘Everyone knows the values of the Club and how careful we need to be’ (Sales
Floor Manager).

Main objectives need to be codified in more concrete terms through the identification
of Key Success Factors, recognizing that control measures need to be reported on a
routine basis. Key Success Factors are those activities, attributes, competencies, and
capabilities that are seen as critical pre-requisites for the success of an organization.

Although not formally articulated, three Key Success Factors were mentioned
repeatedly or recognised by all interviewed managers: (1) Store traffic, (2) Product
availability, and (3) Check-out speed:

‘The most important thing is traffic’ (General Manager).

‘(…) [we try to] avoid queues, encourage impulse buying, improve store lay-
out, and have a wide range of products on the shelves’ (Sales Floor Manager).

6
 ‘During the peak period, we speed up the check-out and restocking processes;
we make sure there are no empty shelves’ (Stadium Store Manager).

‘(…) [the] product must be permanently on display, especially the most

expensive item—the Club’s shirt’ (Stock Room Manager).

Question 2. Strategies and Plans

Despite AU Merchandising having clear goals and objectives, no formal strategic plan
is in place, as the business is highly dependent on significant uncertainties (club and
player performance in competitions and the signing of star players). Strategic planning
is believed to be so unreliable that the company adopts a more flexible and adaptive
approach to respond to such uncertainties, ‘(…) we think it is better to be able to
promptly react to the turn of the events than blindly follow a plan’ (Retail Manager).
Interviewees identified the actions believed to be necessary to quickly adapt to these
kinds of events that they thought most likely to help achieve the Key Success Factors
that are presented in Table 1:

Table 1. Key Success Factors and associated processes and activities

Key Success Factors Processes and activities

 ‘(…) we conduct marketing campaigns in foreign
Store traffic countries’ (General Manager)
 ‘(...) advertisements in travel guides or city sight-seeing
buses to attract more people’ (Commercial Manager)
 ‘We try to speed up the process of credit card charging
and the de-alarming of shirts’ (Stadium Store Manager)
 ‘I must assign enough cashiers to the counter
depending on the number of customers so that we don’t
Check-out speed
have long lines’ (Sales Floor Manager)
 ‘We required all store floor employees to be able to
communicate in English, so there is no slow down in
the sales made to tourists’ (Sales Floor Manager)
 ‘(…) during the rush period, everyone must be at the
check-out counter or restocking shelves’(Sales Floor
Manager)
Product availability
 ‘(…) we work in the backroom alarming and tagging
prices for products, so they are ready when needed’
(Stadium Store Manager)

An organisation needs to have Key Performance Measures for every Key Success
Factor. Our research found only one Key Performance Measure, Number of visitors,
evaluating a Key Success Factor—Traffic. No measures were found for appraising the
other two Key Success Factors—Check-out speed and Product availability—or the
processes and activities necessary to achieve them.i

The company made use of five more measures: Sales (total sales and sales by product
class), Contribution Margin (total and by product class), Average Basket (average
amount per sale), Conversion Rate (sale transactions/total visitors), Units per

7
Transaction (average number of products per sale transaction). These measures
evaluate the achievement of sales objectives, but they do not evaluate the success
factors believed to be critical to achieve those sales. In summary, only one Key
Success Factor (Store traffic) was directly evaluated through a measure; the other five
Key Performance Measures were found to be sales related, and consequently, oriented
to measure the outcome, but not the processes, that were presumed to lead to those
sales (Check-out speed and Product availability).

Despite the lack of a formal strategic plan, every year the management prepared a sales
budget according to the line of products and the operating costs per shop. These figures
were used to produce Income Statements for each shop.

Question 3. Performance Target Setting

The budgeting process that has been referred to previously starts eight months before
the beginning of the season with a brainstorming session conducted by the General
Manager, the Retail Manager, and the Licensed Products Manager on preliminary sales
targets. This meeting considers not only marketing initiatives and the tournaments the
Club expects to win or participate in, but also the possible impact of signing new
players and the anticipated tourist flow. Even though ‘(…) forecasting sales in our
business is very complicated, it is necessary for placing purchase orders’ (Financial
Manager). No formal previous indications are received from AU Merchandising’s
parent company on setting these targets.

These initial targets proposed by AU Merchandising managers are then discussed with
the managers of its parent company, and the same procedure is used to set Key
Performance Measures objectives,

‘(…) [we use] a bottom-up process, taking four rounds of negotiations which
review ‘why a certain amount’ or ‘what impact this new player’ or ’that
initiative’ will have on sales’ (General Manager).

Once the sales budget figures are agreed, they become the main data used to plan the
purchases of shirts, other textiles, and sports apparel, which must be ordered six
months ahead of the beginning of the league competition to be available for sale during
the season.

Question 4. Rewards system

Employees hold quarterly Appraisal Meetings with their supervisor to evaluate their
performance based on the achievement of budgetary objectives (sales, margins, and
profit) and Key Performance Measures. In addition, a non-financial evaluation is
conducted using the Employee Coaching Form. This form is used by each manager to
assess, in face to face meetings with their employees, the extent of employees’
proactive efforts, attitudes, and involvement in the company. The areas that are
evaluated will vary depending on the position and responsibilities of the employee. The
General Manager described this procedure as ‘qualitative coaching assessment’.

AU Merchandising’s incentive system is defined centrally by its parent company for

all companies and stores worldwide, and it varies according to the employee’s position.

8
Store employees (including managers) receive a quarterly incentive with two
components: the first based on the achievement of budgeted sales and expenses of the
store (2% of annual salary) and the second based on the quarterly qualitative coaching
assessment of the employee (another 2%). For all other managers, the bonus ranges
between 5% and 10% of the annual salary, one half based on the accomplishment of
the company/stores budgeted quarterly profit, and the other half on the quarterly
qualitative coaching assessment of their performance.

This reward system, while aligned with the performance evaluation, is ineffective for
many staff as the small amounts in euros that the percentages represent for the salaries
of store staff are not a sufficient incentive. Both the General Manager and the Retail
Manager expressed their dissatisfaction with the current system:

‘(…) they [store staff] don’t value the quarterly bonus; the system was designed
for managers (…). The incentive system is not working well in the stores’
(Retail Manager)

Question 5. Information flow

Three formal meetings are scheduled periodically. First, the weekly Board of
Directorsii meeting discusses the ‘Board of Directors Weekly Report’, which covers
budgeted financials and performance measures. Estimates are reconsidered in view of
unplanned up-coming events (e.g. important matches, new players, or the progress of
the Club in competitions). Decisions such as the acceptance of new licensees and
newly licensed products, investments in premises and equipment, and changes in store
lay out are usually analysed in this meeting, as well as ensuring compliance of the
values of the Athletic United or the ‘Store Style Book’ (a document that covers the
style guidelines that all stores must follow).

The second meeting is the weekly Retail Committee.iii Sales and measures per store
and product line are compared to the budget, and store managers are expected to
explain any deviations. Actions taken to reduce unfavourable variances are also
presented and discussed. Store managers share any relevant incidents and initiatives
(e.g. availability of products, stock outs, possible clearance sales, and absenteeism). In
order to ensure compliance with the established guidelines, the Retail Manager visits
the stores without previous notice once every three or four months.

Finally, every store manager holds a Daily Store Meeting, a fifteen-minute meeting
with the entire staff of the store. This meeting is used to inform the staff about relevant
events of the day and to reinforce policies regarding operation (e.g. theft prevention,
application of discount policies, or display of products).

6. Discussion and concluding remarks

Two main findings emerged from this case study; they can be summarized as follows.
Firstly, the main objective of the organization, together with the values, history, and
heritage of Athletic United, were clearly known by managers at all levels, and this was
accomplished despite the fact that main objectives were not articulated in explicit
statements or formalised in a document, and consequently, were conveyed in less
formal ways. The values of Athletic United were discussed and reinforced through

9
regular and frequent meetings among the managers of AU Merchandising and with the
rest of the staff. In a football environment—mediated by the need to engage with the
values and heritage of the club along with the expectations of its fans, and under
permanent scrutiny from the media—sharing values and beliefs provides managers
with an overarching perspective that informs all of their decisions.

Second, the unpredictability of Athletic United’s performance in competitions –

together with the high turn-over of players, and even the risk of player injuries– has a
strong influence in the sales of merchandise. Additionally, this unpredictability renders
plans and forecasts so unreliable for AU Merchandising that a permanent flow of
information was critical to maintain flexibility and respond to the circumstances,
limiting budgets to a minor management role. To adapt to this situation, AU
Merchandising relied on frequent scheduled meetings; this allowed a permanent
exchange of information to flow between the various partners involved. This way, it
maintained flexibility and allowed AU Merchandising to respond to the circumstances,
rather than adhering to a rigid budget control. The meetings were a fundamental
connection that held the entire system together; they were the tool that the highest level
of management used to interactively involve themselves, on a regular and personal
basis, in the decisions of their employees, and comply with the necessary information
flow and flexibility. In this way, AU Merchandising was able to promptly respond to
the results of the matches or evolution in tournaments of Athletic United.

In line with the special features of sports management that the previous literature has
identified, our research found that the decisions and behaviour of employees and
managers at AU Merchandising must never contradict the history, heritage, or fans’
expectations of Athletic United. This means that the transmission of these values is
essential to the success of the business—especially when any transgression is likely to
be amplified by the media. The data suggested that, these values, despite not being
formally stated, are successfully transmitted by informal and social means.

Consequently, the main contribution of this study is to show how a performance

management system can be structured to effectively respond to the sports setting in
which a company operates. The framework was successfully used to highlight how a
performance management system can address the organizational objectives in a sport
environment defined by variable such as match outcome uncertainty, passionate fans,
media resonance, and the history and heritage of a club. We also showed that the
elements of the Performance Management system at AU Merchandising were linked
coherently and seemed to work in line with the key objectives of the organization, with
the exception of the missing Key Performance Measure and the irrelevance of
incentives at certain levels.

As with all other empirical research, this study is also subject to potential limitations.
The study used Otley’s framework, which focuses on formal performance management
systems; while this was not necessarily a limitation, the authors recognise that
performance management also involves various subtle ways of motivating and
coordinating organisational behaviour that are not included in the framework.
Furthermore, the conformity required by the parent company limits the freedom of top
management to change the design of the performance management system. Finally, the
method chosen limited the generalizability of the findings; additional in-depth case
studies would be required to assess whether the insights provided by this study have

10
normative implications and discard idiosyncratic findings. We believe the article has
implications for research and practitioners. The article shows that research in
performance management must always have a holistic approach, since all areas are
connected and interdependent. Practitioners can benefit from understanding how this
organization was successful in communicating objectives and values, and on how to
make use of frequent meetings to address uncertainty in a sports environment.

i
Actual measures for the key success factors instead of the results could be: ‘Average waiting time at the

cashier’ for Speed factor, or ‘Number of stockouts per day’ for Availability.
ii
The General Manager, the Financial Manager, the Retail Manager, the Stadium Shop Manager, the

Inventory Planner, the Licensed Products Manager, and the External Legal Advisor of the company.
iii
The Retail Manager and all Store Managers.

11
Annex 1. Description of Fieldwork

Date 2009 Fieldwork

January 14 Interview with General Manager

January 26 Interview with Retail Manager

January 26 Interview with Stadium Store Manager

February 6 Interview with Financial Manager

February 9 Interview with Retail Manager

February 9 Interview with Store Room Manager

February 9 Interview with Sales Floor Manager

March 5 Observation of Daily Store Meeting

March 5 Interview with Commercial Manager

March 17 Retail Committee weekly meeting observation

March 31 Observation of Retail Committee weekly meeting

April 8 Observation of Daily Store Meeting

May 11 Observation of Board of Directors weekly meeting

July 6 Interview with General Manager

12
Annex 2. Internal Documents Analysed

Doc
no. Report

1 AU Merchandising agreement

2 Board of Directors Weekly Report

3 Retail Meeting Weekly Report

4 Organizational Chart

5 Annual Report to Athletic United

6 Employee Coaching Form

7 Store Style Book

13
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