CHAPTER 19

^sa^iesKsr.v £, ?,\, >-r>.*.? r ^ ' " ^ T ^ ^ ;

Humidification Operations

Humidification anddehumidification involve thetransfer of material between a pure

liquid phase and a fixed gas that is nearly insoluble in the liquid. These operations are
somewhat simpler than those for absorption and stripping, for when the liquid
contains only one component, there are no concentration gradients and no resistance
to mass transfer in the liquid phase. On the other hand, both heat transfer and gas-
phase mass transfer are important, and they influence each other. In previous chapters
they have been treated separately; here and in drying of solids (discussed in Chap. 24)
they occur together, and concentration and temperature change simultaneously.

DEFINITIONS

In humidificationoperations, especially as applied to the system air-water, a number

of rather special definitions are in common use. The usual basis for engineering
calculations is a unit mass of vapor-free gas, where vapor means the gaseous form
of the componentthat is also present as liquid and gas is the componentpresent only
in gaseousform. In this discussiona basisof a unit mass of vapor-freegas is used. In
the gas phase the vapor will be referred to as componentA and the fixed gas as com
ponentB. Because the properties of a gas-vapormixture vary with total pressure, the
pressure must be fixed. Unless otherwise specified, a total pressure of 1 atm is as
sumed. Also, it is assumed that mixtures of gas and vapor follow the ideal gas laws.
' Humidity %is the mass of vapor carried by a unit mass of vapor-free gas. So
defined, humidity depends only on the partial pressure of the vapor in the mixture
when the total pressure is fixed. If the partial pressure of the vapor is pA atm, the
molal ratio of vapor to gas at 1 atm is pA/(P - pA). The humidity is therefore

*=**PA , (19.1)
where MA and MB are the molecular weights of components A and 5, respectively.
616
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 617

The humidity is related to the mole fraction in the gas phase by the equation
_ _JC/MA__
y" l/MB +X/MA (19'2)
Since <K/MA is usually small compared with l/MB, often y may beconsidered to be
directly proportional to %C.
Saturated gas is gas in which the vapor is in equilibrium with the liquid at the
gas temperature. The partial pressure of vapor in saturated gas equals the vapor
pressure of the liquid at the gas temperature. If 9CS is the saturation humidity andP'A
the vapor pressure of the liquid,
= nArA
M P'

MB{P-Pi) y }
Relative humidity ^tR is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor
to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the gas temperature. It is usually expressed on
a percentage basis, so 100 percent humidity means saturated gas and 0 percent
humidity means vapor-free gas. By definition

WR =100^ (19.4)
Percentage humidity %£A is the ratio of the actual humidity 26 to the saturation
humidity %£s at the gas temperature, also on a percentage basis, or

XA =100 J% =100 Pa/(P " Pa) =KRRP-pA

Pi/iP-Pi)
^—^ (19.5)
K }
At all humidities other than 0 or 100 percent, the percentage humidity is less than
the relative humidity.
Humid heat cs is the heat energy necessary to increase the temperature of 1 g or
1 lb of gas plus whatever vapor it may contain by 1°C or 1°F. Thus
Cs=cpB+cpAW (19.6)
where cpB and cpA are the specific heats of gas and vapor, respectively.
Humid volume vH is thetotal volume of a unit mass of vapor-free gas plus what
ever vapor it may contain at 1 atm and the gas temperature. From the gas laws and
the values of standard molar volume (see Chap. 1, page 12), vH in SI units is related
to humidity and temperature by the equation
0.0224T / 1 W\

where vH is in cubic meters per gram and Tis in kelvins. In fps units the equation is
3597 / 1 Vt\

where vH is in cubic feet per pound and Tis in degrees Rankine. For vapor-free gas
26 = 0,and vH is the specific volume ofthe fixed gas. For saturated gas 3€ = 3^, and
vH becomes the saturated volume.
618 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Dew point is the temperature to which a vapor-gas mixture must be cooled (at
constant humidity) to become saturated. The dew point of a saturated gas phase
equals the gas temperature.
Total enthalpy Hy is the enthalpy of a unit mass of gas plus whatever vapor it
may contain. To calculate Hyi two reference states must be chosen, one for gas and
one for vapor. Let T0 be the datum temperature chosen for both components, and
base theenthalpy of component Aon liquid A at TQ. (Temperature TQ = 32°Ffor most
air-water problems.) Let the temperature of the gas be T and the humidity <K. The
total enthalpy is the sum of three items: the sensible heat of the vapor, the latent heat
of the liquid at T0, and the sensible heat of the vapor-free gas. Then
Hy = cpB(T - T0) + Wk0 + cpAW(T - T0) (19.8)
where X0is the latent heat of the liquid at T0. From Eq. (19.6) this becomes
Hy = cs(T-To) + WX0 (19.9)

Phase equilibria
In humidification and dehumidification operations the liquid phase is a single
pure component. The equilibrium partial pressure of solute in the gas phase is
therefore a unique function of temperature when the total pressure on the system is
held constant. Also, at moderate pressures the equilibrium partial pressure is almost
independent of total pressure and is virtually equal to the vapor pressure of the
liquid. By Dalton's law the equilibrium partial pressure may be converted to the
equilibrium mole fraction ye in the gas phase. Since the liquid is pure, xe is always
unity. Equilibrium data are often presented as plots of ye versus temperature at a
given total pressure, as shown for the system air-water at 1 atm in Fig. 19.1. The
equilibrium mole fraction ye is related to the saturation humidity by Eq. (19.2); thus
Ws/M,
ye = (19.10)
1/MB + WS/MA

FIGURE 19.1
Equilibria for the system air-water at 1 atm.

O
<N
X
c
q
u
o
i_

o
E

70 90 110 130

Temperature, °F
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 619

Adiabatic saturator

Water is often sprayed into a stream of gas in a pipe or spray chamber to bring
the gas to saturation. The pipe or chamber is insulated so that the process is
adiabatic. The gas, with an initial humidity %C and temperature T, is cooled and
humidified. If not all the water evaporates and there is sufficient time for the gas to
come to equilibrium with the water, the exit temperature of the gas is called the
adiabatic saturation temperature Ts. The remaining liquid is also at Ts and can be
recirculated to the spray nozzles. The value of Ts depends on the temperature and
initial humidity of the air and to a minor extent on the initial water temperature. To
simplify the analysis, the water is often assumed to enter at Ts.
An enthalpy balance can be written over this process. Pump workis neglected,
and the enthalpy balance is based on temperature Ts as a datum. Then the enthalpy
of the makeup liquid is zero, and the total enthalpy of the entering gas equals that of
the leaving gas. Since the latter is at datum temperature, its enthalpy is simply %tsks,
where %CS is the saturation humidity and Xs is the latent heat, both at Ts. From
Eq. (19.9) the total enthalpy of the entering gas is cs(T - Ts) + %exs, and the
enthalpy balance is
cs(T-Ts) + W\s = Wsks

or *'"* =SL = cpb+cPaM (19 U)

1 — 1S Ay Ay

To find the adiabatic saturation temperature for gases other than air, a heat bal
ance similar to Eq. (19.11) is used. It may be more convenient, however, to use
molar heat capacities, as in the following example.
Equation (19.11) cannot be solved directly for the adiabatic saturation tem
perature 7^, since %CS, c5, and Xs are all functions of Ts. Thus Ts is obtained by a
trial-and-error calculation, or, for the air-water system, by using humidity charts.

example i 9. l. Hue gas at 320°F and 1 atm is to be cooled by a water spray. The gas
contains 14percent C02,7 percent H20, 3 percent 02, and76 percent N2. (a) Calculate
the adiabatic saturation temperature if the water spray enters at 80°F. (b) Repeat for
water entering at 7^

Solution
(a) Basis: 100molof gas. Guess that Ts is about 120°F and evaluate the molarheat
capacity Cp for each gas at (320 + 120)/2= 220°F.

Number of Molar specific

Gas moles n heat Cp nCp
C02 14 9.72 136.08
H20 7 8.11 56.77
o2 3 7.14 21.42
N2 76 6.98 530.48
£n = 100 E nCp = 744.75
620 section Iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Make a heat balance for z moles of water evaporated:

J^nCp(T - Ts) =ZXS +18z(120 - 80)

= z(a,+720)
Atl20°F,fromApp.7,
Xs = 1,025.5 x 18 = 18,459 Btu/lb mol
Then 744.75(320 - 120) = z(18,459 + 720) = 19,179z
z = 7.77

Total moles of water in exit gas: 7 + 7.77 = 14.77

Mole fraction of water in exit gas:

From Fig. 19.1, the saturation value ys at 120°Fis 0.115. Therefore the saturation tem
perature must be greater than 120°F, since a higher estimate for Ts will reduce y and
increase yr
Use Fig. 19.1 for a new estimate of Ts. For ye = 0.137, Ts = 126°F. Then Xs =
1,022.1 x 18= 18,398 Btu/lb mol. Neglecting changes in X>CP, we have
744.75(320 - 126) = z[18,398 + 18(126 - 80)1 = 19,226z
z = 7.51

Total moles of water: 7 4-7.51 = 14.51

14.51
= 0.135
107.51

This is close enough to 0.137, so 7^ = 126°F.

(b) The last term of the heat balance is dropped if Tm = Ts. For Ts = 126°F,
744.75(320 - 126) = z(18,398)
z = 7.85

7.85 + 7
y= ^—=0.138
y 107.51
The saturation temperature must be slightly higher than 126°F, but the difference is
negligible. More accurate vapor pressure data would be needed to find the saturation
temperature to within 0.1°F.

HUMIDITY CHART

A convenient diagram showing the properties of mixtures of a permanent gas and a

condensable vapor is the humidity chart. A chart for mixtures of air and water at
1 atm is shown in Fig. 19.2. Many forms of such charts have been proposed. Fig
ure 19.2 is based on the Grosvenor2 chart.
 Humid heat Btu per deg. Fahr. per lb dry air
0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 03

o
>s

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ,OO^^T^^T^^
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit

FIGURE 19.2
On
Humidity chart. Air-water at 1 atm.
622 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

On Fig. 19.2 temperatures are plotted as abscissas and humidities as ordinates.

Any point on the chart represents a definite mixture of air and water. The curved line
marked 100 percent gives the humidity of saturated air as a function of air temper
ature. By using the vapor pressure of water, the coordinates of points on this line are
found from Eq. (19.3). Any point above and to the left of the saturation line repre
sents a mixture of saturated air and liquid water. This region is important only in
checking fog formation. Any point below the saturation line represents undersatu-
rated air, and a point on the temperature axis represents dry air. The curved lines
between the saturation line and the temperature axis marked in even percents repre
sent mixtures of air and water of definite percentage humidities. As shown by
Eq. (19.5), linear interpolation between the saturation line and the temperature axis
can be used to locate the lines of constant percentage humidity.
The slanting lines running downward and to the right of the saturation line are
called adiabaticcooling lines. They are plots of Eq. (19.11), each drawn for a given
constant value of the adiabatic saturation temperature. For a given value of Ts, both
Hs and Xs are fixed, and the line of 'K versus Tcan be plotted by assigning values to
IK, and calculating corresponding values of T. Inspection of Eq. (19.11) shows that
the slope of an adiabatic cooling line, if drawn on truly rectangular coordinates,
is —cs/Xs, and by Eq. (19.6), this slope depends on the humidity. On rectangular
coordinates, then, the adiabatic cooling lines are neither straight nor parallel. In
Fig. 19.2 the ordinates are sufficiently distorted to straighten the adiabatics and
render them parallel, so interpolation between them is easy. The ends of the adia
batics are identified with the corresponding adiabatic saturation temperatures.
Lines are shown on Fig. 19.2 for the specific volume of dry air and the saturated
volume. Both lines are plots of volume versus temperature. Volumes are read on the
scale at the left. Coordinates of points on these lines are calculated by use of
Eq. (19.lb). Linear interpolation between the two lines, based on percentage
humidity, gives the humid volume of unsaturated air. Also, the relation between the
humid heat cs and humidity is shown as a line on Fig. 19.2. This line is a plot of
Eq. (19.6). The scale for cs is at the top of the chart.

Use of humidity chart

The usefulness of the humidity chart as a source of data on a definite air-water
mixture can be shown by reference to Fig. 19.3, which is a portion of the chart of
Fig. 19.2. Assume, for example, that a given stream of undersaturated air is known
to have a temperature T{ and a percentage humidity %CAl. Point a represents this air
on the chart. This point is the intersection of the constant-temperature line for Tx and
the constant-percentage-humidity line for 2CAI. The humidity 3^ of the air is given
by point b, the humidity coordinate of point a. The dew point is found by following
the constant-humidity line through point a to the left to point c on the 100 percent
line. The dew point is then read at point d on the temperature axis. The adiabatic
saturation temperature is the temperature applying to the adiabatic cooling line
through point a. The humidity at adiabatic saturation is found by following the
adiabatic line through point a to its intersection e on the 100 percent line and reading
humidity %CS at point / on the humidity scale. Interpolation between the adiabatic
lines may be necessary. The adiabatic saturation temperature Ts is given by point g.
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 623

Humid heat

Temperature

FIGURE 19.3
Use of humidity chart.

If the original air is subsequently saturated at constant temperature, the humidity

after saturation is found by following the constant-temperature line through point a
to point h on the 100percent line and reading the humidity at pointy.
The humid volume of the original air is found by locating points k and / on the
curves for saturated and dry volumes, respectively, corresponding to temperature Tv
Point m_is then found by moving along line Ik a distance (3tA/l00)Fl from point /,
where kl is the line segment between points / and k. The humid volume vH is
given bypoint nonthe volume scale. The humid heat of the airis found by locating
point 0, the intersection of the constant-humidity linethrough point a andthehumid
heat line, and reading the humid heat cs at point/? on the scale at the top.

example 19.2. Thetemperature and dew point of theairentering a certain dryer are
150 and 60°F (65.6 and 15.6°C), respectively. What additional data for this air can be
read from the humidity chart?
Solution. The dew point is the temperature coordinate on the saturation line corre
sponding to the humidity of the air. The saturation humidity for a temperature of 60°F
is 0.011 lb ofwater per pound (0.011 g/g) of dry air, and this is the humidity of the air.
From the temperature and humidity of the air, the point on the chart for this air is
624 section i v: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

located. At %t = 0.011 and T = 150°F, the percentage humidity %tA is found by inter
polation to be 5.2 percent. The adiabatic cooling line through this point intersects the
100 percent line at 85°F (29.4°C), and this is the adiabatic saturation temperature. The
humidity of saturated air at this temperature is 0.026 lb of water per pound (0.026 g/g)
of dry air. The humid heat of the air is 0.245 Btu/lb dry air-°F (1.03 J/g-°C). The
saturated volume at 150°F is 20.7 ft3/lb (1.29 m3/kg) of dry air, and thespecific volume
of dry air at 150°F is 15.35 ft3/lb (0.958 m3/kg). The humid volume is, then,
,c,r
vH = 15.35 +
0.011x359
- f—- | =15.62 frVlb dry air (0.978 m3/kg)
Humidity charts for systems other than air-water
A humidity chart may be constructed for any system at any desired total pressure.
The data required are the vapor pressure and latent heat of vaporization of the con
densable component as a function of temperature, the specific heats of pure gas and
vapor, and the molecular weights of both components. If a chart on a mole basis is de
sired, all equations can easily be modified to the use of molal units. If a chart at a pres
sure other than 1 atm is wanted, obvious modifications in the above equations may be
made. Charts for several common systems besides air-water have been published.5

WET-BULB TEMPERATURE

The properties discussed above and those shown on the humidity charts are static or
equilibrium quantities. Equally important are the rates at which mass and heat are
transferred between the gas and liquid phases that are not in equilibrium. The
driving forces for mass and heat transfer are concentration and temperature differ
ences, which can be predicted by using a quantity called the wet-bulb temperature.
The wet-bulb temperature is the steady-state, nonequilibrium temperature
reached by a small mass of liquid exposed under adiabatic conditions to a continu
ous stream of gas. Because the gas flow is continuous, the properties of the gas are
constant and are usually evaluated at inlet conditions. If the gas is not saturated,
some liquid evaporates, cooling the remaining liquid until the rate of heat transfer
to the liquid just balances the heat needed for evaporation. The liquid temperature
when steady state is reached is the wet-bulb temperature.
The method of measuring the wet-bulb temperature is shown in Fig. 19.4a. A
thermometer or other temperature-measuring device, such as a thermocouple, is
covered by a wick, which is saturated with pure liquid and immersed in a stream of
gas having a definite temperature T and humidity ^t. Assume that initially the
temperature of the liquid is about that of the gas. Since the gas is not saturated,
liquid evaporates; and because the process is adiabatic, the latent heat is supplied at
first by cooling the liquid. As the temperature of the liquid decreases below that
of the gas, sensible heat is transferred to the liquid. Ultimately a steady state is
reached at such a liquid temperature that the heat needed to evaporate the liquid and
heat the vapor to gas temperature is exactly balanced by the sensible heat flowing
from the gas to the liquid. It is this steady-state temperature, denoted by Tw, that is
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 625

Boundary
layer
— - L
Gas | Wick Thermometer

Make-up liquid,
Temperature Tv

Gas

Temperature T
Humidity VC

(b)

FIGURE 19.4
(a) Wet-bulb thermometer, (b) Gradients in the gas boundary layer.

called the wet-bulb temperature. It is a function of both T and X The temperature

and concentration gradients at steady state are shown in Fig. 19Ab.
To measure the wet-bulb temperature with precision, three precautions are
necessary: (1) The wick must be completely wet, so no dry areas of the wick are in
contact with the gas; (2) the velocity of the gas should be large enough (at least
5 m/s) to ensure that the rate of heat flow by radiationfrom warmer surroundings to
the bulb is negligible in comparison with the rate of sensible heat flow by conduc
tion and convection from the gas to the bulb; (3) if makeup liquid is supplied to the
bulb, it should be at the wet-bulb temperature. When these precautions are taken,
the wet-bulb temperature is independent of gas velocity over a wide range of flow
rates.

The wet-bulb temperature superficially resembles the adiabatic saturation

temperature Ts. Indeed, for air-water mixtures the two temperatures are nearly equal.
This is fortuitous, however, and is not true of mixtures other than air and water. The
wet-bulb temperature differs fundamentally from the adiabatic saturation tempera
ture. The temperature and humidity of the gas vary during adiabatic saturation, and
the endpoint is a true equilibrium rather than a dynamic steady state.
Commonly, an uncovered thermometer is used along with the wet bulb to mea
sure T, the actual gas temperature, and the gas temperature is usually called the
dry-bulb temperature.

Theory of wet-bulb temperature

At the wet-bulb temperature the rate of heat transfer from the gas to the liquid
may be equated to the product of the rate of vaporization and the sum of the latent
626 section iv: Mass Transferand Its Applications

heat of evaporation at temperature Tw and the sensible heat of the vapor. Since
radiation may be neglected, this balance may be written
q = MANA[XW + cpA(T - Tw)] (19.12)
where q = rate of sensible heat transfer to liquid
NA = molal rate of vaporization
Xw = latent heat of liquid at wet-bulb temperature Tw
The rate of heat transfer may be expressed in terms of the area, the temperature
drop, and an effective heat-transfer coefficient in the usual way, or
q = hy{T -Tt)A (19.13)
where hy = heat-transfer coefficient between gas and surface of liquid
Ti = temperature at interface
A = surface area of liquid
The rate of mass transfer may be expressed in terms of the mass-transfer coef
ficient, the area, and the driving force in mole fraction of vapor, or

NA ==k=&t-y)A (19.14)
(1 -y)L
where NA = molal rate of transfer of vapor
y- = mole fraction of vapor at interface
y = mole fraction of vapor in airstream
ky = mass-transfer coefficient, mole per unit areaper unit mole
fraction
(1 —y)L = one-way diffusion factor
If the wick is completely wet and no dry spots show, the entire area of the wick is
available for both heat and mass transfer and the areas in Eqs. (19.13) and (19.14)
are equal. Since the temperature of the liquid is constant, no temperature gradients
are necessary in the liquid to act as driving forces for heat transfer within the liquid,
the surface of the liquid is at the same temperature as the interior, and the surface
temperature of the liquid Tt equals Tw. Since the liquid is pure, no concentration gra
dients exist, and granting interfacial equilibrium, y. is the mole fraction of vapor in
saturated gas at temperature Tw. It is convenient to replace the mole fraction terms in
Eq. (19.14) by humidities through the use of Eq. (19.2), noting thaty, corresponds to
9CW, the saturation humidity at the wet-bulbtemperature. [SeeEq. (19.10).] Following
this by substituting # from Eq. (19.13) and NA from Eq. (19.14) into Eq. (19.12) gives

hy(T - Tw) =
(1 - y)L \l/MB + WW/MA \/MB + %t/MA)
*[Xw + cpA(T-Tw)] (19.15)
Equation (19.15) may be simphfied without serious error in the usual range of
temperatures and humidities as follows: (1) the factor (1 —y)L is nearly unity and can
be omitted; (2) the sensible-heat item cpA(T —Tw) is small in comparison with Xw
and can be neglected; (3) the terms %tw/MA and %£/MA are small in comparison with
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 627

l/MB and may be dropped from the denominators of the humidity terms. With these
simplifications Eq. (19.15) becomes
hy(T - Tw) = MBkyXvMw - ?Q
at —atw hv
T - Tw MBkyXw
For a given wet-bulb temperature, both Xw and "Kw are fixed. The relation
between ^ and Tthen depends on the ratio hy/ky. The close analogy between mass
transfer and heat transfer provides considerable information on the magnitude of
this ratio and the factors that affect it.
It has been shown in Chap. 12 that heat transfer by conduction and convection
between a stream of fluid and a solid or liquid boundary depends on the Reynolds
number DG/p, and the Prandtl number cpp/k. Also, as shown in Chap. 17, the
mass-transfer coefficient depends on the Reynolds number and the Schmidt number
p/pDv. As discussed in Chap. 17, the rates of heat and mass transfer, when these
processes are under the control of the same boundary layer, are given by equations
that are identical in form. For turbulent flow of the gas stream these equations are
hy
= bRenPrm (19.17)
cpG

Mky
and —i =
= fc Re" Scm
2>Re"Scm (19.18)
G

where b,n,m = constants

M = average molecular weight of gas stream
Substitution of hy from Eq. (19.17) and ky from Eq. (19.18) in Eq. (19.16), assum
ing M = MB, gives
OK, dtW hy
(19.19)
T -Tw MBkyX,

and TTi-=cp[7r) (19.20)

If m is taken as |, the predicted value of hy/MBky for air in water is
0.24(0.62/0.71)2/3, or 0.22 Btu/lb.°F (0.92 J/g-°C). The experimental value6 is
0.26Btu/lb•°F (1.09J/g •°C), somewhat largerthan predicted, because of heat trans
ferbyradiation. For organic liquids in airit is larger, in therange 0.4 to 0.5 Btu/lb •°F
(1.6 to 2.0 J/g •°C). The difference, as shown by Eq. (19.20), is the result of the dif
fering ratios of Prandtl and Schmidt numbers for water and for organic vapors.
Psychrometric line and Lewis relation
For a given wet-bulb temperature, Eq. (19.19) can be plotted on the humid
ity chart as a straight line having a slope of -hy/MBkyXw and intersecting the
100percent line at Tw. This line is called the psychrometric line. When both a
psychrometric line, from Eq. (19.19), and an adiabatic saturation line, from
628 section Iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Eq. (19.11), are plotted for the same point on the 100 percent curve, the relation
between the lines depends on the relative magnitudes of cs and hy/MBky.
For the system air-water at ordinary conditions the humid heat cs is almost
equal to the specific heat cp, and the following equation is nearly correct:
hy ^
1717=c*
MBky <19-21)
Equation (19.21) is known as the Lewis relation.4 When this relation holds, the
psychrometric line and the adiabatic saturation line become essentially the same. In
Fig. 19.2 for air-water, therefore, the same line may be used for both. For other
systems separate lines must be used for psychrometric lines. With nearly all mixtures
of air and organic vapors, the psychrometric lines are steeper than the adiabatic
saturation lines, and the wet-bulb temperature of any mixture other than a saturated
one is higher than the adiabatic saturation temperature.

Measurement of humidity
The humidity of a stream or mass of gas may be found by measuring either the
dew point or the wet-bulb temperature or by direct absorption methods.

Dew-point methods. If a cooled, polished disk is inserted into gas of unknown

humidity and the temperature of the disk gradually lowered, the disk reaches a
temperature at which mist condenses on the polished surface. The temperature at
which this mist just forms is the temperature of equilibrium between the vapor in
the gas and the liquid phase. It is therefore the dew point. A check on the reading is
obtained by slowly increasing the disk temperature and noting the temperature at
which the mist just disappears. From the average of the temperatures of mist
formation and disappearance, the humidity can be read from a humidity chart.

Psychrometric methods. A very common method of measuring the humidity

is to determine simultaneously the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. From
these readings the humidity is found by locating the psychrometric line intersect
ing the saturation line at the observed wet-bulb temperature and following the
psychrometric line to its intersection with the ordinate of the observed dry-bulb
temperature.

Direct methods. The vapor content of a gas can be determined by direct analy
sis, in which a known volume of gas is drawn through an appropriate analytical
device.

COOLING TOWERS

When warm liquid is brought into contact with unsaturated gas, part of the liquid
evaporates and the liquid temperature drops. The most important application of this
principle is in the use of cooling towers to lower the temperature of recirculated
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 629

water used for condensers and heat exchangers in chemical plants, power plants,
and air conditioning units. Cooling towers are large-diameter columns with special
types of packing designed to give good gas-liquid contact with low pressure drop.
Warm water is distributed over the packing by spray nozzles or a grid of notched
troughs or pipes. Air is passed through the packing by forced-draft or induced-draft
fans, or in some designs it is drawn through by natural convection. In the enormous
concrete natural-draft towers used mainly in conjunction with nuclear power plants,
the packing occupies only the bottom section; the rest of the tower acts as a chim
ney to create the flow of air. See Fig. 19.5.
Two of the major types of forced-draft cooling towers are shown in Fig. 19.6.
The preferred material for the outer shell is corrugated glass-reinforced polyester.8

FIGURE 19.5
Natural-draft cooling tower. (Courtesy of Joseph Gonyeau,
P. E., www.nucleartourist. com.)
630 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Drift
iminators

water

Air

Drift
eliminator
<—Hot water

Fil

(b)
FIGURE 19.6
Typical cooling towers: (a) crossflow tower; (b) counterflow tower.

In the crossflow tower, which is rectangular in cross section, air passes horizontally
through the inclined beds of packing or fill, while the water flows downward.
Slanted louvers prevent the escape of water drops to the outside, and angled baffles
called drift eliminators capture most of the droplets that are entrained in the exit air.
Air is drawn through the tower by a propeller-type fan with several blades. In large
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 631

units, the pitch of the blades can be adjusted to vary the flow of air. The fan is often
located at the throat of a venturi-shaped cylinder that promotes smooth flow of air
to the fan and gives some pressure recovery in the expanding section. The cylinder
also discharges the moist air farther above ground level, which decreases the chance
of recirculation to the air inlet.3 This type of pressure recovery cylinder is used
mainly with large cooling towers.
In the counterflow tower, air enters below the layer of fill and passes upward
countercurrent to the flow of descending water. This is a moreefficient arrangement
for heat transfer and permits a closer temperature approach, as was shown in com
paring counterflow and crossflow heat exchangers in Chap. 15. The counterflow
tower can be used with a forced-draft fan at the base of the tower, but a large space
below the fill is needed for good air distribution.
In older towers, the packing consisted of horizontal redwood or cypress slats
spaced so thatwater falling on the slats would splash and thedroplets be intercepted
by the next layer of packing. Splash-type fill is still used in some crossflow towers,
butV-shaped bars of polyvinyl chloride areused instead of wooden slats.8 The pres
sure drop is low because airflow is parallel to the bars or slats, and the open struc
ture makes inspection and cleaning relatively easy. Splash-type packing is not
recommended for counterflow towers.
The most common type of packing for new installations is cellular fill or film-
type packing, which consists of corrugated sheets of plastic similarto those used in
plate-type heat exchangers. Water flows over the surface of the packing, giving
more transfer area per unit volume than splash-type packings. The plastic sheetsare
spaced | to 1.0 in. (18 to 25 mm) apart to permit high flow rates ofair and water
with only moderate pressure drop. The depth of fill may be only a few feet, a small
fraction of the total height of the unit. With cellular fill, it is especially important to
get good distribution of the water at the top, since redistribution does not occur
naturally, as it does with random dumped packings.
The reduction in water temperature in the cooling tower comes mainly from
evaporation, although when the air temperature is low, there is also some sensible-
heat transfer to the air. However, even when the air is warmer than the water, water
can be cooled by evaporation if the wet-bulb temperature is below that of the water.
In practice, the discharge temperature of the water is 5 to 15°F (3 to 8°C) above the
wet-bulb temperature, and this difference is known as the approach. The change in
water temperature from inlet to exit is known as the range, and the range is gener
ally 10 to 30°F (6 to 17°C).7
The loss of water by evaporation during cooling is small. Since about 1,000Btu
is required to vaporize 1 lb of water, and 50 lb must be cooled 20°F to provide
1,000 Btu, a rangeof 20°Fmeans anevaporation loss of 2 percent. In addition there
are losses of spray droplets, referred to as drift or windage, but in a well-designed
tower these amount to only about 0.2 percent. The total makeup water supplied
must equal the evaporation and drift losses plus the amount of purge or blowdown
needed to limit the buildup of dissolved salts.
Cooling towers are generally selected after consultation with equipment sup
pliers and consideration of factors such as the average and maximum heat duty, the
required temperature range, the availability and quality of makeup water, and the
local weather conditions. The tower is often sizedto satisfy all but the most extreme
632 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

conditions, such as when the wet-bulb temperature exceeds a certain limit for a few
days per year. Detailed weather data for design purposes for all regions of the
United States are available from the Marley Cooling Tower Company3 or from
government agencies.

Theory of Counterflow Cooling Towers

When the wet-bulb temperature is measured, heat transfer and mass transfer take
place at steady state with gradients as shown in Fig. 19.4b. The flow of heat to the
interface just matches that needed for evaporation of the water that diffuses as vapor
into the bulk gas. There is no significant gradient in the liquid, which remains at a
constant temperature. By contrast in a cooling tower, the water temperature changes
as droplets pass through the tower, and it is necessary to consider heat flow in the
liquid phase as well as heat and mass transfer in the gas.
Typical gradients at the bottom and top of a cooling tower are sketched in
Fig. 19.7. At the bottom, the air temperature can be greater than the water tempera
ture (Fig. 19.7a), but the water is being cooled because the interface temperature Tt
is lower than the bulk water temperature Tx. The humidity at the interface is greater
than that in the bulk gas, which provides a driving force for mass transfer of water
vapor. If the inlet air temperature is less than the exit water temperature, as in
Fig. 19.7b, the gradients are similar in shape, but there is less sensible-heat trans
fer through the gas film. In all cases, the interface temperature must be above the
wet-bulb temperature, since if Tx = Tw, all the heat for vaporization would come
from the gas, and there would be no temperature gradient in the water and no cool
ing of the water.
As the air passes up through the tower, the air temperature might decrease for a
short distance, but it will eventually increase as the air contacts warmer and warmer
water. At the top, the gradients might be as shown in Fig. 19.7c. Heat transferred
from the water to the interface is used to warm the air as well as to provide heat of

Liquid Gas Liquid Gas

T Liquid« Gas

2€

Conditions in cooling tower: (a), (b) at bottom of tower, (c) at top of tower.
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 633

vaporization, although the water cooling due to evaporation is much greater than
that from sensible-heat transfer to the air. The exit gas temperature is usually within
a few degrees Fahrenheit of the inlet water temperature.

Equations for cooling-tower analysis

Consider the counterflow cooling towershown in Fig. 19.8. Air at humidity %Cb
and temperature Tyb enters the bottom of the tower and leaves at the top with
humidity Hta and temperature Tya. Water enters the top at temperature Txa and
leaves at the bottom at temperature Txb. The mass velocity of the airis G'r the mass
of vapor-free air per hour per unit cross section of tower. The mass velocities of
water at the inlet and outlet are, respectively, Gxa and Gxb. At a distance Z from
the bottom of the contact zone, the air and water temperatures are T and Tx, and the
humidity is §€. At the gas-liquid interface, the temperature is Ti and the humidity
9^.. Assume for convenience that the interface temperature is greater than the gas
temperature, as in Fig. 19.7c. (The following derivation is still valid if Tx < T.)
An enthalpy balance for a short section of tower dZ is
G;dHy=d(GxHx) (19.22)

Since the change in liquid rate in the tower is only 1 to 2 percent, Gx is assumed to
be constant.

GydHy = GxcLdTx (19.23)

The change in gas enthalpy is the change in sensible heat plus the change in humid
ity times the heat of vaporization.
dHy = cs dTy + Xq d^i (19.24)
where X0 = heat of vaporization at 32°F.

Mass velocity ofvapor-free gas Gy FIGURE 19.8

Temperature Tya Mass velocity of Flow diagram of countercurrent
^—z liquid Gxa gas-liquid contactor.
Humidity 3€a Temperature Txa
Enthalpy Hya

Temperature Ty
Humidity 3K
Enthalpy Hy

Mass velocity of
vapor-free gas Gy
Temperature Ty^ Mass velocity of
—•£: liquid Gxt
Humidity Wh Temperature Tx^
Enthalpy H^
634 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

The enthalpy of saturated air is

Hy,s*t = cs(Ty - 32) + X0$es (19.25)
The overall energy balance for the tower is
G;{Ha - Hb) = GxcL(Txa - Txb) (19.26)
At an intermediate point in the tower, the enthalpy balance is
G;(Ha - Hy) = GxcL(Txa - Tx) (19.27)
Equation (19.27) is the operating line for the tower, and it is shownas a straight
lineof slope Gx cL / Gy on a plotof airenthalpy versus watertemperature in Fig. 19.9.
The equilibrium line gives the enthalpy of air saturated with water vapor
[Eq. (19.25)] as a function of temperature. Theenthalpy-temperature diagram for the
cooling tower is similar to that for a stripping column,but energy rather than a solute
is being transferred from the waterto the air. For givenwater temperatures and inlet

100

80

_2 60 /P f cf
S*
Q.
W
^
5?
' • <0

0)
i_ 40 +&
0' jr

<
J?
7
r^QR

20

60 70 80 90 100 110
Water temperature Tx, °F

FIGURE 19.9
Operating diagram for cooling tower; plotof enthalpy of the air versus water
temperature.
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 635

air conditions, there is a minimum air rate corresponding to the operating line that
just touches the equilibrium line, as shown in Fig. 19.9. Because of the curvature of
the equilibrium line, the minimum air rate is sometimes determined by a line tangent
to the curve. The air rate is generally chosen to be 1.2 to 2.0 times the minimum value.
The required packed height for a cooling tower can be determined by using the
operating line-equilibrium line diagram and an overall coefficient based on an en
thalpy driving force. To show why this is true, the rate equations for the air-water
system are examined.
The rate of sensible-heat transfer from the water to the interface is

GxcL dTx = hxa(Tx - Ti) dZ (19.28)

where h^ = volumetric heat-transfer coefficient for liquid. The rate of heat transfer
from the interface to the gas is
G;cs dTy = hya(Ti - Ty) dZ (19.29)
where hya = volumetric heat-transfer coefficient for gas.
The rate of mass transfer of water vapor through the gas film is written first in
the normal way, using a molar flow rate and a mole fraction driving force. A dilute
gas is assumed so that (1 —y)L = 1.0.

GM dy = kya(yi - y) dZ (19.30)
Since for low-humidity air, GM = Gy/MB, where MB is the molecular weight
of the inert gas (air), y is approximately proportional to Vt and %t/MA <£ 1/MB,
Eq. (19.30) can be changed to
G;dVC = kyaMB(%t - VQdZ (19.31)
The a terms in h^a, hya, and kya are assumed to be identical.
Equation (19.31) is converted to an energy basis by multiplying by X0.
G;x0 d<K = kyaMBko(%i - W) dZ (19.32)
Combining Eq. (19.32) and Eq. (19.29) gives
Gy(XodJt + cs dTy) = [kyaMBX0(% -VC)+ hya(Ji - Ty)] dZ (19.33)
The Lewis relationship h = csMBky is used to replace ha in the bracketed term of
Eq. (19.33).

G;(AodW + cs dTy) = kyaMB[Xo(%i - W) + c5(7} - Ty)] dZ (19.34)

Since the term in parentheses on the left-hand side is the differential change in
enthalpy and the bracketed term is an enthalpy difference, Eq. (19.34) becomes
G;dHy = kyaMB(Hi - Hy)dZ (19.35)
Thus the rate of change of gas enthalpy is proportional to the difference be
tween the enthalpy at the interface and that in the bulk gas, and the transfer coeffi
cient is the normal gas-film transfer coefficient multiplied by MBi since G'y and H
are based on mass, not moles.
636 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

To determine conditions at the interface, the heat-transfer rate in the liquid film
is equated to the change of gas enthalpy.

hxa(Tx - Ti)dZ = kyaMB(Hj - Hy)dZ (19.36)

Hi — Hv hxa
or — y- = ——^— (19.37)
T{ - Tx kyaMB
Thus, a tie line from point //,, Ti on the equilibrium curve to point Hyi Tx on the oper
ating line has a slope —hxa/kya MB. By constructing tie lines of this slope for dif
ferent values of//,, Eq. (19.35) can be integrated to get the overall height.

dHy kyaMBZT
/ Hi - Hy g;
(19.38)

However, for most packings, there are no published correlations for hxa and kya,
and a simpler approach based on an overall coefficient and an overall enthalpy
driving force can be used.

G;,dHy = Kya(H* - Hy)dZ (19.39)

11m
where = h
Kya kyaMB hxa
dH*
m = —— = slope of equilibrium line
dT
H* = enthalpy of gas in equilibrium with liquid at temperature Tx
The number of transfer units and the height of a transfer unit can be defined in the
same way as for gas absorption.

dHy ZT
y =N0y = —L- (19.40)
/ H* —Hy Hoy
where H0y = Gy/(Kya).
The use of an overall gas-phase coefficient may introduce some error in the
design or analysis of cooling tower performance, because the slope of the
equilibrium line changes with temperature. As shown in Fig. 19.10, the slope in
creases by 30 to 40 percent for a 10°F change in temperature. However, the gas
film has the major resistance, so the change in Kya with temperature may be rela
tively small, With cellular fill at the normal flow rates, the value of H0y is typically
2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 1 m). For older towers with wood slats H0y may be 10 to 20 ft
(3 to 6 m).1
Although the detailed design of cooling towers is usually left to specialists, the
effects of changes in weather conditions on the performance of an existing tower are
readily predicted. From data for normal conditions, an energy balance is made as a
check, and the number of overall transfer units is calculated using an enthalpy
diagram. A new operating line is then located by trial to give the same number of
transfer units. This is illustrated in Example 19.3.
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 637

80

70

60

50
(a)

>. 40 / P
JQ.
O •

30

•
•
(b)
•

•
20
c f

10

0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Water temperature 7X, °F

FIGURE 19.10
Operating diagram for Example 19.3.

example 19.3. A counterflow induced-draft cooling tower operates with inlet and
exit water temperatures of 105 and 85°F when the air has dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures, respectively, of 90 and 76°F. The tower has 4 ft of stacked plastic fill,
and the flow rates are Gy = 2,000 lb/h-ft2 and Gx = 2,200 lb/h-ft2. (a) Determine the
number of transfer units, the height of a transfer unit based on the overall gas-phase
driving force, and the temperature approach, (b) If the coolingloadremains the samebut
the air temperature dropsto 70°Fwitha wet-bulb temperature of 60°F, predictthe water
temperature and the temperature approach.
638 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

Solution
(a) From the psychrometric chart (Fig. 19.2) the inlet humidity and humid heat are
determined.

% = 0.017 lb water/lb air liR = ^—- x 100 = 55%

0.031

c,= 0.248 Btu/lb-°F

Hb = 0.248(90 - 32) + 1,075(.017) = 32.7 Btu/lb
2,200(1.0)(105 - 85) = 2,000(/Za - 32.7)
Ha = 54.7 Btu/lb
The points Txa = 105,Ha = 54.7 and Txb = 85, Hb = 32.7 are plotted in Fig. 19.10
as the endpoints of the operating line. The number of transfer units is obtained by
determining the-driving force at the middle of the column and using the log mean AH
to get the number of transfer units for each section.

Tx H* H H*-H (H*-H)L AN
85 41.5 32.7 8.8
95 55.5 43.7 11.8 10.2 1.08
105 73 54.7 18.3 14.8 0.74

N0y= 1.S2

H°> = W2=2-2ft
The temperature approach is 85 —76 = 9°F.
(b) For Ty = 70°F and Tw = 60°F,
Wb = 0.009 cs = 0.244
Hb = 0.244(70 - 32) + 1,075(0.009) = 18.9 Btu/lb
For the same cooling load and constant water and airflows
2,200(1.0)(20) = 2,000(/Za - 18.9)
Ha= 18.9 4- 22 = 40.9
The operating line is located by trial to give the same number of transfer units* For
Txa = 95°F, Txb = 75°F, N0y = 1.78, which is close enough to 1.82. The operatingline
is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 19.9.The approachto the wet-bulb temperature is
•xb 75 - 60 = 15°F

The position of the operating line depends very much on the wet-bulb temper
ature of the entering air, since this fixes the air enthalpy. Changes in dry-bulb
temperature have almost no effect. If the air is 100 percent saturated, cooling will
still take place as long as the water temperature is greater than the wet-bulb
temperature. In practice, towers are not designed to operate with an approach of less
than 5°F (2.8°C), and approaches of 10 to 15°F (5.6 to 8.3°C) are more typical. As
shown in Example 19.3, decreasing the wet-bulb temperature lowers the outlet
water temperature, but the approach is increased because of the curvature of the
equilibrium line.
 chapter 19: Humidification Operations 639

If the gas rate or liquid rate changes, some change in the number of transfer
units is expected. The gas-film coefficient increases with about the 0.8 power of the
gas rate, so if the gas film controls, H0y goes up with the 0.2 power of G'y.
Decreasing the liquid rate may lead to an increase in H0y because of incomplete
wetting of the packing.

SYMBOLS

A Surface area of liquid, m2 or ft2

a Transfer area, m2/m3 or ft2/ft3
b Constant in Eqs. (19.17) and (19.18)
Cp Molar specific heat, J/g mol •°C or Btu/lb mol •°F
cL Specific heat of liquid, J/g •°C or Btu/lb •°F
cp Specific heat, J/g•°C or Btu/lb •°F; cpAy cpB, of components A and B,
respectively
cs Humid heat, J/g •°C or Btu/lb •°F
D Diameter, m or ft
Dv Diffusivity, m2/h, cm2/s, or ft2/h
G Mass velocity, kg/m2 •h orlb/ft2 •h; Gx, of liquid at any point; Gxa, of
liquid at entrance; Gxb, of liquid at exit; Gy, of gas, mass of vapor-free
gas per unit area of tower cross section per hour
GM Molal mass velocity, kg mol/m2 •h or lb mol/ft2- h
H Enthalpy, J/g or Btu/lb; Hx, of liquid; Hy, of gas; Hya, Hyb, of gas at
entrance and exit, respectively //*, equilibrium value; H*, of gas in
equilibrium with liquid
H0y Height of a transfer unit, m or ft, overall, based on gas phase
Hi Humidity, mass of vapor per unit mass of vapor-free gas; 2£fl, at top of
contactor; %Cb, at bottom of contactor; 3^., at gas-liquid interface;
§€,, saturation humidity; %CW, saturation humidity at wet-bulb
temperature
WA Percentage humidity, 1009C/ Vts
%£R Relative humidity, 100pA/PJL
h Heat-transfer coefficient, W/m2 •°C or Btu/ft2 •h•°F; hx, liquid side;
hy, gas side
Kya Overall volumetric mass-transfer coefficient based on gas phase
k Thermal conductivity, W/m •°C or Btu/ft •h •°F
ky Mass-transfer coefficient, g mol/m2 •h•unit mole fraction or
lb mol/ft2 •h •unit mole fraction
M Molecular weight; MA, MB, of components A and B, respectively;
M, average molecular weight of gas stream
m Exponent in Eqs. (19.17) and (19.18); also, slope of equilibrium line
N Number of transfer units; N0yt overall, based on gas phase
NA Rate of transfer or vaporization of liquid, mol/h
n Exponent in Eqs. (19.17) and (19.18); also number of moles
(Example 19.1)
640 section iv: Mass Transfer and Its Applications

P Pressure, atm; PA, vapor pressure of liquid

Pr Prandtl number, cpfi/k
pA Partial pressure of vapor, atm
q Rate of sensible-heat transfer to liquid, W or Btu/h
Re Reynolds number, DG/fx
Sc Schmidt number, n/(pDv)
T Temperature, K, °C, °R or °F; T{, at gas-liquid interface; Ts, adiabatic
saturation temperature; Tw, wet-bulb temperature; Tx, of bulk of liquid;
Txa, of liquid at top of contactor; Txb, of liquid at bottom of contactor;
Ty, of bulk of gas; Tya, of gas at top of contactor; Tyb, of gas at bottom
of contactor; T0, datum for computing enthalpy
vH Humid volume, m3/kg or ftVlb
x Mole fraction of gas component in liquid stream; xe, equilibrium value
y Mole fraction of liquid component in gas stream; ye, equilibrium value;
y,, at gas-liquid interface; ys, saturation value
(1 —y)L One-way diffusion factor
Z Distance from bottom of contact zone, m or ft; ZT, total height of
contact section
z Number of moles of water evaporated (Example 19.1)

Greek Letters

X Latent heat of vaporization, J/g or Btu/lb; Xs, at Ts\ Xw; at Tw; X0, at T0
\i Viscosity, cP or lb/ft •h
p Density of gas, kg/m3 or lb/ft3

PROBLEMS

19.1. One method of removing acetone from cellulose acetate is to blow an airstream
over the cellulose acetate fibers. To know the properties of the air-acetone mixtures,
the process control department requires a humidity chart for air-acetone. After inves
tigation, it was found that an absolute humidity range of 0 to 6.0 and a temperature
rangeof 5 to 55°Cwouldbesatisfactory. Constructthefollowing portionsof suchahu
midity chartforair-acetone atatotal pressure of760mmHg: (a)percentage humidity
lines for 50 and 100percent, (b) saturated volumeversus temperature, (c) latent heat
of acetone versus temperature, (d) humid heat versus humidity, (e) adiabatic cool
ing lines for adiabatic saturation temperatures of 20 and 40°C, and (/) wet-bulb
temperature (psychrometric) lines for wet-bulb temperatures of 20 and 40°C. The
necessary data are given in Table 19.1. For acetone vapor, cp = 1.41 J/g-°C and
h/(MBky) = 1.7 J/g-°C.

19.2. A mixture of air and benzene vapor is to be cooled from 70 to 15°C in a tubular
cooler condenser. The humidity at the inlet is 0.7 kg benzene vapor per kilogram
of air. Calculate (a) the wet-bulb temperature of the entering gas, (b) the humidity
at the outlet, and (c) the total amount of heat to be transferred per kilogram of air.