Pressure:

When you hold your hand outside the window of a moving automobile, with your
palm perpendicular to the incoming airstream, you can feel the air pressure
exerting a force and tending to push your hand rearward in the direction of the
airflow.
The force per unit area on your palm is defined as the pressure.
The pressure exists basically because air molecules (oxygen and nitrogen
molecules) are striking the surface of your hand and transferring some of their
momentum to the surface.
More precisely, Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface
due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on
that surface.
It is important to note that even though pressure is defined as force per unit area
(for example, newtons per square meter or pounds per square foot), you do not
need a surface that is actually 1 m2 or 1 ft2 to talk about pressure.
In fact, pressure is usually defined at a point in the gas or a point on a surface and
can vary from one point to another. We can use the language of differential
calculus.

Fig 1.1 definition of pressure

Referring to Fig. 1.1 , we consider a point B in a volume of gas. Let

dA= An incremental area around B
dF=Force on one side of dA due to pressure.
Then the pressure p at point B in the gas is defined as
dF
p=lim ( )
dA
dA 0
the pressure p is the limiting form of the force per unit area where the area of
interest has shrunk to zero around point B . In this formalism, it is easy to see that
p is a point property and can have a different value from one point to another in
the gas.

Density
The density of a substance (including a gas) is the mass of that substance per unit
volume.

Fig 1.2 definition of density

Density will be designated by the symbol ρ. For example, consider air in a room
that has a volume of 250 m3. If the mass of the air in the room is 306.25 kg and is
evenly distributed throughout the space, then density ρ will be 1.225 kg/m 3 and is
the same at every point in the room.
We consider point B inside a volume of gas as shown in fig 1.2
Let dv = Elemental volume around point B
dm= Mass of gas inside dv.
Then ρ at point B is
dm
ρ=lim ( )
dv dv 0

Temperature:
Consider a gas as a collection of molecules and atoms. These particles are in
constant motion, moving through space and occasionally colliding with one
another. Because each particle has motion, it also has kinetic energy. If we watch
the motion of a single particle over a long time during which it experiences
numerous collisions with its neighboring particles, we can meaningfully define the
average kinetic energy of the particle over this long duration. If the particle is
moving rapidly, it has a higher average kinetic energy than if it were moving
slowly. The temperature T of the gas is directly proportional to the average
molecular kinetic energy. In fact, we can define T as follows:
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in the gas.
If KE is the mean molecular kinetic energy, then temperature is given by

3
KE= kT
2
where k is the Boltzmann constant
The value of k is 1.38×10−23 J/K

Flow Velocity and Streamlines:

The velocity at any fixed point B in a flowing gas is the velocity of an
infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B
It represents the distance traveled by some object per unit time. However, the
concept of the velocity of a flowing gas is somewhat more subtle. First, velocity
connotes direction as well as speed. To designate velocity, we must quote both
speed and direction. For a flowing gas, we must further recognize that each
region of the gas does not necessarily have the same velocity; that is, the speed
and direction of the gas may vary from point to point in the flow. Hence, flow
velocity, along with p, ρ, and T is a point property.
To see this more clearly, consider the flow of air over an airfoil or the flow of
combustion gases through a rocket engine, as sketched in Fig below
To orient yourself, lock your eyes on a specific, infinitesimally small element of
mass in the gas, and watch this element move with time. Both the speed and
direction of this element (usually called a fluid element) can vary as it moves from
point to point in the gas. Now fix your eyes on a specific fixed point in the gas
flow, say point B in Fig.
We can now define flow velocity as follows:
The velocity at any fixed point B in a flowing gas is the velocity of an
infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B.
Again we emphasize that velocity is a point property and can vary from point to
point in the flow.
Referring again to Fig, we note that as long as the flow is steady (as long as it does
not fluctuate with time), a moving fluid element is seen to trace out a fixed path
in space. This path taken by a moving fluid element is called a streamline of the
flow.

THE SOURCE OF ALL AERODYNAMIC FORCES:

We have just discussed the four basic aerodynamic flow quantities: p, ρ , T, and V,
where V is velocity, which has both magnitude and direction; that is, velocity
is a vector quantity. Knowledge of p, ρ, T, and V at each point of a flow fully
defines the flow field. For example, if we were concerned with the flow about a
sharp-pointed cone, as shown

Fig: specification of a flow field

we could imagine a Cartesian xyz three-dimensional space, where the velocity far
ahead of the cone V∞ is in the x direction and the cone axis is also along the x
direction. The specification of the following quantities then fully defines the flow
field:
p=p(x,y,z)
ρ=ρ(x,y,z)
T=T(x,y,z)
V=V(x,y,z)

Probably the most practical consequence of the flow of air over an object is that
the object experiences a force, an aerodynamic force, such as your hand feels
outside the open window of a moving car. Subsequent chapters discuss the
nature and consequences of such aerodynamic forces. The purpose here is to
state that the aerodynamic force exerted by the airflow on the surface of an
airplane, missile, or the like stems from only two simple natural sources:

1. Pressure distribution on the surface

2. Shear stress (friction) on the surface
Referring to Fig. below we see that pressure exerted by the gas on the solid
surface of an object always acts normal to the surface, as shown by the directions
of the arrows.

Fig: Pressure and shear stress distribution

The lengths of the arrows denote the magnitude of the pressure at each local
point on the surface. Note that the surface pressure varies with location. The net
unbalance of the varying pressure distribution over the surface creates an
aerodynamic force. The second source, shear stress acting on the surface, is due
to the frictional effect of the flow “rubbing” against the surface as it moves
around the body. The shear stress τw is defined as the force per unit area acting
tangentially on the surface due to friction, as shown in Fig above.
It is also a point property; it varies along the surface; and the net unbalance of the
surface shear stress distribution creates an aerodynamic force on the body. No
matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of the
body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a solid
object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that exist
on the surface. These are the basic fundamental sources of all aerodynamic
forces.
Finally, we can state that a primary function of theoretical and experimental
aerodynamics is to predict and measure the aerodynamic forces on a body. In
many cases, this implies prediction and measurement of p and τ w along a given
surface.
Furthermore, a prediction of p and τ w on the surface frequently requires
knowledge of the complete flow field around the body. This helps to answer our
earlier discussion about what practical information is yielded by knowledge of the
flow field.
Equation of state for a perfect gas:
Air under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, such as those
encountered in subsonic and supersonic flight through the atmosphere, behaves
very much as a perfect gas. We can best see the definition of a perfect gas by
returning to the molecular picture. A gas is a collection of particles (molecules,
atoms, electrons, etc.) in random motion, where each particle is, on average, a
long distance away from its neighboring particles. Each molecule has an
intermolecular force field about it, a ramification of the complex interaction of
the electromagnetic properties of the electrons and nucleus. The intermolecular
force field of a given particle extends a comparatively long distance through space
and changes from a strong repulsive force at close range to a weak attractive
force at long range. The intermolecular force field of a given particle reaches out
and is felt by the neighboring particles. On the one hand, if the neighboring
particles are far away, they feel only the tail of the weak attractive force; hence
the motion of the neighboring particles is only negligibly affected. On the other
hand, if they are close, their motion can be greatly affected by the intermolecular
force field. Because the pressure and temperature of a gas are tangible quantities
derived from the motion of the particles, p and T are directly influenced by
intermolecular forces, especially when the molecules are packed closely together
(i.e., at high densities). This leads to the definition of a perfect gas:
A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible.
Clearly, from discussion we can consider a gas in nature in which the particles are
widely separated (low densities) approaches the definition of a perfect gas.
The air in the room about you is one such case; each particle is separated, on
average, by more than 10 molecular diameters from any other. Hence, air at
standard conditions can be readily approximated by a perfect gas. Such is also the
case for the flow of air about ordinary flight vehicles at subsonic and supersonic
speeds. Therefore we always deal with a perfect gas for our aerodynamic
calculations.
The relation among p, ρ and T for a gas is called the equation of state. For a
perfect gas, the equation of state is
p = ρRT
Where R is the specific gas constant, the value of which varies from one type of
gas to another.
We are more familiar with the universal gas constant. The specific and universal
gas constants are related through R= R/M, where M is the molecular Weight of
the gas.
For air M=28.96 Kg/(kg.mole)
and R=8314 J/kg.mole K
Therefore for normal air R= 287 J/kg-K
Standard atmosphere:
Standard atmosphere is defined in order to relate flight tests, wind tunnel tests
general airplane design and performance to a common reference.
It is important to understand the definition of various altitudes that are usually
used to analyze/compare the performance of flying vehicles in standard
atmosphere.
The gravitational force experienced by any aircraft varies with altitude. Also, an
aircraft experiences variation in aerodynamic forces with altitude. This is simply
because of the fact that the atmospheric properties viz; Pressure, density and
Temperature (P, ρ, T) also changes with altitude. Aerodynamic forces are strong
function of these atmospheric properties (P, ρ, T). It is a necessity to specify the
altitude that will help in postulating gravitational and aerodynamic forces
explicitly.
Before proceeding further, let us define certain terms that are essential to
understand and characterize standard atmosphere.

Altitude:
 1. Geometric altitude (hg) - The altitude as measured from the mean sea level

2. Absolute altitude (ha) - The altitude as measured from the center of the earth.

The absolute altitude is important, especially for space flight, because the
local acceleration of gravity g varies with ha . From Newton’s law of gravitation,
g varies inversely as the square of the distance from the center of the earth.
By letting g0 be the gravitational acceleration at sea level, the local gravitational
acceleration g at a given absolute altitude.
2
r
g=g 0
( )
ha
2
r
g=g 0
( )
r+hG ……(1)

Why are we discussing these altitudes and their dependencies?

To express the thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere (P,ρ,T) as a function
of altitude; these concepts are required.

Geo-potential and geometric altitudes

The hydrostatic equation of an infinitesimal fluid is given by,

dp=−ρ gdh G ……(2)

In order to obtain the hydrostatic pressure (P) at a particular geometric altitude

(hg), the above expression has to be integrated. Density and acceleration due to
gravity, are functions of altitude makes integration a bit more complex/difficult.
In order to simplify this integration, the concept of geo-potential altitude (h) has
been introduced.
Geo-potential altitude (h) - The geometric altitude corrected for the gravity
variation.
In simple terms, it can be called as gravity adjusted height". The adjustment uses
Earth's mean sea level as reference.
Now we can rewrite the hydrostatic equation, by replacing the geometric altitude
with geo-potential altitude (h)

dp=−ρg0 dh …… (3)
Where g0 is the acceleration due to gravity at mean sea level.
Now using the two hydrostatic equations (1) and (2) we can derive the
relationship between geometric and geo-potential altitude.

g0 dh
1=
g dhG
g
dh= dh G …. (4)
g0

Substituting the value of g/g0 from equation(1)

r2
dh= dhG
(r +hG )2 ….. (5)
Integrating dh from sea level up to any given value of h (different from hg) at a
given point in atmosphere where geometric altitude is hg, we get,
Definition of standard atmosphere:
By now we studied about the different types of altitudes. So now we will proceed
further to discuss about the standard atmosphere. From early on, researchers
conducted experiments with sounding rockets and hot air balloons to study about
the variation of temperature with altitude.
Typical pattern of variation of temperature to altitude is shown in Figure

Fig: Temperature distribution in the standard atmosphere

One can easily notice that there are some vertical lines (known as constant
temperature or isothermal regions) and inclined lines (known as gradient
regions).
The plot of variation of temperature with altitude shown in above fig. was
obtained from using experimental data, However, a similar experiment about the
thermodynamic properties of interest to us (pressure and density) is not
available. Hence, we proceed to derive the pressure and density variation with
altitude with the help of the temperature vs altitude plot shown in fig above.
The modified hydrostatic equation is

dp=−ρg0 dh …. (6)

Divide by the equation of state, (P = ρRT), we have

dp −ρg0 dh −g0 dh
= =
p ρ RT RT ………………. (7)
First we will consider the isothermal region where the temperature remains
relatively constant. Temperature, pressure and density at the base of isothermal
region are T1, P1, and ρ1. Substituting the parameters in Equation (7)

p h

∫ dp
−g
= 0 ∫ dh
p p
1
RT h
1

p −g 0
ln = (h−h1 )
p1 RT
g0
p
=e
− [ ]
( RT )
( h−h 1 ) ……… (8)
p
Again using equation of state,
1

p ρT ρ
= =
p1 ρ 1 T 1 ρ 1
Thus,
g0
ρ
=e
−
[ ]
( RT )
( h−h 1 )

ρ1 ……. (9)
Now consider the gradient region, we find the linear temperature variation and is
geometrically given as
T −T 1 dT
= =a ….. (10)
h−h1 dh
Where ‘a’ is a specified constant for each layer obtained from the defined
temperature variation as shown.
The value of ‘a’ is sometimes called the lapse rate for the gradient Layers.

dT
a=
dh
1
dh= dT
Thus, a
Substituting value of dh in equation (6) we get,

dp g dT
=− 0
p aR T ……… (11)
Integrating equation (11) between the base and some given altitude h, yields,

p g0 T
ln
( )
p1
=− ln
aR T 1 ( ) …… (12)
Simplifying the above equation,
−g0
p T
=
( )
p1 T 1
aR

…….. (13)

Again using equation of state,

p ρT
=
p1 ρ 1 T 1
Hence equation (13) can be rewritten as,
 −g 0
ρT T
=
()
ρ1 T 1 T 1
aR

−g0
ρ T [ ] −1
=
( )
ρ1 T 1
aR

………… (14)
Recall that the variation of T is linear with altitude and is given the Specified
relation

T =T 1 +a(h−h1 ) ………… (15)

Equation (15) gives T=T(h) for the gradient layers; when it is substituted
into eq.(7), we obtain p=p(h); similarly from eq.(14) we obtain ρ= ρ(h)
If we start at sea level (h=0), where standard sea level values of pressure,density,
and temperature are

ps =1 .01325×105 N /m2
ρs =1 .225 kg /m3
T s =288. 16 K

Pressure altitude: Altitude corresponding to the pressure values in the ISA table
Density altitude: Altitude corresponding to the density values in the ISA table
Temperature altitude: Altitude corresponding to the temperature values in the
ISA table
With the tables of Apps. A and B in hand, we can now define three new
“altitudes”—pressure, temperature, and density altitudes. This is best done by
example. Imagine that you are in an airplane fl ying at some real, geometric
altitude.
The value of your actual altitude is immaterial for this discussion. However,
at this altitude, you measure the actual outside air pressure to be 6.16 × 10 4
N/m2. From App. A, you find that the standard altitude that corresponds to a
pressure of 6.16 × 10 4 N/m2 is 4 km. Therefore, by definition, you say that you
are flying at a pressure altitude of 4 km. Simultaneously, you measure the actual
outside air temperature to be 265.4 K. From App. A, you find that the standard
altitude that corresponds to a temperature of 265.4 K is 3.5 km.
Therefore, by definition, you say that you are flying at a temperature altitude of
3.5 km. Thus, you are simultaneously flying at a pressure altitude of 4 km and a
temperature altitude of 3.5 km while your actual geometric altitude is yet a
different value.

Continuity equation:
The laws of aerodynamics are formulated by applying several basic principles
from physics to a flowing gas. For example, Physical principle: Mass can be neither
created nor destroyed.
Fig: Stream tube with mass conservation
To apply this principle to a flowing gas, consider an imaginary circle drawn
perpendicular to the flow direction, as shown in Fig.
Now look at all the streamlines that go through the circumference of the circle.
These streamlines form a tube, called a stream tube. As we move along with the
gas confined inside the stream tube, we see that the cross-sectional area of the
tube may change, say, in moving from point 1 to point 2 in Fig.
However, as long as the flow is steady (invariant with time), the mass that flows
through the cross section at point 1 must be the same as the mass that flows
through the cross section at point 2, because by the definition of a streamline,
there can be no flow across streamlines.