The Transducer.

The transducer converts the physical stimulus to be measured, such

as temperature, vibration, or pressure, into an electrical signal and
thus operates as the actual measuring instrument. Transducers can
take many forms. They can be self-generating or externally
energized. An example of the self-generating type is a vibration
sensor based on the use of a piezoelectric material—i.e., one that
produces an electrical signal when it is mechanically
deformed. Many externally energized transducers operate by
producing an electrical signal in response to mechanical
deformation. Typical physical inputs producing such deformations
are pressure, mechanical stress, and acceleration. A simple
mechanical transducer-sensing device is a strain gauge based on the
change in electrical resistance of a wire or a semiconductor material
under strain. Another externally energized transducer, called
the variable-reluctance type, is one in which the magnetic circuit is
broken by an air gap. The mechanical movement to be measured is
used to change this air gap, thus changing the reluctance, or
opposition, to the production of a magnetic field in the circuit. The
change in reluctance is then translated into an electrical signal.

Temperature sensors can be divided into two classifications:

temperature-dependent resistance elements and self-
generating thermocouples. Thermistors are of the first type; they
have a high negative temperature coefficient—i.e., their resistance
drops very rapidly as the temperature increases. The thermistor is
small and provides rapid response to changes in temperature.
Thermocouples are wire junctions of dissimilar metals that produce
an electrical current when heated; they have a very low output, and
each must be used with a second thermocouple held at a constant
cold temperature for a reference point.

There are many types of specialized sensors and transducer

systems. One is the previously mentioned radiosonde system,
designed specifically to radio weather data from a balloon to a
ground station. Most weather-sensing and transmitting elements
measure temperature, pressure, and humidity. In manned space
probes, sensors for measuring such factors as the astronaut’s blood
pressure, heartbeat, and breathing rate are employed. Sensors have
also been developed to indicate the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe.

Communications links. Communications facilities for telemetry

consist primarily of radio or wire links. Alternatives such as light
beams or sonic signals are used in a few cases, but environmental
factors (e.g., atmospheric obstructions) and local masking noises
make them impractical for most applications.

Radio communication is used for aerospace work and for

supervisory systems in which it is impractical to provide wire line
links. For public utility installations in built-up areas, radio
communication is usually ruled out by the difficulty of
finding antenna sites and unobstructed line-of-sight radio paths. In
such cases, cables and line links are used.