Contemporary history, in English-language historiography, is a subset of modern history that

describes the historical period from approximately 1945 to the present. [1] Contemporary history is

either a subset of the late modern period, or it is one of the three major subsets of modern history,
alongside the early modern period and the late modern period. The term contemporary history has
been in use at least since the early 19th century. [2]
Contemporary history is politically dominated by the Cold War (1945–91) between the United States
and the Soviet Union whose effects were felt across the world. The confrontation, which was mainly
fought through proxy wars and through intervention in the internal politics of smaller nations,
ultimately ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact in 1991, following
the Revolutions of 1989. The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled
the democratisation of much of Europe, Africa, and Latin America. In the Middle East, the period
after 1945 was dominated by conflict involving the new state of Israel and the rise of petroleum
politics, as well as the growth of Islamism after the 1980s. The first supranational organisations of
government, such as the United Nations and European Union, emerged during the period after
1945, while the European colonial empires in Africa and Asia collapsed, gone by
1975. Countercultures rose and the sexual revolution transformed social relations in western
countries between the 1960s and 1980s, epitomised by the Protests of 1968. Living standards rose
sharply across the developed world because of the post-war economic boom, whereby such major
economies as Japan and West Germany emerged. The culture of the United States,
especially consumerism, spread widely. By the 1960s, many western countries had
begun deindustrializing; in their place, globalization led to the emergence of new industrial centres,
such as Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and later China, which exported consumer goods to developed
countries.
Science made new advances after 1945: spaceflight, nuclear
technology, laser and semiconductor technology were developed alongside molecular
biology and genetics, particle physics, and the Standard Model of quantum field theory. Meanwhile,
the first computers were created, followed by the Internet, beginning the Information Age.
In 2020, an outbreak of the COVID-19 virus first documented in 2019 in Wuhan, China spread to
other countries becoming a global pandemic which saw major socio-economic disruption all over the
world, the likes of which had not been seen since the early (The Great global flu pandemic in 1918-
19) and first half of the 20th century (WWII which ended in 1945). Many countries ordered
mandatory lockdowns on movement and closures of non-essential businesses. It was described by
some commentators as the biggest event in world history in the 21st century, new millennium and
recent memory of world history.[citation needed]

Contents

 1Timeline
 2Modern era
o 2.1Post-1945
 2.1.1Information age and computers
 2.1.2Late contemporary times
 2.1.2.1Terrorism and warfare
 2.1.2.2Great Recession
o 2.2Contemporary world
 2.2.1Present and future
 2.2.2Socio-technological trends
o 2.3Challenges and problems
  2.3.1Climate change
 2.3.2Contemporary technologies
 3See also
 4References
o 4.1Citations
 5Further reading
 6External links

Timeline[edit]
Main article: Timelines of modern history §  Contemporary period

Modern era[edit]
Main article: Modern_history §  European decline and the 20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, the world saw a series of great conflagrations, World War
I and World War II. Near the end of the first world war, there were a series of Russian
Revolutions and a Russian Civil War. In between the world wars, the 1920s saw a great rise in
prosperity where much of the world saw progress and new technology, but this was soon ended by
the Great Depression. During this time, the League of Nations was formed to deal with global issues,
but failed to garner enough support by the leading powers, and a series of crises once again led the
world into another epoch of violence.

Post-1945[edit]
See also: 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s (decade), Modernity,
and Postmodernity
Notable events during the modern period of universal history include two world wars and the Cold
War, characterized by the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Cold War began in 1947 and lasted until 1991. The Space Age was concurrent with this time,
encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and
the cultural developments influenced by these events. Pax Americana is an appellation applied to
the historical concept of relative liberal peace in the Western world, resulting from the
preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America after the end of World War II in
1945.
The post-1945 world experienced the establishment of many new states. Throughout the post-1945
period, the Cold War was expressed through military coalitions, espionage, weapons development,
invasions, propaganda, and competitive technological development. The Soviet Union created
the Eastern Bloc of countries that it occupied, annexing some as Soviet Socialist Republics and
maintaining others as satellite states that would later form the Warsaw Pact. The United States and
various Western European countries began a Containment policy for communism and forged
alliances to this end, including NATO. The conflict included defense spending,
a conventional and nuclear arms race, and various proxy wars; the two superpowers never fought
one another directly.
The post-1989 world saw the end of the totalitarian regimes of the Cold War and the ending of client
state status for many states. The Cold war was effectively ended by the Revolutions of 1989, and
the Malta Summit on 3 December 1989. The Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991.
Various "post-Cold War regimes" established were democratic republics, though some
were authoritarian/oligarchic republics.[3]
In Latin America, military regimes supported by the CIA, such as that facilitated by the United States
intervention in Chile, also fell (see also Covert United States foreign regime change actions).
The Pinochet regime collapsed in 1990. In Southeast Asia, the right-wing developmental
dictatorships were overthrown by popular uprisings. [4]
Information age and computers[edit]

A Visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet. Partial map of the Internet based in 2005.

The Information Age or Information Era, also commonly known as the Age of the Computer, is an
idea that the current age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information
freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have been difficult or impossible to find
previously. The idea is heavily linked to the concept of a Digital Age or Digital Revolution, and
carries the ramifications of a shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution brought
through industrialization, to an economy based around the manipulation of information. The period is
generally said to have begun in the latter half of the 20th century, though the particular date varies.
The term began its use around the late 1980s and early 1990s, and has been used up to the present
with the availability of the Internet.
During the late 1990s, both Internet directories and search engines were popular—
Yahoo! and Altavista (both founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By late 2001, the
directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded
1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still
commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines. Database size, which had been a
significant marketing feature through the early 2000s (decade), was similarly displaced by emphasis
on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first.
"Web 2.0" is characterized as facilitating communication, information sharing, interoperability, User-
centered design[5] and collaboration on the World Wide Web. It has led to the development and
evolution of web-based communities, hosted services, and web applications. Examples
include social-networking sites, video-sharing sites, wikis, blogs, mashups and folksonomies. Social
networking emerged in the early 21st century as a popular social communication, largely replacing
much of the function of email, message boards and instant messaging services. Twitter, Facebook,
and YouTube are all major examples of social websites that gained widespread popularity. The
information distribution continued into the early 21st century with mobile interaction and Internet
access growing massively in the early 21st century. By the 2010s, a majority of people in the
developed world had Internet access and a majority of people worldwide had a mobile phone.
[6]
 Marking the rise of mobile computing, worldwide sales of personal computers fall 14% during the
first quarter of 2013. The Semantic Web (dubbed, "Web 3.0") begins the inclusion
of semantic content in web pages, converting the current web dominated by unstructured and semi-
structured documents into a "web of data".
With the rise of information technology, computer security, and information security in general, is a
concern for computers and networks. Concerns include information and services which are
protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction. This has also raised
questions of Internet privacy and personal privacy globally.
Late contemporary times[edit]
Terrorism and warfare[edit]
Major political developments in the 2000s (decade) for the United States and the Middle East
revolved around recent modern terrorism, the War on Terrorism, the Afghanistan War, and the Iraq
War.

The World Trade Center on fire and the Statue of Liberty.

The September 11 attacks – which were described as a "watershed moment" of contemporary

history – were a series of coordinated suicide attacks by Al-Qaeda upon the United States on 11
September 2001. On that morning, 19 Al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet
airliners.[7][8] The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World
Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others working in the buildings.
Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The
hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington,
D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Somerset County, Pennsylvania,
after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the
hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. Major terrorist events after the 11 September
2001 Attacks include the Moscow Theatre Siege, the 2003 Istanbul bombings, the Madrid train
bombings, the Beslan school hostage crisis, the 2005 London bombings, the October 2005 New
Delhi bombings, and the 2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege.
The United States responded to the 11 September 2001 attacks by launching a "Global War on
Terrorism", invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, who had harbored al-Qaeda terrorists, and
enacting the Patriot Act. Many other countries also strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and
expanded law enforcement powers. The 'Global War on Terrorism' is the military, political, legal and
ideological conflict against Islamic terrorism and Islamic militants since the 2001 attacks.
U.S. Army troops in Kunar province

The War in Afghanistan began in late 2001 and was launched by the United States with the United
Kingdom, and NATO-led, UN authorized ISAF in response to the 11 September attacks. The aim of
the invasion was to find the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden and other high-ranking al-Qaeda
members and put them on trial, to destroy the whole organization of al-Qaeda, and to remove
the Taliban regime which supported and gave safe harbor to al-Qaeda. The Bush administration
policy and the Bush Doctrine stated forces would not distinguish between terrorist organizations and
nations or governments that harbor them. Two military operations in Afghanistan are fighting for
control over the country. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) is a United States combat operation
involving some coalition partners and operating primarily in the eastern and southern parts of the
country along the Pakistan border. The second operation is the International Security Assistance
Force (ISAF), which was established by the UN Security Council at the end of 2001 to
secure Kabul and the surrounding areas. NATO assumed control of ISAF in 2003.
The multinational infantry actions, with additional ground forces supplied by the Afghan Northern
Alliance, and aerial bombing campaign removed the Taliban from power, but Taliban forces have
since regained some strength.[9] The war has been less successful in achieving the goal of restricting
al-Qaeda's movement than anticipated.[10] Since 2006, Afghanistan has seen threats to its stability
from increased Taliban-led insurgent activity, record-high levels of illegal drug production, [11][12] and a
fragile government with limited control outside of Kabul.[13] At the end of 2008, the war had been
unsuccessful in capturing Osama bin Laden and tensions have grown between the United States
and Pakistan due to incidents of Taliban fighters crossing the Pakistan border while being pursued
by coalition troops.

A prisoner being tortured in the Abu Ghraib prison

The Second Gulf War began in March 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a multinational force.[14] The
invasion of Iraq led to an occupation and the eventual capture of Saddam Hussein, who was
later executed by the Iraqi Government. Violence against coalition forces and among various
sectarian groups soon led to asymmetric warfare with the Iraqi insurgency, strife between
many Sunni and Shia Iraqi groups, and al-Qaeda operations in Iraq.[15][16] Evidence of war
crimes committed and sanctioned by the United States Department of Justice created controversy
globally, and helped dispel the notion of the United States as a liberating force in the War of Terror.
[17]
 Member nations of the Coalition withdrew their forces as public opinion favoring troop withdrawals
increased and as Iraqi forces began to take responsibility for security. [18][19] In late 2008, the U.S. and
Iraqi governments approved a Status of Forces Agreement effective through to the end of 2011.
[20]
 The Iraqi Parliament also ratified a Strategic Framework Agreement with the U.S., [21][22] aimed at
ensuring international cooperation in constitutional rights, threat deterrence, education, [23] energy
development, and other areas.[24] In 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama announced an 18-month
withdrawal window for "combat forces".

President Obama on Osama bin

Laden's Death

President Obama's address (Full

Text) 

Problems playing this file? See  media

help.

The Obama administration has renamed the War on Terror as the "Overseas Contingency

Operation".[25] Its objectives are to protect US citizens and business interests worldwide, break up
terrorist cells in the US, and disrupt al-Qaeda and affiliated groups. [26][27] The administration has re-
focused US involvement in the conflict on the withdrawal of its troops from Iraq, the closing
of Guantanamo Bay detention camp, and the surge in Afghanistan. Using information obtained
from Khalid Shaikh Mohammed in 2007, the name and whereabouts of one of Bin Laden's
couriers, Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, was learned, and the courier eventually led U.S. intelligence to the
location of Osama bin Laden, which was located in a large compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a
suburban area 35 miles from Islamabad.[28] On 1 May 2011, he was killed and the papers and
computer drives and disks from the compound were seized. In 2011 Europe, the former Bosnian
Serb Army commander Ratko Mladić, wanted for genocide, war crimes and crimes against
humanity, is arrested on 26 May in Serbia by the Military Security Agency.
In 2011, the United States formally declared an end to the Iraq War.[29][30][31][32][33] The Arab Spring began
in earnest in 2010 with anti-government protests in the Muslim world, but quickly escalated to full-
scale military conflicts in countries like Syria, Libya, and Yemen and also gave the opportunity for the
emergence of various militant groups including the Islamic State (IS). The IS was able to take
advantage of social media platforms including Twitter to recruit foreign fighters from around the
world and seized significant portions of territory in Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, and the Sinai
Peninsula of Egypt from 2013 and ongoing. On the other hand, some violent militant organizations
were able to negotiate peace with governments including the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in
the Philippines in 2014. The presence of IS and the stalemate in the Syrian Civil War created
a migration of refugees to Europe and also galvanized and encouraged high-profile terrorism attacks
and armed conflicts around the world, such as the November 2015 Paris attacks and the Battle of
Marawi in the Philippines in 2017. In 2014, the United States decided to intervene against the
Islamic State in Iraq, with most IS fighters being driven out by the end of 2018. Russia and Iran also
jointly launched a campaign against IS in Syria, in support of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad,
coming at odds with United States aims.
The Government of Russia, largely led by President Vladimir Putin, have opposed the enlargement
of NATO as encroaching on Russian autonomy. In the last fifteen years, they have intervened in a
variety of military conflicts in its neighboring countries including Georgia and Ukraine (leading to
the annexation of Crimea and an ongoing war in Eastern Ukraine).
Great Recession[edit]
Main article: Great Recession
In the beginning of the 2000s (decade), there was a global rise in prices
in commodities and housing, marking an end to the commodities recession of 1980–2000. The US
mortgage-backed securities, which had risks that were hard to assess, were marketed around the
world and a broad based credit boom fed a global speculative bubble in real estate and equities. The
financial situation was also affected by a sharp increase in oil and food prices. The collapse of the
American housing bubble caused the values of securities tied to real estate pricing to plummet
thereafter, damaging financial institutions. [34][35] The late-2000s recession, a severe
economic recession which began in the United States in 2007, [36] was sparked by the outbreak of
a modern financial crisis.[37] The modern financial crisis was linked to earlier lending practices by
financial institutions and the trend of securitization of American real estate mortgages.[38] The
emergence of Sub-prime loan losses exposed other risky loans and over-inflated asset prices.
The Great Recession[39][40] spread to much of the industrialized world,[41] and has caused a pronounced
deceleration of economic activity. The global recession occurred in an economic environment
characterized by various imbalances. This global recession has resulted in a sharp drop
in international trade, rising unemployment and slumping commodity prices. The recession renewed
interest in Keynesian economic ideas on how to combat recessionary conditions. However, various
industrial countries continued to undertake austerity policies to cut deficits, reduced spending, as
opposed to following Keynesian theories.

Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. (Countries in brown were in recession.)

From late 2009 European sovereign-debt crisis, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed among
investors concerning rising government debt levels across the globe together with a wave of
downgrading of government debt of certain European states. Concerns intensified early 2010 and
thereafter making it difficult or impossible for sovereigns to re-finance their debts. On 9 May 2010,
Europe's Finance Ministers approved a rescue package worth €750 billion aimed at ensuring
financial stability across Europe. The European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) was a special
purpose vehicle financed by members of the eurozone to combat the European sovereign debt
crisis. In October 2011 eurozone leaders agreed on another package of measures designed to
prevent the collapse of member economies. The three most affected countries, Greece, Ireland and
Portugal, collectively account for six percent of eurozone's gross domestic product (GDP). In
2012, Eurozone finance ministers reached an agreement on a second €130-billion Greek bailout. In
2013, the European Union agreed to a €10 billion economic bailout for Cyprus.
Further information: Effects of the Great Recession and Timeline of the Great Recession

Contemporary world[edit]

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Present and future[edit]
Main articles: 3rd millennium, 21st century, 2020s, 2020, and October 19
See also: Future and Timeline of the near future
The world is in the 3rd millennium. The 21st century is the century of the Christian Era or Common
Era in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. It began on 1 January 2001 and will end 31
December 2100. The 2020s, or The 20s, decade runs from 1 January 2020, to 31 December 2029.
The third millennium is the third period of one thousand years. As this millennium is in progress, only
its first decade, the 2000s (decade), can be the subject of the conventional historian's attention. The
remaining part of the 21st century and longer-term trends are researched by futures studies, an
approach that uses various models and several methods (such as "forecasting" and "backcasting").
Ever since the invention of history, people have searched for "lessons" that might be drawn from its
study, on the principle that to understand the past is potentially to control the future.[42] A famous
quote by George Santayana has it that "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to
repeat it."[43] Arnold J. Toynbee, in his monumental Study of History, sought regularities in the rise
and fall of civilizations.[44] In a more popular vein, Will and Ariel Durant devoted a 1968 book, The
Lessons of History, to a discussion of "events and comments that might illuminate present affairs,
future possibilities... and the conduct of states."[45] Discussions of history's lessons often tend to an
excessive focus on historic detail or, conversely, on sweeping historiographic generalizations.[46]
Future Studies takes as one of its important attributes (epistemological starting points) the ongoing
effort to analyze alternative futures. This effort includes collecting quantitative and qualitative data
about the possibility, probability, and desirability of change. The plurality of the term "futures" in
futurology denotes the rich variety of alternative futures, including the subset of preferable futures
(normative futures), that can be studied.
Practitioners of the discipline previously concentrated on extrapolating present technological,
economic or social trends, or on attempting to predict future trends, but more recently they have
started to examine social systems and uncertainties and to build scenarios, question the worldviews
behind such scenarios via the causal layered analysis method (and others) create preferred visions
of the future, and use backcasting to derive alternative implementation strategies. Apart from
extrapolation and scenarios, many dozens of methods and techniques are used in futures research.
[47]

Socio-technological trends[edit]
At the end of the 20th century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more
technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and
other modern technology radically altered daily lives. Increased globalization,
specifically Americanization, had occurred. While not necessarily a threat, it has sparked anti-
Western and anti-American sentiment in parts of the developing world, especially the Middle East.
The English language has become a leading global language, with people who did not speak it
becoming increasingly disadvantaged.
A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East is the
rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater
extraction costs (see peak oil), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500%
between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending
on the currency. Less influential, but omnipresent, is the debate on Turkey's participation in
the European Union. New urbanism and urban revival continue to be forces in urban planning in the
United States.[48] However, evidence shows that growth of American suburbs still outpaces urban
growth.[49]

Challenges and problems[edit]

World distribution of wealth and population in 2000.

In the contemporary era, several issues are faced in the world.

First of all, wealth is concentrated among the G8 and Western industrialized nations, along with
several Asian nations and OPEC countries. The richest 1% of adults alone owned 40% of global
assets in the year 2000 and that the richest 10% of adults accounted for 85% of the world total.
[50]
 The bottom half of the world adult population owned barely 1% of global wealth. [50] Another study
found that the richest 2% own more than half of global household assets.[51] Despite this, the
distribution has been changing quite rapidly in the direction of greater concentration of wealth. [52]
Climate change[edit]
Main article: Climate change
Further information: Effects of global warming
Climate change and global warming reflects the notion of the modern climate. The changes of
climate over the past century, have been attributed to various factors which have resulted in a global
warming. This warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air
and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Some effects on both
the natural environment and human life are, at least in part, already being attributed to global
warming. A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests that glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as that of
the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and
frequency of extreme weather events are attributable in part to global warming. [53] Other expected
effects include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in
mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer temperatures. [54]
It usually is impossible to connect specific weather events to human impact on the world. Instead,
such impact is expected to cause changes in the overall distribution and intensity of weather events,
such as changes to the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation. Broader effects are expected
to include glacial retreat, Arctic shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise. Other effects may include
changes in crop yields, addition of new trade routes,[55] species extinctions,[56] and changes in the
range of disease vectors. Until 2009, the Arctic Northwest Passage pack ice prevented
regular marine shipping throughout most of the year in this area, but climate change has reduced the
pack ice, and this Arctic shrinkage made the waterways more navigable.[57][58][59][60]
Contemporary technologies[edit]
Various emerging technologies, the recent developments and convergences in various fields of
technology, hold possible future impacts. Emerging technologies cover various cutting-edge
developments in the emergence and convergence of technology, including transportation,
information technology, biotechnology, robotics and applied mechanics, and material science. Their
status and possible effects involve controversy over the degree of social impact or the viability of the
technologies. Though, these represent new and significant developments within a field; converging
technologies represent previously distinct fields which are in some way moving towards stronger
inter-connection and similar goals.
The first fully functional Space Shuttle orbiter was Columbia (designated OV-102), launched into
Earth orbit in April 1981. In 1996, Shuttle mission STS-75 conducted research in space with
the electrodynamic tether generator and other tether configurations. In 135 missions, the program
suffered with two shuttles destroyed.[61] The successful landing at Kennedy Space Center after
completing STS-135 concluded the shuttle program. The Commercial Orbital Transportation
Services (COTS) program began in 2006. The retirement of NASA's Space Shuttle fleet took place
from March to July 2011.
There are various spaceports, including spaceports of human spaceflight and other launch
systems (space logistics). Private spaceflight is flight beyond the Kármán line[62] that is conducted
and paid for by an entity other than a government agency. Commercialization of space is the use of
equipment sent into or through outer space to provide goods or services of commercial value, either
by a corporation or state. Space trade plans and predictions began in the 1960s. Spacecraft
propulsion[63] is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites.
NASA announced in 2011 that its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured photographic evidence of
possible liquid water on Mars during warm seasons. On 6 August 2012, the Mars Science
Laboratory Curiosity, the most elaborate Martian exploration vehicle to date, landed on Mars. After
the WMAP observations of the cosmic microwave background, information was released in 2011 of
the work done by the Planck Surveyor, estimating the age of the Universe to 13.8 billion years old (a
 100 million years older than previously thought). Another technological advancement came in 2012
with European physicists statistically demonstrating the existence of the Higgs boson.[64]

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Agriculture and food
Green Revolution, Food security, Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research, Sustainable agriculture, Organic farming
Energy and power
Energy development, Wind power, Photovoltaic, Solar power, Wind turbines, Fossil
fuels, Hydropower, Biomass
War and warfare
Laws of war, Principles of War, Command paper, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Military
Academy, United States Army War College, Information warfare, Unity of command, National
Military Strategy, Guerrilla warfare, Asymmetric warfare