1

IMPORTANT TERMS/
FORMULAS FOR AIPMT
PHYSICS
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
gx 2
5. Equation of trajectory is y = x tan q - , which is
1. The area under the velocity-time curve and time axis gives 2u 2 cos2 q
the displacement of the object for given interval of time. parabola.
2. If a body falls freely, the distance covered by it in each 6. Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms of
subsequent second starting from first second will be in the
ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : 7, etc. æ xö
range (R) is y = x tan q ç1 - ÷
3. If a body is thrown vertically up with an initial velocity u, it è Rø
takes u/g second to reach maximum height and u/g second 7. Maximum height is equal to n times the range when the
to return, if air resistance is negligible. projectile is launched at an angle q = tan–1(4n).
4. If air resistance acting on a body is considered, the time 8. In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration are
taken by the body to reach maximum height is less than the constant only in magnitude. Their directions change.
time to fall back the same height. 9. In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the body
5. For a particle having zero initial velocity if s µ t a , where r ur r
is a constant. W = 0, a ¹ 0, p ¹ constant, L = constant
a > 2 , then particle’s acceleration increases with time.
6. For a particle having zero initial velocity if s µ t a , where v2
10. ar = w2 r = = wv (Always applicable)
a < 0 , then particle’s acceleration decreases with time. r
7. Kinematic equations : 4p2
ar = 4 p2 n 2 r = 2 r (Applicable in uniform circular motion)
v = u + at ; v2 = u2 + 2as T
n = frequency of rotation, T = time period of rotation.
1 2 r r r
s = ut + at ar = w´ v
2
applicable only when particles moves with constant
LAWS OF MOTION
acceleration.
r r r r
8. If acceleration is variable use calculus approach. 1. Newton’s second law : F = ma, F = dp / dt
r r r
9. Relative velocity : vBA = vB - v A
r r ur ur t2
2. Impulse : Dp = F Dt , p 2 - p1 = ò F dt
MOTION IN A PLANE r r t1
1. If T is the time of flight, h maximum height, R horizontal 3. Newton’s third law : F12 = - F21
range of a projectile, a its angle of projection, then the 4. Frictional force f s £ ( f s )max = m s R ; f k = mk R
relations among these quantities. 5. Circular motion with variable speed. For complete circles,
gT 2 the string must be taut in the highest position, u 2 ³ 5 gl
h= ....... (1) ; gT2 = 2R tan a ....... (2);
8 where l is the length of string.
R tan a = 4h ....... (3) Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string becomes
2. For a given initial velocity, to get the same horizontal range, slack, i.e. when T = 0, range of values of u for which the
there are two angles of projection a and 90° – a. string does go slack is 2 g l < u < 5g l .
3. The equation to the parabola traced by a body projected 6. Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a point
horizontally from the top of a tower of height y, with a velocity of suspension from the centre of circular motion.
u is y = gx2/2u2, where x is the horizontal distance covered 7. The acceleration of a lift
by it from the foot of the tower. actual weight - apparent weight
4. At any instant if v is the velocity of projectile making angle a= , where the weights is
mass
b with the horizontal, then
in N. If ‘a’ is positive the lift is moving down, and if it is
vx = v cos b = u cos q and vy = v sin b = u sin q – gt
negative the lift is moving up.
2

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 7. If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane, then
1. If a light body and a heavy body have equal kinetic energy, n
then heavy body has greater momentum. for pure rolling m r ³ tan q (I = nmr2)
n +1 c
2. Work due to static force of friction on system as whole is
always zero. æ n ö
Rolling with sliding 0 < m s < ç ÷ tan q ;
3. If a body moves with constant power, its velocity (v) is related è n +1 ø
to distance travelled (x) by the formula v µ x3/2.
g sin q
4. Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact < a < g sin q
surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative n +1
GRAVITATION
displacement between contact surfaces WFK = - FK ( Srel ) .
5. S W = S DK , S W Þ total work due to all kinds of forces, 1. Angular momentum conservation leads to Kepler’s second
S DK Þ total change in kinetic energy.. law. However, it is not special to the inverse square law of
gravitation. It holds for any central force.
6. SWconservative = -S DU ; SWconservative Þ Total work due 2. The acceleration due to gravity.
to all kinds of conservative forces. (a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
S DU Þ Total change in all kinds of potential energy.. GM E GM E æ 2h ö
g ( h) = = 2 ç
1- ÷ for h << RE
velocity of separation of colliding bodies ( RE + h) 2
RE è R
e =- E ø
7.
velocity of approach of colliding bodies
8. The total momentum of a system of particles is a constant in æ 2h ö GM E
g (h) = g (0) ç1 - ÷ where g (0) =
the absence of external forces. è RE ø RE2
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION (b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is
1. The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as the GM E æ d ö æ d ö
g (d ) = 2 ç
1- ÷ = g (0) ç1 -
RE è RE ø è RE ÷ø
point whose position vector is R =
å mi riThe centre of 3. The gravitational potential energy
M
gravity of an extended body is that point where the total Gm1m2
V =- + constant
gravitational torque on the body is zero. The centre of gravity r
of a body coincides with its centre of mass only if the 4. The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
gravitational field does not vary from one part of the body
to the other. 2GM E
ve = = 2 gRE and has a value of 11.2 km s–1.
2. The angular momentum of a system of n particles about the RE
n 5. A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite
origin is L = å ri ´ pi moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at a
i =1 approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the Earth’s centre.
The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles GM s æ 1 + e ö GM s æ 1 - e ö
vmax = ç ÷ ; vmin =
a çè 1 + e ÷ø
6.
about the origin is t = å ri ´ Fi a è1- e ø
i 7. Whenever force responsible for orbital motion obeys inverse
3. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined square law, then only square of time period is directly
proportional to cube of average distance between planet
by the formula I = å mi ri 2 where ri is the perpendicular and sun.
distance of the ith point of the body from the axis. The kinetic T12 a13
T µa2 3
; =
1 2 T22 a23
energy of rotation is K = Iw
2 Applicable only when both planets revolve around same
4. The theorem of parallel axes : I z' = Iz + Ma2,. mass.Length of semi major axis is the average distance
between sun and planet during its complete orbital motion.
Theorem of perpendicular Axes - Iz = Ix + Iy
5. For rolling motion without slipping vcm = Rw, where vcm is 8. If F µ r n then T 2 µ ( r )1- n
the velocity of translation (i.e., of the centre of mass), R is
If U µ r m then T 2 µ (r )2 - m
the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
1 2 1
translation and rotation : K = mvcm + I w2 1. If S is the stress and Y is Young’s modulus, the energy
2 2 density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
6. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
2. If a is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density of
(a) It is in translational equilibrium i.e., the total external
a stretched wire, Y Young’s modulus of wire, then E is equal
force on it is zero : S Fi = 0.
(b) It is in rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external torque 1
to Y a2 .
on it is zero : S ti = Sri × Fi = 0. 2
 3

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 5. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a
body is proportional to the excess temperature of the body
1. Pascal’s law : A change in pressure applied to an enclosed
dQ
fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid over the surroundings : = -k (T2 - T1 ) ; where T1 is the
and the walls of the containing vessel. dt
2. Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the
streamline, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy temperature of the body.
per unit volume (rv2/2) and the potential energy per unit THERMODYNAMICS
volume (rgy) remains a constant. 1. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of
P + rv2/2 + rgy = constant conservation of energy applied to any system in which energy
3. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy transfer from or to the surroundings (through heat and work)
per unit area) acting in the plane of interface between the is taken into account. It states that DQ = DU + DW, where
liquid and the bounding surface. DQ is the heat supplied to the system, DW is the work done
4. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere by the system and DU is the change in internal energy of the
of radius a moving with velocity v through a fluid of system.
viscosity h is, F = 6phav. If Q > 0, heat is added to the system, if Q < 0, heat is removed
5. The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point. The to the system, if W > 0, Work is done by the system, if
surface tension is zero at critical temperature. W < 0, Work is done on the system quantity.
2. In isothermal quasi-static processes, heat is absorbed or
6. If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical drops,
given out by the system even though at every stage the gas
the work done in the process is 4pR2S(n1/3 – 1). has the same temperature as that of the surrounding reservoir.
7. Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in parallel. This is possible because of the infinitesimal difference in
The rate of flow of liquid is Q. If they are replaced by single temperature between the system and the reservoir.
capillary tube of radius R for the same rate of flow, then In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to
R = 21/4 r. V2 at temperature T the heat absorbed (Q) equals the work
8. If radius of a drop is doubled its terminal velocity increases
æV ö
to four times. done (W) by the gas, each given by Q = W = nRT ln ç 2 ÷
è V1 ø
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 3. g
In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas PV = constant,
1. The coefficient of linear expansion (al), superficial expansion Cp
(b) and volume expansion (av) are defined by the relations : where g = .
Cv
Dl DA DV Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic change of state
= a l DT ; = bDT ; = aV DT
l A V nR (T1 - T2 )
where Dl and DV denote the change in length l and volume from (P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) is W =
g -1
V due to change of temperature DT. The relation between
4. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
them is :
T
av = 3al ; b = 2a l h = 1- 2
T1
2. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring No engine operating between two temperatures can have
parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any efficiency greater than that of the Carnot engine.
flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform cross section
A with its ends maintained at temperatures TC and TD, the KINETIC THEORY
rate of flow of heat H is : 1
1. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation P = nmv 2 ,
TC - TD 3
H = KA , where K is the thermal conductivity of where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the
L
the material of the bar. molecule and v 2 is the mean of squared speed. Combined
3. Convection involves flow of matter within a fluid due to with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic interpretation
unequal temperatures of its parts. of temperature.
4. Radiation is the transmission of heat as electromagnetic 1 3 3k BT
waves. Radiant heat travels with the speed of light. It requires nmv 2 = k BT , vrms = (v 2 )1/ 2 =
2 2 m
no medium. Stefan’s law of radiation : The energy emitted by
a black body per unit area per second is directly proportional 2. The law of equipartition of energy is stated thus: the energy
for each degree of freedom in thermal equilibrium is 1/2 (kBT)
to the fourth power of its Kelvin temperature. E = sT4, where
the constant s is known as Stefan’s constant. 3
3. The translational kinetic energy E = k B NT . This leads to
Wein’s displacement law states that lmT = constant, where 2
lm is the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy. 2
The constant is known as Wein’s constant. a relation PV = E.
3
4

gRT vs g Standing waves are characterised by fixed locations of zero

4. Speed of sound in a gas vs = , = i.e., displacement called nodes and fixed locations of maximum
M vrms 3
displacements called antinodes. The separation between two
vs ; vrms
consecutive nodes or antinodes is l/2.
OSCILLATIONS A stretched string of length L fixed at both the ends vibrates
1. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as 1 v
with frequencies given by f = .
functions of time are given by, 2 2L
v (t) = – wA sin (w + f ) (velocity), The oscillation mode with lowest frequency is called the
a (t) = –w2A cos (wt + f) = – w2x (t) (acceleration)
fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second
where x(t) = A cos(wt + f)
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2 and so on.
Velocity amplitude vm= w A and acceleration amplitude
A pipe of length L with one end closed and other end open
am = w2A.
(such as air columns) vibrates with frequencies given by
2. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a
Hooke’s law restoring force given by F = – k x exhibits æ 1ö v
f = çn+ ÷ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
è 2 ø 2L
k
simple harmonic motion with w = (angular frequency),
m The set of frequencies represented by the above relation are
the normal modes of oscillation of such a system. The lowest
m frequency given by v/4L is the fundamental mode or the first
T = 2p (period)
k harmonic.
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator. 5. Beats arise when two waves having slightly different
3. A body of mass M is suspended from a spring whose force frequencies, f1 and f 2 and comparable amplitudes, are
constant is K and mass is m. The time period of this system superposed. The beat frequency is fbeat = f1 – f2
6. The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of
( M + m / 3)
will be 2p a wave when the source S and the observer O moves relative
k
to the medium. For sound the observed frequency f is given
Time period for conical pendulum T = 2p l cos q where
æ ö
4. æ v ± v0 ö
çè g ÷ø in terms of the source frequency f0 by f = f 0
çè v ± v ÷ø
s
q is angle between string & vertical.
WAVES Here v is the speed of sound through the medium, v0 is the
velocity of observer relative to the medium, and vs is the
1. The displacement in a sinusoidal wave propagating in the source velocity relative to the medium. In using this formula,
positive x direction is given by y (x, t) = a sin (kx – wt + f) velocities in the direction OS should be treated as positive
where a is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular wave
and those opposite to it should be taken to be negative.
number, w is the angular frequency, (kx – wt + f) is the
phase, and f is the phase constant or phase angle. dl n
7. Doppler effect formula in light : = , where dl is change
2. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is set l c
by the properties of the string. The speed on a string with in wavelength of a spectral line of original wave length l
tension T and linear mass density µ is v = T / m . and n, the speed of the source and c is the speed of light.
3. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can
ELECTROSTATICS
travel through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of sound
wave in a fluid having bulk modulus B and density r is r k (q1q2 )
1. Coulomb’s Law : F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = 2
rˆ21
v= B/r. r21
The speed of longitudinal waves in a metallic bar (stretched where r̂21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and
wire) is v = Y / r
1
For gases, since B = g P (Adiabatic bulk modulus of k=
4pe 0 is the constant of proportionality..
elasticity), the speed of sound is v = gP / r 2. Electric field due to a point charge q has a magnitude
4. The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite | q |/4pe0r2 it is radially outwards from q, if q is positive, and
directions produces standing waves. For a string with fixed radially inwards if q is negative. Like Coulomb force, electric
ends, the standing wave is given by y (x, t) = [2a sin kx ] cos wt. field also satisfies superposition principle.
 5
3. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges q 8. An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential
and – q separated by some distance 2a. Its dipole moment has a constant value. For a point charge, concentric spheres
r centered at a location of the charge are equipotential
vector p has magnitude 2qa and is in the direction of the
r
dipole axis from – q to q. surfaces. The electric field E at a point is perpendicular to
Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane (i.e., the r
the equipotential surface through the point. E is in the
plane perpendicular to its axis and passing through its centre)
direction of the steepest decrease of potential.
at a distance r from the centre:
r r 9. Potential energy stored in a system of charges is the work
ur -p 1 -p done (by an external agency) in assembling the charges at
E= @ , for r >> a
4pe 0 ( a 2 + r 2 )3/ 2 4 pe 0 r 3 their locations. Potential energy of two charges q1, q2 at r
Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre: 1 q1q2
distance is given by U = , where r is distance
r r r 4pe 0 r
2 pr 2p
E= @ for r >> a
4pe 0 (r 2 - a 2 ) 2 4pe 0 r 3 between q1 and q2.
The 1/r3 dependence of dipole electric fields should be 10. Capacitance is defined by C = Q/V, where Q is the charge on
noted in contrast to the 1/r2 dependence of electric field positive plate and V is the potential difference between
r plates. C is determined purely geometrically, by the shapes,
due to a point charge. In a uniform electric field E , a dipole sizes and relative positions of the two plates. The unit of
r r r
experiences a torque tr given by t = p ´ E but experiences capacitance is farad:, 1 F = 1 C V–1. For a parallel plate
capacitor (with vacuum between the plates),
zero net force.
r A
4. The flux Df of electric field E passing through a small area C = e0 , where A is the area of each plate and d the
r r r d
element DS is given by Df = E.DS separation between them.
5. Gauss’s law : The flux of electric field passing through any 11. The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with
closed surface S is 1/e0 times the total charge enclosed by S. charge Q and voltage V is
r
The law is especially useful in determining electric field E ,
1 1 1 Q2
when the source distribution has simple symmetry: U = QV = CV 2 =
(a) Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge 2 2 2 C
r l 12. For capacitors in the series combination, the total capacitance
density l : E = nˆ
2pe 0 r 1 1 1 1
C is given by = + + + .........
where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from C C1 C2 C3
the wire and n̂ is the radial unit vector in the plane In the parallel combination, the total capacitance C is given
normal to the wire passing through the point. by C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
(b) Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.
r s
density s : E = nˆ CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2e 0
(c) Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density s : 1. Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
r
r s r second per unit area normal to the flow, J = nqvd
E= 2
rˆ (r ³ R ) ; E = 0 (r < R) r r
4pe 0 r 2. Equation E = rJ another statement of Ohm’s law, i.e., a
r 1 Q conducting material obeys Ohm’s law when the resistivity
6. Potential : V (r ) = . of the material does not depend on the magnitude and
4pe 0 r
direction of applied electric field.
For a charge configuration q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors 3. (a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series is
r1, r2, ... rn, the potential at a point P is given by the given by R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn
1 æ q1 q2 q ö (b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel is
superposition principle V = ç + + ..... + n ÷ ,
4pe 0 è r1P r2 P rnP ø 1 1 1 1
given by R = R + R + ...... + R .
where r1P is the 1 2 n
distance between q1 and P, and so on. where R1, R2.......Rn are individual resistance.
7. The electrostatic potential at a point with position vector rr 4. Kirchhoff’s Rules – (a) Junction Rule: At any junction of
r circuit element, the sum of currents entering the junction is
due to a point dipole of dipole moment p placed at the
equal to the sum of currents leaving it. (b) Loop Rule: The
r algebraic sum of the changes in potential in any closed loop
ˆ
origin is V (r ) = 1 p . r . is zero.
4pe 0 r 2
6
5. The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances 7. Ampere’s Circuital Law: Let an open surface S be bounded
– R1 , R 2, R 3, R4. The null-point condition is given by r r
by a loop C. Then the Ampere’s law states that Ñò B.d l = m0 I ,
R1 R3 C
=
R2 R4 where I refers to the current passing through S.
using which the value of one resistance can be determined, 8. Force per unit length between two long parallel wires
knowing the other three resistances. carrying currents I1, I2 and separated by distance a in a free
6. The potentiometer is a device to compare potential m 0 I1 I 2
differences. Since the method involves a condition of no
space or air F = Nm -1 .
2 pa
current flow, the device can be used to measure potential
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf’s of
and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
r r r r
æl ö
two sources. r = R ç 1 - 1÷ 9. For current carrying coil M = NIA ; torque = tr = M ´ B
è l2 ø r
10. Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field B0 .
7. RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 – e–t/RC)
r
During discharging : q = q0e–t/RC r B0
The magnetic intensity is defined as, H = .
m0
MAGNETISM r
1. The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
r r per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
presence of electric and magnetic fields E and B , r r r
respectively is called the Lorentz force. It is given by the B = m0 ( H + M )
r r r r
expression: F = q éë E + (v ´ B )ùû . r r r r
11. For a linear material M = cm H . So that B = mH and cm is
2. A straight conductor of length 1 and carrying a steady
r called the magnetic susceptibility of the material. The three
current I experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic quantities, cm , the relative magnetic permeability µr , and
r r r r the magnetic permeability µ are related as follows:
field B , F = I l ´ B , the direction of l is given by the
direction of the current. m = m 0m r ; m r = 1 + cm .
r
3. The Biot-Savart law asserts that the magnetic field dB due
ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION
r
to an element d l carrying a steady current I at a point P at 1. The magnetic flux through a surface of area A placed in a
r r r r
r m 0 d l ´ rr uniform magnetic field B is defined as, f B = B. A = BA cos q ,
a distance r from the current element is: dB = I . r r
4p r3 where q is the angle between B and A .
To obtain the total field at P, we must integrate this vector 2. Faraday’s laws of induction imply that the emf induced in a
expression over the entire length of the conductor. coil of N turns is directly related to the rate of change of flux
4. Magnetic field due to straight current carring conductor
d fB
r m I through it, e = - N
dt
B = 0 (sin q1 + sin q 2 ) , where q1 and q2 are the angles
4pa 3. Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
between the line joining the point to the ends of conductor that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
and perpendicular through the point to the conductor. in magnetic flux that produces it. The negative sign in the
5. The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of expression for Faraday’s law indicates this fact.
radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the 4. When a metal rod of length l is placed normal to a uniform
magnetic field B and moved with a velocity v perpendicular
m 0 IR 2 to the field, the induced emf (called motional emf) across its
centre is B = .
2 ( x 2 + R 2 )3/2 ends is e = Blv
6. The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying 5. When a current in a coil changes, it induces a back emf in
a current I is : B = µ0nI, where n is the number of turns per dI
the same coil. The self-induced emf is given by, e = - L
m0 NI dt
unit length. For a toroid, B = , where N is the total
2pr L is the self-inductance of the coil. It is a measure of the
number of turns and r is the mean radius. inertia of the coil against the change of current through it.
 7
6. A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a 3. For a prism of the angle A, of refractive index n2 placed in a
nearby coil (coil 1). This relation is given by, medium of refractive index n1,
dI 2 n2 sin [( A + Dm ) / 2)]
e1 = - M12 , The quantity M 12 is called mutual n21 = = , where Dm is the angle of
dt n1 sin ( A / 2)

inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. M 12 = K L1 L2 . minimum deviation. Dispersion is the splitting of light into
its constituent colours. The deviation is maximum for violet
- Rt / L and minimum for red. Dispersive power w is the ratio of
7. LR circuit : For growth current, i = i0 [1 - e ]
angular dispersion ( dv – dr ) to the mean deviation d.
For decay of current, i = i0 e - Rt / L dv - d r
w= , where dv, dr are deviation of violet and red
d
ALTERNATING CURRENT respectively and d the deviation of mean ray (usually yellow).
4. For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1
1. For an alternating current i = im sin wt passing through a
to 2 of refractive index n1 and n2 respectively)
resistor R, the average power loss P (averaged over a cycle)
due to joule heating is (1/2)i2mR. To express it in the same n2 n1 n2 - n1 1 1 1
- = . Thin lens formula v - u = f , Lens
form as the dc power (P = I2R), a special value of current is v v R
used. It is called root mean square (rms) current and is
1 (n2 - n1 ) æ 1 1ö
im maker’s formula : f = n1 çè R - R ÷ø
denoted by I = = 0.707 im . 1 2
2
The power of a lens P = 1/f. The SI unit for power of a lens is
The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by P dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1.
= V I cos f. The term cos f is called the power factor. If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact,
When a value is given for ac voltage or current, it is ordinarily the effective focal length of their combination, is given by
the rms value. 1 1 1 1
2. An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a pure inductor L, = + + + ........
f f1 f 2 f 3
drives a current in the inductor i = im sin (wt – p/2), where
The total power of a combination of several lenses is
im = vm/X L. XL = wL is called inductive reactance. The
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
current in the inductor lags the voltage by p/2. The average If distance between lens is d then power of combination
power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is = P1 + P2 – d × P1P2
zero. Chromatic aberration is the colouring of image produced by
An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a capacitor drives a lenses. This can be avoided by combining a convex and a
current in the capacitor: i = im sin (wt + p/2). Here, concave lens of focal lengths f1 and f2 and dispersive powers
w1, w2 respectively satisfying the equation
vm 1
im = , XC = is called capacitive reactance. w1 w 2
XC wC + = 0 or in terms of powers w1P1 + w2 P2 = 0 .
f1 f 2
3. An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the
phenomenon of resonance. The circuit exhibits resonance, WAVE OPTICS
i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant
1. Young’s double slit of separation d gives equally spaced
1 fringes of angular separation l/d. The source, mid-point of
frequency, w0 = (X L = XC ) .
LC the slits, and central bright fringe lie in a straight line. An
extended source will destroy the fringes if it subtends angle
w0 L 1 more than l/d at the slits. The resultant intensity of two
The quality factor Q defined by Q = = is an waves of intensity I0/4 of phase difference f at any points is
R w 0 CR
given by
indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value
éfù
of Q indicating sharper peak in the current. I = I 0 cos 2 ê ú , where I is the maximum intensity..
ë 2û 0
RAY OPTICS
l
1. Reflection is governed by the equation Ð i = Ð r and refraction Condition for dark band : d = (2n - 1) ,
2
by the Snell’s law, sin i/sin r = n, n is refractive index where
the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted ray and normal lie in Dl
For bright band : d = nl, Fringe width b =
the same plane. d
2. A thin film of thickness t and refractive index µ appears dark
1 1 1
2. Mirror equation : + = . by reflection when viewed at an angle of refraction r if
v u f 2µt cos r = nl (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
8
The minimum thickness (n = 1) of a film which appears dark 6. In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of
by reflection at normal incidence (r = 0°) is 2µt = l. the battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier
The minimum thickness of a film, which appears bright under is decreased while the barrier increases in reverse bias.
normal incidence of monochromatic light of wavelength l is 7. Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting
l the ac voltage to one direction).
2mt = 8. Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse
2 bias, after a certain voltage, the current suddenly increases
3. A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a
(breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode. This property has
central maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of
been used to obtain voltage regulation.
l 2l 9. The transistors can be connected in such a manner that either
± ,± , etc. with successively weaker secondary maxima
a a C or E or B is common to both the input and output. This
in between. gives the three configurations in which a transistor is used:
MODERN PHYSICS Common Emitter (CE), Common Collector (CC) and Common
Base (CB). The plot between IC and VCE for fixed IB is called
1. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is output characteristics while the plot between IB and VBE
1 2 with fixed VCE is called input characteristics. The important
mvmax = V0 e = hn - f0 = h ( n - n0 ) transistor parameters for CE-configuration are:
2
2. The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, S m, æ DV ö
of its constituents. The difference in mass of a nucleus and input resistance, ri = ç BE ÷
its constituents is called the mass defect, è DI B ø V
CE
DM = (Z mp + (A – Z )mn) – M ; D Eb = DM c2.
æ DV ö
1 amu = 931 MeV output resistance, r0 = ç CE ÷
è DI C ø I
B
Z2
3. En = - ´ 13.6eV (For hydrogen like atom) æ DI C ö
n2 current amplification factor, b =
çè DI ÷ø
4. Bragg’s law : 2d sin q = nl. B V
CE
5. Law of radioactive decay : N = N0e–lt. The voltage gain of a transistor amplifier in common emitter
dN configuration is:
Activity = = -lN (unit is Becquerel)
N æv ö R
0.693 Av = ç 0 ÷ = b C , where RC and RB are respectively the
6. Half time period, T1/ 2 = èv ø
i R B
l resistances in collector and base sides of the circuit.
12400 10. The important digital circuits performing special logic
7. X-rays : l min = Å operations are called logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT,
V
NAND, and NOR gates.
Characteristics X-rays : l Ka < l La
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Moseley law : n = a (Z – b)2
1. Transmitter, transmission channel and receiver are three basic
SEMICONDUCTOR units of a communication system. In the process of
1. Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. transmission of message/ information signal, noise gets added
The presence of charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an to the signal anywhere between the information source and
‘intrinsic’ property of the material and these are obtained as the receiving end.
a result of thermal excitation. The number of electrons (ne ) 2. Two important forms of communication system are: Analog
is equal to the number of holes (nh) in intrinsic conductors. and Digital. The information to be transmitted is generally in
Holes are essentially electron vacancies with an effective continuous waveform for the former while for the latter it has
positive charge. only discrete or quantised levels.
2. The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ 3. Low frequencies cannot be transmitted to long distances.
of a suitable impurity in pure semiconductors. Such Therefore, they are superimposed on a high frequency carrier
semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors. signal by a process known as modulation.
These are of two types (n-type and p-type). 4. In modulation, some characteristic of the carrier signal like
3. In n-type semiconductors, ne >> n h while in p-type amplitude, frequency or phase varies in accordance with the
semiconductors nh >> ne. modulating or message signal. Correspondingly, they are called
4. n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with Amplitude Modulated (AM), Frequency Modulated (FM) or
pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type Phase Modulated (PM) waves. In the process of modulation,
Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom new frequencies called sidebands are generated on either side
(acceptors) like B, Al, In, etc. (higher and lower than the carrier frequency) of the carrier by
5. p-n junction is the ‘key’ to all semiconductor devices. When an amount equal to the highest modulating frequency.
such a junction is made, a ‘depletion layer’ is formed consisting 5. If an antenna radiates electromagnetic waves from a height
of immobile ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This hT, then the range dT is given by 2 RhT where R is the
is responsible for a junction potential barrier. radius of the earth.
 9

CHEMISTRY

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ATOMIC STRUCTURE (c) Species Bond order Magnetic properties
H2 1 Diamagnetic
n 2h 2 æ n2 ö H2+ 0.5 Paramagnetic
1. rn = = 0.529 çç ÷÷ Å, rn = n2 × r1 Li2 1 Diamagnetic
4 p 2 mZe 2 è Z ø
1
PE Z2 5. Q= [ V + SA - (±q) ]
2. ET = – KE = = –13.6 2 eV , 2
2 n
æ 1 ö
hc 2p 2 me 4 æ 1 1 ö 6. Formal charge = V - ç L + S ÷
DE = = ç 2- 2÷ è 2 ø
3. l çn ÷
h2 è 1 n2 ø 7. VSEPR theory
é1 (a) (LP-LP) repulsion > (LP-BP) > (BP-BP)
1 1 ù
4. u= = RZ2 ê 2 - 2 ú , [R = 1.0968 × 107 m–1] (b) For NH3 ® Bond Angle 106º45' in case of water it
l ëê n1 n 2 ûú decreases to ® 104º27' because H2O molecule contains
n(n - 1) 2LP and 2BP whereas NH3 has 1LP and 3BP.
5. Total no. of spectrum lines = 8. Bond angle :
2
Decrease in bond angle down the gp is due to LP-BP repulsion
6. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (Dx) (Dp) ³ h/4p
(a) NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 (b) H2O > H2S > H2Se
13.7
7. Moseley’s law : n = a(Z – b), En = - eV / atom
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
n2
8. Nodes (n – 1) = total nodes, l = angular nodes, Δn g
(n – l – 1) = Radial nodes 1. K p = K c (RT) where Dng = nP – n R
1 2 2. Free Energy change (DG)
9. Photoelectric effect : hn = hn0 + mv (a) If DG = 0 then reversible reaction would be in
2
h equilibrium.
10. Orbital angular momentum : l (l + 1) (b) If DG = (+) ve then equilibrium will be displace in
2p
backward direction.
CHEMICAL BONDING (c) If DG = (–) ve then equilibrium will displace in forward
direction.
Actual dipole moment 3. (a) Kc unit ® (moles/lit)Dn,
1. % ionic character = ´ 100
Calculated dipole moment (b) Kp unit ® (atm)Dn
2. Fajan’s Factors : Following factors are helpful in inducing (c) Total moles at equilibrium = [total initial moles + Dn]
covalent character in Ionic compounds (d) Time required to establish equilibrium µ 1/Kc
(a) Small cation (b) Big anion (e) If in any heterogenous equilibrium solid substance is
(c) High charge on cation (d) High charge on anion also present then its active mass & partial pressure is
(e) Cation havin g pseudo inert gas configuration assumed 1.
(ns2p6d10) e.g. Cu+, Ag+, Zn+2, Cd+2 4. Le chatelier’s principle
(i) Increase of reactant conc. (Shift forward)
1
3. – DH f = HS + H d + IE + DH EG - E L (ii) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift backward)
2 (iii) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles)
4. M.O. theory : (iv) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles)
(a) Bond order = ½(Nb–Na) (v) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift
(b) Higher the bond order, higher is the bond dissociation forward)
energy, greater is the stability, shorter is the bond length. (vi) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift forward)
10
ACID BASE 3. Second Order Reaction :
When concentration of A and B taking same.
1. (a) Lewis Acid (e– pair acceptor) ® CO2, BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2,
FeCl3, PCl3, PCl5, SiCl4, SF6, normal cation 1 æ x ö
(b) Lewis Base (e– pair donor) NH3, ROH, ROR, H2O, K2 = ç ÷
t è a(a - x) ø
RNH2, R2NH, R3N, normal anion When concentration of A and B are taking different -
2. Dissociation of Weak Acid & Weak Base ®
(a) Weak Acid ® Ka = Cx2/(1 – x) or Ka = Cx2 2.303 b(a - x)
K2 = log a(b - x)
(b) Weak Base ® Kb = Cx2/(1 – x) or Kb = Cx2 t(a - b)
3. Buffer solution : 4. Zero Order Reaction :
(a) Acidic ® pH = pKa + log {Salt/Acid} for Maximum
a - at
buffer action pH = pKa K= 0
Range of Buffer pH = pKa ± 1 t
(b) Alkaline ® pOH = pKb + log {Salt/Base} for max. a0
Buffer range for basic buffer = pKb ± 1 x = Kt & t1/2 =
2K
Moles / lit of Acid or Base Mixed The rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of
(c) Buffer Capacity = the reacting substance.
change in pH
5. Arrhenius equation :
dCBOH dCHB -E a
B= =- k = Ae–Ea/RT & slope =
dpH dpH 2.303R
4. Necessary condition for showing neutral colour of Indicator
pH = pKln or[HIn] = [In–] or [InOH] = [In+] (
- E / RT
When T ® ¥, then K = A Q e a =1 )
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM æ k2 ö Ea æ T2 - T1 ö
6. log ç k ÷ = 2.303R ç T T ÷
1. Relation between ionisation constant (Ki) & degree of è 1ø è 1 2 ø
ionisation(a):-
OXIDATION - REDUCTION
a2 a2 C
Ki = = (Ostwald’s dilution law) 1. Oxidant itself is reduced (gives O2)
(1 - a)V (1 - a)
It is applicable to weak electrolytes for which a <<1 then Or Oxidant ¾¾ ® e– (s) Acceptor
Reductant itself is oxidised (gives H2)
Ki Or reductant ¾¾ ® e– (s) Donor
a= Ki V = or V ­ C ¯ a ­
C 2. (i) Strength of acid µ O.N
2. Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/L of a common (ii) Strength of base µ 1/ O.N
ion, to a weak acid (or weak base) a becomes equal to 3. (a) Electro Chemical Series:- Li, K, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, Mg, Al,
Ka æ Kb ö Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, H2, Cu, I2, Hg, Ag,
X çè or X ÷ø [where a = degree of dissociation] Br2, Cl2, Pt, Au, F2.
3. (A) If solubility product = ionic product then the solution (b) As we move from top to bottom in this series
saturates. (1) Standard Reduction Potential ­
(B) If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is (2) Standard Oxidation Potential ¯
unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved (3) Reducing Capacity ¯
in it. (4) Ip ­
(C) If ionic product > solubility product the solution is (5) Reactivity ¯
super saturated (principle of precipitation). 4. (a) Formal charge = Group No. – [No. of bonds
4. Salt of weak acid and strong base : + No. of non-bonded e—s]
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa + log c) (b) At Anode ® Oxidation, Cathode ® Reduction
Salt of weak base and strong acid :
pH = 0.5 (pKw – pKb – log c) VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Salt of weak acid and weak base :
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa – pKb ) Atomic wt of the element
1. Equivalent weight of element =
CHEMICAL KINETICS n factor
1. Unit of Rate constant : 2. Equivalent weight of compound
K = mol1–Dn litDn–1 sec–1 Formula wt of the compound
2. First Order reaction : =
n factor
2.303 a 0.693
K= log10 (a - x) & t½ = formula wt (or At. Wt.)of ion
t K 3. Equivalent wt. of an ion =
[A]t = [A]0e–kt its valency
 11

4. The law of Dulong and Petit 6. DH D S DG Reaction characteristics

Atomic wt.×specific heat » 6.4 – + Always Negative Reaction is spontaneous at
all temperature.
number of equivalents of solute + – Always positive Reaction is nonspontaneous
5. Normality (N) =
volume of the solution in litres at all temperature.
– – Negative at low Spontaneous at low temp. &
number of moles of solute temperature but non spontaneous at high
6. Molarity (M) = positive at high temperature.
volume of the solution in litres
temperature
7. When a solution is diluted + + Positive at low Non spontaneous at low
N1 × V1 = N2 × V2 temperature but temperature & spontaneous
(before dilution) (after dilution) negative at high at high temperature.
5. Common acid-base indicators temperature
ELECTRO CHEMISTRY
Indicator Colour in Colour in pH range 1. m = Z.I.t
acidic alkaline
l eq
medium medium 2. Degree of dissociation : a =
Methyl orange Pink Yellow 3.0–4.4 l¥
eq
Methyl red Red Yellow 4.2–6.2
Litmus Red Blue 5.5–7.5 Equivalent conductance at given concentration
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 8.3–9.8
= equivalent conductance at infinite dilution
3. Kohlrausch’s law : L 0m = xl 0A + yl 0B
MOLE CONCEPT 4. Nernst Equation
1. Mole concept 0.0591 [Products]
E = Eº – log10
GAM º 1 gm atom º 6.02 × 1023 atom. n [Reactants]
GMM = 1 gm molecule º 6.02 × 1023 molecules é nFEº ù
NA = 6.02 × 1023 & EºCell = E oanode + E cathode
o & Keq. = antilog ê ú
ë 0.0591 û
volume(L)
2. Moles (gases) at NTP =
22.4 DG = – nFEcell & DGº = –nF Eocell
3. Molecular mass = 2 × vapour density -DG o = 2.303 RT log K c
CHEMICAL ENERGETICS æ ¶DG ö
& Wmax= +nFEº & DG = DH + T ç ¶T ÷
1. First Law : DE = Q + W è øP
Expression for pressure volume work W = –PDV 5. Calculation of pH of an electrolyte by using a calomel
Maximum work in a reversible expansion : E cell - 0.2415
electrode : pH =
0.0591
V2 P1
W = –2.303n RT log = –2.303 nRT log P SOLUTION AND COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
V1 2

2. Enthalpy and heat content : DH = DE + PDV 1. Raoult’s law

[q(p) = q(v) + DngRT] DH = DE + DngRT P = pA + pB = p0AXA + p0BXB
[Dng = np(g) – nr(g)] = (1 – XB) p0A + p0BXB = (p0B – P0A)XB + p0A
3. Kirchoff’s equation : P0 - PS n P -P w.m
= & 0 S =
DET2 = DET1 + DCV (T2 – T1) [constant V] P0 n+N P0 W.M
2. Colligative µ Number of particles
DH T2 = DH T1 + DCP (T2 – T1) [constant P] properties µ Number of molecules (in case of
4. Entropy(s) : Measure of disorder or randomness nonelectrolytes)
µ Number of ions (in case of electrolytes)
DS = SSp–SSR
µ Number of moles of solute
q rev V2 P1 µ Mole fraction of solute
DS = = 2.303 nR log V = 2.303 nRlog P 3. Depression of freezing point, DTf = Kf m
T 1 2
4. Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour
5. Free energy change : DG = DH – TDS pressure
DG < 0 (spontaneous) [–ve] DG = 0 (equilibrium)
DG > 0 (non-spontaneous) [+ve] 1000K b æ p0 - p ö
DTb =
–DG = W(maximum) – PDV M1 çè p0 ÷ø (M1 = mol. wt. of solvent)
12
5. Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point DTf 4. Van der Waal’s equation
dRT æ n 2a ö
P = DTf ´
1000K f ç P + 2 ÷ (V - nb) = nRT for n moles
è V ø
Normal molar mass Observed colligative property
6. i= = PV
Observed molar mass Normal colligative property 5. Z (compressibility factor) = ; Z = 1 for ideal gas
nRT
Observed osmotic pressure
i= SOLID AND LIQUID STATE
Normal osmotic pressure
1. Available space filled up by hard spheres (packing fraction):
Actual number of particles
= p
No. of particles for no. ionisation Simple cubic = = 0.52
6
n
degree of association (a) = (1 – i) p 3 p 2
n -1 bcc = = 0.68 fcc. = = 0.74
8 6
i -1
& degree of dissociation (a) = p 2 p 3
n -1
hcp = = 0.74 diamond = = 0.34
6 6
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 2. Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)
1. Radius of the nucleus : R = R0A1/3 Limiting radius ratio CN Geometry
2. The amount N of the radioactive substance left after ‘n’ half-
[0.155– 0.225] 3 [plane triangle]
N 0 (initial amount) [0.255–0.414] 4 [tetrahedral]
lives =
2n [0.414–0.732] 6 [octahedral]
[0.732–1] 8 [bcc]
0.693
3. Half-life period t1/ 2 = 3. Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell:
l
4. Rate of disintegration : Pure elements :

dN 2.303 N0 a 3a 2a
– = l.N & l = log10 or N = N0e–lt Simple cubic = r = bcc r = fcc =
dt t N 2 4 4
4. Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius of the
Total life time of all the atoms
5. Average life (tAV) = sphere (R) : r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R ; r (octahedral) = 0.414 R
Total number of atoms 5. Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by
¥ magnetic field]
=
ò0 tdN
=
1
= 1.44 t1/2
6. Ferromagnetic : Permanent magnetism [­ ­ ­ ­]
N0 l 7. Antiferromagnetic : net magnetic moment is zero [­ ¯ ­ ¯]
8. Ferrimagnetic : net magnetic moment is three [­ ¯ ¯ ­ ­]
GASEOUS STATE
1. Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT SURFACE CHEMISTRY & COLLOIDAL STATE
(i) R = 0.0821 litre atm. K–1 mole–1 1. Higher is the valency of active ion, the greater is its
(ii) R = 62.4 litres mm Hg K–1. mole–1 coagulating power.
(iii) R = 8.314 × 107 ergs K–1 mole–1 2. Emulsion : Colloidal soln. of two immiscible liquids [O/W
(iv) R = 2 cals K–1 mole–1 emulsion, W/O emulsion]
(v) R = 8.314 JK–1 mole–1
3. Emulsifier : Long chain hydrocarbons are added to stabilize
2. Velocities related to gaseous state
emulsion.
3PV 3RT 3P 4. Lyophilic colloid : Starchy gum, gelatin have greater affinity
RMS velocity C = = = for solvent. Solution Can be easily prepared by bringing in
M M d
contact with solvent and warming.
8RT 2RT 5. Lyophobic colloid : No affinity for solvent, special methods
Average speed = & Most probable speed =
pM M are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]
Average speed = 0.9213 × RMS speed 6. Preparation of colloidal solution :
RMS speed = 1.085 × Average speed (i) Dispersion methods (ii) Condensation method.
MPS = .816 × RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS 7. Properties of colloidal solution :
MPS : A.V. speed : RMS = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224 (i) Tyndall effect (ii) Brownian movement (iii) Coagulation
1 (iv) Filtrability.
3. Rate of diffusion µ
density of gas
 13

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PERIODIC TABLE BORON FAMILY
1. General electronic configuration (of outer orbits) 1. Stability of +3 oxidation state : B > Al > Ga > In > Tl
s-block ns1–2 p-block ns 2 np 1–6 2. Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga < In < Tl
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 3. Reducing nature : Al > Ga > In > Tl
f-block (n–2) s2p6d10f1–14(n–1)s2p6d0 or 1 ns2 4. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides :
2. Properties Pr (L To R) Gr (T to B) B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
(a) atomic radius ¯ ­ 5. Relative strength of Lewis acid : BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
(b) ionisation potential ­ ¯
(c) electron affinity ­ ¯ CARBON FAMILY
(d) electro negativity ­ ¯ 1. Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
(e) metallic character or ¯ ­ 2. Metallic character : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
electropositive character 3. Acidic character of the oxides :
(f) alkaline character ¯ ­
CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
of hydroxides
Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
(g) acidic character ­ ¯
(h) density (i)firstly increases ­ 4. Thermal stability and volatility of hydrides :
(ii)in between max CH4 > SiH4 > GeH4 > SnH4 > PbH4
(iii)then decreases 5. Reducing nature of hydrides
(i) reducing property ¯ ­ CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
(j) oxidising property ­ ¯ 6. Thermal stability of tetrahalides
(k) non metallic character ­ ¯ CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
1 1 7. Thermal stability and volatility of tetrahalide with a common
3. IP µ µ central atom
Metallic character Reducing character MF4 > MCl4 > MBr4 > MI4
1 1 8. Oxidising character of M+4 species
µ µ Basic nature of Hydroxide GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
Basic Nature of oxide
9. Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
1 SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
4. EA µ µ nuclear charge.
size 10. Reducing character of dihalides
Second electron affinity is always positive. GeCl2 > SnCl2 > PbCl2
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine.
5. The first element of a group has similar properties with the NITROGEN FAMILY
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal
relationship. 1. Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3 > P2O3 > As2O3
2. Acidic strength of pentoxides
EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 > Bi2O5
1. Floatation is a physical method of separating a mineral from 3. Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen
the gangue depending on differences in their wettabilities N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
by a liquid solution. 4. The stability of pentoxides
2. Roasting is the process of heating a mineral in the presence P2O5 < As2O5 > Sb2O5 > N2O5 > Bi2O5
of air. 5. Basic nature, bond angle, thermal stability and dipole
3. Calcination is the process of heating the ore in the absence moment of hydrides
of air. NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
4. Electrolytic reduction : Highly electropositive metals are 6. Reducing power, covalent nature of
extracted by the electrolysis of their oxides and hydroxides. hydrides : NH3 < PH3 < AsH3 < SbH3 < BiH3
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS 7. Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
8. Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
1. Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
2. Ionic radii : Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+ 9. Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
3. Electronegativity : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
4. First ionization potential : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs 10. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
5. Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
6. Density : Li > Na < K > Rb > Cs 11. Bond angle, among the halides of phosphorus
7. Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na - Golden, K - Violet, Rb- Red, PF3 < PCl3 < PBr3 < PI3
Cs - Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red, Ba-Apple green
8. Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. OXYGEN FAMILY
9. Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH
10. Basic nature of hydroxides : [LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH 1. Melting and boiling point of hydrides
< CsOH] H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
14
2. Volatility of hydrides 14. Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl2O6 > Cl2O7
3. Thermal stability of hydrides 15. Acidic character of oxyacids of chlorine
H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
4. Reducing nature of hydrides 16. Strength of conjugate bases of oxyacids of chlorine
H2S < H2Se < H2Te ClO– > ClO2– > ClO3– > ClO4–
5. Covalent character of hydrides 17. Oxidising power of oxyacids of chlorine
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te HClO > HClO2 > HClO3 > HClO4
6. Bond angle & Dipole moment of hydrides 18. Thermal stability of oxyacids of chlorine
H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
(104°) (92°) (91°) (90°) 19. Stability of anions of oxyacids of chlorine
7. Ease of hydrolysis of hexahalides : SF6 > SeF6 > TeF6 ClO– < ClO2– < ClO3– < ClO4–
8. The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation
state) TRANSITION ELEMENTS (D-BLOCK ELEMENTS
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 1. The element with exceptional configuration are
SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3 Cr24[Ar] 3d54s1, Cu29[Ar] 3d104s1
9. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S) Mo42[Kr] 4d55s1, Pd46[Kr] 4d105s0
SO2 < SO3 Ag47[Kr] 4d105s1, Pt78[Xe] 4f145d106s0
10. Stability of dioxides Au79[Xe] 4f145d10 6s1
SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2 2. Ferromagnetic substances are those in which there are large
HALOGEN FAMILY number of electrons with unpaired spins and whose magnetic
moments are aligned in the same direction.
1. Bond energy of halogens : Cl2 > Br 2 > F2 > I2
COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
2. Bond length in X2 molecule : F2 < Cl2 < Br2 < I2
3. Solubility of halogen in water : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 1. Coordination number is the number of the nearest atoms or
4. Oxidising power : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2 groups in the coordination sphere.
5. Enthalpy of hydration of X– ion : F– > Cl– > Br– > I– 2. Ligand is a Lewis base donor of electrons that bonds to a
6. Reactivity of halogens : F > Cl > Br > I central metal atom in a coordination compound.
7. Ionic character of M - X bond in halides 3. Paramagnetic substance is one that is attracted to the
M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I magnetic field, this results on account of unpaired electrons
8. Reducing character of X– ion : I– > Br– > Cl– > F– present in the atom/molecule/ion.
9. Thermal stability of hydrides : HF > HCl > HBr > HI 4. Effective atomic number EAN
10. Acidic strength of halogen acids : HI > HBr > HCl > HF = (Z – Oxidation number) + (2 × Coordination number)
11. Conjugate base strength of halogen acids 5. Factors affecting stability of complex
I– < Br– < Cl– < F– (i) Greater the charge on the central metal ion, greater is the
12. Reducing power of hydrogen halides stability.
HF < HCl < HBr < HI (ii) Greater the ability of the ligand to donate electron pair
13. Dipole moment of hydrogen halides (basic strength) greater is the stability.
HF> HCI > HBr> HI (iii) Formation of chelate rings increases the stability.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
GOC Electrophiles : electron deficient.
Two types : 1. Cations 2. Neutral molecules with vacant
1. The order of decreasing electronegativity of hybrid orbitals
orbitals (Lewis acids).
is sp > sp2 > sp3.
2. Conformational isomers are those isomers which arise due 8. Inductive effect is due to s electron displacement along a
to rotation around a single bond. chain and is permanent effect.
3. A meso compound is optically inactive, even though it has 9. +I (inductive effect) increases basicity, – I effect increases
asymmetric centres (due to internal compensation of rotation acidity of compounds.
of plane polarised light) 10. Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures
4. An equimolar mixture of enantiomers is called racemic can be written for the same compound but none of them
mixture, which is optically inactive. actually exists.
5. Tautomerism is the type of isomerism arising by the migration ALKANES
of hydrogen. 1. Pyrolytic cracking is a process in which alkane decomposes
6. Reaction intermediates and reagents : to a mixture of smaller hydrocarbons, when it is heated
Homolytic fission ® Free radicals strongly, in the absence of oxygen.
Heterolytic fission ® Carbocation and carbanion
2. Combustion is a process in which hydrocarbons form carbon
7. Nucleophiles – electron rich
dioxide and H2O(l) when they are completely burnt in
Two types : 1. Anions 2. Neutral molecules
air/O2.
with lone pair of electrons (Lewis bases)
 15

ALKENES 3. Acidity of phenols

(a) Increases by electron withdrawing substituents like
1. In dehydration and dehydrohalogenation the preferential order +
for removal of hydrogen is 3° > 2° > 1° (Saytzeff’s rule). – NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COOH, –X, – NR 3
2. The lower the DHh (heat of hydrogenation) the more stable (b) Decrease by electron releasing substituents like
the alkene is. – R, – OH, – NH2, – NR2, – OR
3. Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov addition only with HBr
in the presence of peroxides. ETHERS
Al2O3
ALKYNES 1. 2ROH ¾¾¾¾ ®R - O - R + H 2O
250ºC
1. Alkynes add water molecule in presence of mercuric sulphate
and dil. H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds. 2. RONa + X - R ' ¾¾
® ROR '+ NaX
2. Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms, so they form metal (Williamson's synthesis)
alkynides with Na, ammonical cuprous chloride solution and 3. D
ROR + 2H 2SO 4 ¾¾¾¾
® 2RHSO4 + H 2O
ammonical silver nitrate solution. (conc.)
3. Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms which are attached dil. H SO
to sp hybridised ‘C’ atom has more electronegativity as it 4. ROR + H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾
2 4 ® 2ROH
D
has more ‘s’ character than sp2 and sp3 hybridised ‘C’ atoms.
CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
ARENES
1. Formation of alcohols using RMgX
1. All o and p-directing groups are ring activating groups
Hydrolysis
(except – X) (a) Formaldehyde + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ® 1° alcohol
They are : – OH, – NH2, – X, – R, – OR etc. Hydrolysis
(b) Aldehyde + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ® 2° alcohol
2. All m-directing groups are ring deactivating groups.
(other than HCHO)
+
They are : – CHO, – COOH, – NO2, – CN, – NR 3 etc. Hydrolysis
(c) Ketone + RMgX ¾¾¾¾¾ ® 3° alcohol
2. Cannizzaro reaction (Disproportionation)
HALOGEN COMPOUNDS
Hot conc.
1. The order of reactivity is Aldehyde ¾¾¾¾® Alcohol + Salt of acid
alkali
(a) RI > RBr > RCl > RF
(b) Allyl halide > Alkyl halide > Vinyl halide (no a H-atom)
(c) Alkyl halide > Aryl halide Crossed-Cannizzaro reaction gives alcohol with aryl group
2. SN1 reaction : Mainly 3° alkyl halides undergo this reaction or bigger alkyl group.
and form racemic mixture. SN1 is favoured by polar solvent 3. Aldol condensation :
and low concentration of nucleophile. Carbonyl compound + dil. alkali ––® b-hydroxy carbonyl
3. SN2 reaction : Mainly 1° alkyl halides undergo this (with a H-atom) compound
substitution. SN2 reaction is preferred by non-polar solvents 4. Benzoin condensation
and high concentration of nucleophile. ethanolic
Benzaldehyde ¾¾¾¾ ® Benzoin
NaCN
ALCOHOLS
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1. Alkenes are converted to alcohol in different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition 1. The rate of esterification decreases when alcohol, acid or
dil H2SO4 – Markovnikov both have branched substituents.
B2H6 and H2O2, OH– – Anti-Markovnikov 2. Ortho effect : All ortho substituted benzoic acids
Oxymercuration demercuration – Markovnikov (irrespective of type of substituent) are stronger than benzoic
2. Oxidation of acid. As this group decreases outer resonance of ring
towards acid which increases acidic nature.
1° alcohol ¾¾ ® aldehyde ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid
(with same no. (with same no. of NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
of C atom) C atom)
2° alcohol ¾¾ ® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid 1. Order of basicity : (R = – CH3 or – C2H5)
(with same no. (with less no. of 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3
of C atom) C atom) 2. Hofmann degradation
3° alcohol ¾¾ ® ketone ¾¾ ® carboxylic acid Br2 /KOH
Amides ¾¾¾¾® 1° amine
(with less no. (with less no. of 3. The basicity of amines is
of C atom) C atom) (a) decreased by electron withdrawing groups
PHENOLS (b) increased by electron releasing groups
4. Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different
CHCl3 /OHQ products
1. Phenol ¾¾¾¾¾ ¾® Salicylaldehyde
(Reimer-Tieman reaction) Medium Product
Acidic Aniline
CO
Phenol ¾¾¾
2® Basic Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene
2. Salicyclic acid (Kolbe reaction)
D Neutral Phenyl hydroxylamine
16

CARBOHYDRATES, AMINO ACIDS AND POLYMERS 8. Acidic K2Cr2O7(Strong oxidant)

1. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. RCH2OH ¾¾® [O] RCHO
2. Oligosaccharides are simple sugars, containing three to nine 9. SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl use ® for reduction of nitrobenzene
carbon atoms. in acidic medium.
3. Polymer is a chemical species of high molecular weight made
SnCl / HCl
up from repeating units of low molecular weight. C6H5NO2 ¾¾¾¾¾
2
6H
® C6H5NH2
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF DIFFERENT 10. Lindlar’s Catalyst = Pd/CaCO3
+ in small quantity (CH3COO)2Pb
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Homologous series Type of reactions 2 – butyne + H2 ¾¾ "
® Cis –2 –butene
(a) Alkanes Substitution (main product)
(Mostly free radical) 11. Ziegler –Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
(b) Alkenes and alkynes Electrophillic addition Use — In Addition polymerisation
(c) Arenes Electrophillic substitution "
Propene ¾¾ ® Poly propene
(d) Alkyl halides Nucleophillic substitution
(e) Aldehyde and ketones Nucleophillic addition MAIN USE OF COMPOUNDS
Tests to differentiate : Alkane ® Fuel, Alkene ® polymer, Alkyne ® Solvent
1°, 2° and 3° alcohols Lucas test making westron, Westrosol, General alkyl halide ® as
Victormayer’s test solvents, CHCl3 ® Anaesthetic, Germicide, CCl4 ® Pyrene
1°, 2° and 3° amines Hinsberg test & Fire extinguisher, CH3OH ® Antifreeze, deforming of
1°, 2° and 3° nitro compounds Test with HNO2 and KOH alcohol, C2H5OH ® Tonic, wine preparation, Power alcohol,
Aryl halides and alkyl halides Test with AgNO3 C2 H5 —O—C 2 H5 ® Antiseptic, Natellite, HCHO ®
solution Formamint medicine,CH3CHO ® Antiseptic,CH3COCH3 ®
as solvent,
Aldehydes and ketones Tollen’s test/Fehling’s test
CH3 COOC2 H5 ® Artificial silk & flavour, CH3 NH2
Aromatic aldehydes and Fehling’s test
®Refrigerating agent, C2H5NH2 ® in development of
Aliphatic aldehydes
photography.
IMPORTANT REAGENT SMELL OF SOME COMPOUNDS
1. Dil H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O] CH3COOC2H5 ® Fruity CHCl3,CH3I,C2H5I ® sweet smell
Use ® Dehydrating agent (+HOH)
C6H5NO2& C6H5CHO ® Like bitter almonds
dil.H 2SO 4
(a) CH2 = CH2 ¾¾¾¾® CH3—CH2—OH CH3COOH ® Like vinegar, HCHO, CH3CHO,
CH3COCl ® Pungent
dil.H 2SO 4
(b) C2H5OC2H5, ¾¾¾¾® 2C2H5OH CH3NH2& C6H5NH2 ® Fishy,
2. Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use ® -HX) Impure CH3CONH2 ® mice like, ROH ® wine
alc.KOH RNCS ® Mustard oil, methyl salicylate ®wintergreen oil,
CH3CH2Cl ¾¾¾¾
- HCl
® CH2 = CH2 RNC ® Foul smell.
3. Cu or ZnO/300º C IDENTIFICATION TESTS
"
1º alc ¾¾ " (a) Unsaturated compound (Bayer’s reagent)
® ald, 2º alc ¾¾ ® ketone,
Decolourising the reagent
3º alc ¾¾"
® alkene (exception) (b) Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
4. Lucas reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl Red colouration
Use ® for distinction between 1º, 2º & 3º alcohol (c) Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
5. Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl chloride) Violet/deep blue colouration
NOCl
(d) Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
C2H5NH2 ¾¾¾ ® C2H5Cl Orange precipitate
6. Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant) (e) Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
Toluene ® Benzoic acid Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
7. Bayer’s Reagent (f) 1° amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant) Foul smell (isocyanide)
Use: ® For test of > C = C < or –C º C – (g) 2° amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
CH2=CH2+H2O+[O] ¾¾
® CH2OH–CH2OH Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)
 BIOLOGY
THE LIVING WORLD & TAXONOMY
1. Nomenclature – It is the process of giving scientific names
(not vernacular or local names) to the organisms.
2. Systematics  –  This includes the identification,
nomenclature and classification of organisms based on
various parameters.
3. In bionomial nomenclature each scientific name has
2- components,
i. Generic name (Genus),
ii. Specific name/epithet (Species)
4. Various levels of classification are –
Kingdom Phylum (animals)/ Division (plants) Class
Order Family Genus Species.
• Species is the basic unit of classification.
5. Artificial system of Classification - All taxonomists, from
Aristotle to Linnaeus, classified organisms on the basis of
external observable (morphological) characters like floral
structure (number of stamens), root modification, leaf
venation etc. In this system no weightage was given to
natural and phylogenetic relationship.
6. Natural System of Classification - It uses more number
of characters and is based upon natural affinities using
homology and comparative study. Bentham - Hooker used
this system of classification for angiosperms.
7. Phylogenetic Classification (Cladistics) - This system of
classification is based upon evolutionary relationship and
uses morphological characters, origin and evolution of the
different organisms.
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Characteristics of five kingdom system was proposed by
R.H. Whittaker (1969). Accordingly a separate kingdom
has been created for Fungi. Thus, these are – Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
2. Bacteria are prokaryotes. They lack nucleus and other cell
organelles of complex cells and have prokaryotic ribosome
(70 S). Like plants, they possess cell wall.
3. The cyanobacteria are the largest and most diverse group
of photosynthetic bacteria, e.g., Nostoc. Heterocyst is
specialised to perform nitrogen fixation.
4. Mycoplasma are the smallest known aerobic prokaryotes
without cell wall.
5. Haeckel (1886) created the kingdom protista to include all
unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms. E.g. Euglenoids are
photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived
of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating on
other smaller organisms.
6. Fungi are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, gametophytic,
haploid, multicellular, eukaryotic nucleated, spore producing
thallophytes which are surrounded by cell wall of chitin
(fungus cellulose). Study of fungi is called Mycology.
7. Viruses are obligate parasites, i.e., can live inside living
host only. They have either RNA or DNA. Bacterial
viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria)
are usually double stranded DNA viruses.
8. Viroids contain only very low molecular weight RNA
and protein coat cause persistent infections, i.e., never
recovered.
9. In lichens, there are 2 components; i.e., algal partner called
phycobiont and fungal partner called mycobiont.
PLANT AND ANIMAL KINGDOMS
1. Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but they require water
for dehiscence of antheridia, liberation and swimming of
antherozoids, fertilization of egg, opening of archegonial
neck and entry of sperms into the archegonium. Because
of such peculiar habitat they have been most appropriately
called the amphibians of the plant kingdom.
2. Evolutionarily, Pteridophytes are the first terrestrial
plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
So known as vascular cryptogams. They are flowerless
and seedless plants.
3. Gymnosperms are plants which bear naked seeds i.e.,
the ovules and the seeds that develop from these ovules
after fertilization are not enclosed in fruit wall. In most
gymnosperms, secondary growth occurs and annual
rings are distinct. The xylem is without vessels (except in
Gnetales) and phloem lacks companion cells.
4. In angiosperms, the male sex organs in a flower is the
stamen. Each stamen consists of a slender filament with an
anther at the tip. The produce pollen grains.
5. The female sex organs in a flower is the pistil or the
carpel. Pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one to many
ovules. Within ovules are present highly reduced female
gametophytes termed embryosacs. The embryo-sac
formation is preceded by meiosis. Hence, each of the cells
of an embryo-sac is haploid. Each embryo-sac has a three-
celled egg apparatus – one egg cell and two synergids,
three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei
eventually fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus.
6. Pollen grain shed at 2-3 celled stage after dispersal from
the anthers, are carried by wind or various other agencies
to the stigma of a pistil. This is termed as pollination.
7. The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac where two male
gametes are discharged. One of the male gametes fuses
with the egg cell to form a zygote (syngamy). The other
male gamete fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus to
produce the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)
known as triple fusion. Because of the involvement of two
fusions, this event is termed as double fertilisation, and
event unique to angiosperms.
8. The zygote develops into an embryo (with one or two
cotyledons) and the PEN develops into endosperm which
provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
9. A fruit is a ripened ovary.
10. Life cycles in different plant groups differ in following
manner:
Haplontic life cycle: There is no true alternation of
generation as sporophytic generation is represented only
by one celled zygote. There is no free living sporophyte.
Diplontic life cycle : The sporophyte is independent
photosynthetic phase of the plant. Gametophytic phase is
represented haploid gametes only.
Haplo-diplontic life cycle : This is intermediate condition
where both phases are multicellular and often free living.
18
11. Animalia – They are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic
organisms that do not have cell wall. On the basis of extent
and type of body design, they are classified as–
(i) Porifera – E.g. Spongilla, Sycon.
(ii) Coelenterata – E.g. Jelly fish, Sea anemone
(iii) Platyhelminthes – E.g. Planaria.
(v) Annelida – E.g. Earthworms.
(vi) Arthropoda – E.g. Prawns.
(vii) Mollusca – E.g. Snails.
(viii) Echinodermata – E.g. Starfish.
12. Vertebrates are divided into 5 classes :
(i) Pisces – Include fishes which are aquatic, E.g. Shark,
Rohu.
(ii) Amphibia – Animals are found both in water and on
land, E.g. Toads, Frogs, Salamander.
(iii) Reptilia – They are cold blooded animals with scales
and breathe through lungs. E.g. Snakes, Turtles,
Crocodiles etc.
(iv) Aves – They have feathers and forelimbs are modified
for flight. E.g. Pigeon, Sparrow, Ostrich.
(v) Mammalia – They are warm blooded animals with
4 – chambered heart. They have mammary glands
for milk production.
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
1. A typical root can be differentiated into five distinct regions
namely region of root cap, meristematic region, region of
elongation, region of root hair and mature region.
2. Roots are divided into two types:
(i) Tap root : It form lateral branches or secondary roots
which are further branched to form tertiary roots.
(ii) Adventitious roots : These roots develop from any
part of the plant instead of radicle.
3. Shoot system is an aerial system, usually above the soil and
originates from the plumule. It consists of stem, branches,
leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.
4. The various types of underground modifications of stem
are: Rhizome : Zingiber (ginger). Corm : Saffron (Crocus)
Tuber : Solanum tuberosum (potato). Bulb : (onion)
5. An inflorescence is the mode of arrangement of flowers on
peduncle or mother axis. tear.
The main axis of racemose inflorescence has indefinite
growth because there is no terminal flower. In cymose, the
growth of the main axis is definite because the growing
point of peduncle is used up in the formation of a flower.
6. Symbols For Floral Formula
Br Bracteate
Actinomorphic
% or Zygomorphic
Staminate (male)
Pistillate (female)
Calyx (K)
Corolla (C)
Perianth (P)
Androecium (A)
Gynoecium (G)
G(2) Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior
G(2) Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior
BIOLOGY
PLANT TISSUES
1. A group of structurally similar or dissimilar cells that
perform a common function and have a common origin is
called a tissue.
2. Cells which are capable of active cell division are called
meristematic cells.
3. On the basis of position, the meristematic tissues can be
divided into the following three types:
• Apical meristem
• Intercalary meristem
• Lateral meristem
4 Intercalary meristem is present at the base of internodes,
e.g, in grasses (Gramineae) or at the base of leaves, e.g.,
in Pinus or at the base of nodes, e.g., mint or Mentha
(Labiatae).
Simple Permanent Tissue
1. Parenchyma : It helps in storage of food, conduction of
substances, provides turgidity to softer parts of plants.
2. Collenchyma : It is living mechanical tissue, found beneath
the epidermis (i.e., hypodermis) of herbaceous dicot stem.
3. Sclerenchyma : These are dead, mechanical tissue and act
as skeleton in plants.
Complex Permanent Tissues
1. Xylem is mainly responsible for conduction of water and
minerals from the roots to the top of plants (unidirectional).
It also provides mechanical support to the plant. Xylem is
made of 4 types of cells i.e., tracheids, tracheae (vessels),
xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
2. Phloem mainly carries food. It is a complex tissue made up
of 4 kinds of cells in angiosperms, these are sieve elements,
companion cells, phloem fibres, phloem parenchyma.
ANIMAL TISSUES
(1) Epithelial tissue – It forms protective covering in the
animal body, covers organs and separates different body
systems. Different types of epithelial tissues on the basis
of functions are–
(i) Simple squamous epithelium – Oesophagus, lining of
mouth are made of it.
(ii) Stratified squamous epithelium– In the skin epithelial
cells are arranged in many layers to prevent wear and
(iii) Columnar epithelium – It is present in the inner lining
of intestine, pillar like tall cells.
(iv) Cuboidal epithelium – It forms lining of kidney
tubules and ducts of salivary glands.
(v) Glandular epithelium– In glands.
(2) Connective Tissue – The cells are loosely packed and
embedded in intercellular matrix.
(i) Areolar tissue – It fills space inside organs, helps in
repair of tissues.
(ii) Adipose tissue – It is fat storing, found below the skin
and between internal organs.
(iii) Bone – Bone cells lie embedded in hard matrix
composed of calcium and phosphorous.
(iv) Ligament – connects two bones.
(v) Tendons – connect muscles to bones.
(vi) Cartilage – It is present in nose, ear, trachea, larynx.
(vii) Blood – It is a fluid connective tissue. Fluid matrix is
called plasma that contains red blood cells (RBCs),
white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets unit.
 BIOLOGY
(3) Muscular tissue – It consists of elongated cells called
muscle fibres. They are responsible for movement in our
body. The three types of muscles are –
(i) Striated muscles – E.g. muscles of hands and legs.
(ii) Smooth muscles – E.g. muscles found in iris of eye,
ureters, bronchi of lungs, alimentary canal.
(iii) Cardiac muscles – E.g.the muscles of heart.
(4) Nervous tissue – They are found in brain, spinal cord and
nerves. They transmit the stimulus. A neuron consists of
a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm. It has a long
part called axon and many short, branched parts called
dendrites. Many nerve fibres together form a nerve.
CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE
1. Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
2. All living organisms (animals, plants and microbes) are
made up of cells and cell products i.e., cell is the structural
unit of life.
3. S.J.Singer and G. Nicolson in 1972 proposed the most
accepted model of membrane structure only after the advent
of electron microscope in 1950. According to this model the
lipid bilayer is a semifluid in which the proteins are dispersed
to give mosaic appearance to the whole membrane.
4. Plasmodesmata are characteristic of multicellular plants that
enables the solutes to move considerable distances through the
pits without crossing differentially permeable membranes.
5. Endoplasmic reticulum is also called as ‘endoskeleton
of the cell’ or ‘endomembranous system of the cell’.
The endoplasmic reticulum is bounded by a single unit
membrane. Smooth or agranular ER : They do not have
attached ribosomes on their surface. The SER is well
developed in those cells which are actively concerned with
the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormone.
Rough or granular ER : They bear ribosomes on their
surface. The cells which are active in protein synthesis
have RER in abundance.
6. Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is a stack of flattened,
membrane bound, parallely arranged organelles that
occur in the association of endoplasmic reticulum in the
cytoplasmic matrix. It principally performs the function
of packaging materials to be delivered either to the intra-
cellular targets or secreted outside the cell.
7. Lysosomes are originated by Golgi complex and contain
many hydrolytic enzymes (amylases, lipases, proteases,
carbohydrases) optically active at the acidic pH. They are
popularly called “suicide bags”. 6. Proteins contain C, H, O, N.
8. The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
It contains many dissolved solutes such as organic acids,
soluble carbohydrates, soluble nitrogenous compounds as
nitrates, enzymes, tannins, chlorides, phosphates, amino
acids, alkaloids and anthocyanin pigments.
9. Cilia and flagella are contractile filamentous or hair-like
outgrowths of the cytoplasm, which help in cell movement,
excretion, secretion and transportation.
10. Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two
cylindrical structures called centrioles. Centrioles duplicate
before cell division so that dividing cell has a pair of
centrioles at each pole. structure, more than one polypeptide chains are involved
19
11. Peroxisomes are the smallest membrane bound cell
organelles. These organelles were named peroxisomes
because these are the sites of formation of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2).
12. A typical nucleus consists of four structures: nuclear
membrane, nucleoplasm chromatin and the nucleolus.
13. Nucleolus is site of active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
14. In interphasic nucleus, the genetic material (DNA) is seen
as the thread like structure called chromatin or chromatin
fibres. During cell divisions (mitosis and meiosis) chromatin
fibres become condensed to form thick structures called
chromosomes.
15. Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes
can be classified into four types :
• metacentric (middle centromere)
• sub-metacentric centromere (nearer to one end of the
chromosome)
• acrocentric (centromere) situated close to its end
• telocentric (terminal centromere).
16. Plastids are found in plants and few protists (Euglena).
They may be colourless (leucoplastids) or coloured
(chromoplastids and chloroplasts). Each chloroplast has
two parts i.e., grana and stroma.
17. Stroma : It is the enzymatic part of chloroplast. Stroma contains
proteins, DNA, ribosomes and fewer amounts of enzymes.
Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in this fraction.
18. Grana : In chloroplast several  membranes are arranged in
the form of stacks of coins. These thylakoids are stacked
one above the other to form grana. Due to presence of
chlorophyll in granum lamella, the light reaction of
photosynthesis takes place in granum.
19. Mitochondria are referred as “powerhouse” of the cell as
they produce 95% of ATP. This energy is produced during
the break down of food molecules which involve glycolysis,
oxidative decarboxylation and oxidative phosphorylation
(krebs cycle and respiratory chain).
BIOMOLECULES
1. Lactose - It is milk sugar.
2. Sucrose – It is non-reducing sugar as it does not have free
aldehyde or ketose groups.
3. Glycogen - It is present in animals (also called animal
starch). It is a branched chain compd. and has about 30
α-glucose units.
4. Starch - It is present in plants. The natural starch contains a
mixture of amylose (10-20%) and amylopectin (80-90%).
5. Cellulose - It is a fibrous polysaccharide and forms cell
wall in plants.
Some contain S (Sulphur)
and P (Phosphorus) also. The structural unit of protein is
Amino acid. In Primary structure only Peptide bonds are
present between amino acids. The first (or left) amino acid
is called N-terminal (–NH2) amino acid, and the last (or
right) amino acid is called C-terminal (–COOH gp.) amino
acid. In Secondary structure, besides peptide bonds,
Hydrogen bonds are also present in polypeptide chain.
Such proteins may have helical or pleated structures. The
Tertiary structure may result from further folding and
coiling, and may be stablized by S-S (disulphide) bond,
Hydrophobic bonds and Ionic bonds. In Quaternary
to form a large multiunit protein. e.g. Haemoglobin.
20
7. All amino acids contain atleast 1-Amino group and 1-
carboxylic group.
R fertilisation restores the diploid phase. Thus, meiosis is
|
H 2 N − C a − COOH
|
H
8. The nucleic acid onofhydrolysis
Basic structure yields
an Amino acid 1–Pentose Sugar,
(‘L’−form)
2-types of heterocyclic nitrogenous bases (Purines and
Pyrimidines) and phosphoric acid.
Nucleic Acid Purines Pyrimidines 2. Osmosis — It is the movement of
DNA Adenine and Cytosine and
Guanine Thymine
RNA Adenine and Cytosine and Uracil
Guanine
9. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is also a nucleotide. It
contains 1-Adenine base, 1-Ribose sugar and 3-phosphate
bonds. It is energy-rich compound, and is also called as
‘energy currency’.
10. Edwin Chargaff reported that net amount of adenine was
equal to thymine (A = T) and amount of Guanine was
equal to cytosine ( G ≡ C ). This means that total number
of purines is equal to the total number of pyrimidines
(A + G = T + C ).
11. Double Helical Structure of DNA : To explain base
equivalence ( A / T, G / C ) and other properties of DNA,
Watson and Crick (1953), based on X-ray diffraction studies,
proposed double helical structure of DNA. The two strands
of helical are anti-parallel, means 5’ → 3’ Phosphodiaester
bonds (Sugar-phosphate groups) are oriented in opposite
direction in 2-strands, there are 2 hydrogen bonds
(A = T) and in between C & G there are 3 hydrogen bonds
(C ≡ G).
11. RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) : It has single helical
structure and is mainly of 3-types.
• m -RNA ( Messenger RNA )
• r -RNA ( Ribosomal RNA )
• t -RNA ( Transfer RNA )
The enzymes are tertiary proteins. The energy required for
a chemical reaction to proceed is called Activation energy.
Higher is the affinity of an enzyme for a substrate the lower
is its Km value,
i.e. Km value ∞ 1 5. The most prominent among them is the legume-bacteria
affinity
3. The co-factor can be inorganic or organic in nature. The
organic factor, if permanently attached to the enzymes,
is called Prosthetic group and if temporarily attached
(only during reaction), is called Co-enzyme. Most of the
co-enzymes are derivatives of vitamin B & C.
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
1. The interphase is the longest phase of the mitotic cycle, last
more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. It has three
sub-phases: G1, S and G2 which occurs in this order followed by
M phase.
2. Mitosis : It is also called as equational division as the
number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells
is the same. So mitosis increase in number of cells without
any change in genetic constitution. It is usually divided
into several stages or phases, viz. prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis.
BIOLOGY
3. Meiosis : It ensures the production of haploid phase in
the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms whereas
required to run the reproductive cycle of eukaryotes.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
1. Diffusion — It is the movement of a substance from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
water through a
selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water
concentration to a region of low water concentration.
3. The difference between free energy of water in a system &
free energy of pure water at atmospheric pressure is also
called water potential.
4. The shrinkage of the protoplast of a living cell from its cell
wall due to exosmosis under the influence of a hypertonic
solution is called plasmolysis.
5. The process of absorption of water by hydrophilic surfaces
of a substance without forming a solution is called
imbibition. Examples of imbibition are adsorption of water
by seeds, dry wood, starch cellulose, agar, gelatin, gum etc.
MINERAL NUTRITION
1. Technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution is
known as hydroponics or soilless growth. By this method,
essential elements were identified and their deficiency
symptoms discovered.
2. Essential mineral elements are those elements which are
required by plants for normal growth and development and
without which plants cannot complete their life cycle.
E.g. C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca, Fe, B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo,
Cl. Elements which are present in a plant body and are
not so required by plants are called non-essential elements.
E.g. Na, Si, Al, Se, Sr, V.
3. Plant can not absorb nitrogen in molecular form. It
is absorbed by plants in nitrate NO 3– and ammonium
NH 4+ form.
4. Conversion of gaseous nitrogen into nitrogenous compound
by living organism like bacteria, cyanobacteria is called
biological nitrogen fixation.
relationship. Species of rod-shaped Rhizobium has such
relationship with the roots of several legumes such as
alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea, lentils, garden pea, broad
bean, clover beans, etc. Nodules act as the site for N2
fixation. It contains leghaemoglobin (a pink pigment) and
enzyme nitrogenase (Mo-Fe protein).
LIFE PROCESSES
1. Nutrition is a process by which an organism obtains its food.
(i) Autotrophic Nutrition : Synthesising food from the
raw materials like carbon dioxide, water and a few
minerals. E.g. green plants, Euglena.
(ii) Heterotrophic Nutrition : Derives its nutrition from
other organisms. E.g. all animals, most bacteria and
fungi.
(iii) Parasitic Nutrition : Live on or inside the body of the
host and obtain their food. E.g. Tapeworm, Cuscuta
(amarbel).
BIOLOGY
(iv) Saprophytic Nutrition : Animals depend on dead
decaying organic matters. E.g., fungi, bacteria.
(v) Holozoic Nutrition: The complex organic food
material is taken into its body by the process of
ingestion, E.g. man, cat, dog, fish, Amoeba, etc.
2. Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic
chlorophyll containing organisms manufacture their own
energy sources (simple sugars) from intracellular chemical
reaction of carbon dioxide and water in presence of sunlight5. Fertilization process occurs in fallopian tube. In this process
and chlorophyll.
Sunlight
6CO 2 + 12H 2 O → C6 H12 O6 + 6H 2 O + 6O 2
Chlorophyll
3. Respiration is a complex process which includes breathing
i.e. exchange of O2 and CO2 and oxidation of food to
release energy.
(a) Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis
Glucose  → Pyruvic acid
(in cytoplasm )
Oxygen ( Krebs cycle)
→ 6CO2 + O + 38ATP (b) Midbrain consist of nerve cells, connects forebrain to
(in mitochondria )
(b) Anaerobic Respiration
Glycolysis
 → Pyruvic acid
(in cytoplasm )
in absence of O 2
 → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO 2 + 2ATP
Yeast fermentation
Ethanol
4. In human beings respiratory pigment is haemoglobin
which remains present in RBC. CO2 is more soluble in
water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the 3. Reflex Action : It is rapid, automatic, definite response
dissolved form in blood. Due to difference in concentration
of gases, exchange takes place between tissues and blood
capillaries.
5. Transportation is a process in which substances are
absorbed in one part and move to the other parts of the
body.
6. Arteries are thick-walled and transport blood from heart
to the various parts of the body. Veins are thin walled
and carry blood from various organs to the heart. Heart is
situated in the thoracic cavity between two lungs. Heart
is made up of cardiac muscles which works continuously.
Human heart has four chambers i.e. two auricles and two
ventricles. Normal heart rate is 72/minute.
7. The removal of unwanted waste materials from the body
is called excretion. Excretory system of human beings
consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary
bladder, urethra.
8. Improper functioning of the kidneys may lead to
accumulation of water in the body called Oedema, nephritis,
kidney stones, gout.
9. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous 1. Growth hormones are the natural growth substances
waste products from the blood through dialysis.
10. Oxygen is waste product of photosynthesis in plants. Many (i) Auxins : It stimulates growth, phototropism,
waste products are stored as resins and gums in plants.
Reproduction in Human Beings
1. The sex organ in males are testes and ova in females.
2. Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vas
deferens, a pair of epididymis, a pair of ejaculatory duct,
21
urethra, pairs of accessory gland. Leydig’s cells secrete
male sex hormone testosterone which is concerned with
the production of male sexual characters.
3. Female reproductive part consist of a pair of ovaries, a
pair of fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, external genitalia,
mammary glands and accessory glands.
4. If sperms are present, fertilization of ovum takes place in
the upper end of the fallopian tube.
zygote is formed. Umbilical cord is produced which is
attached to foetus. During this process two hormones
are produced which are estrogen and progesterone.
Progesterone stops mensturation and prevents ovulation.
Human Brain :
1. Brain is inside the cavity called cranium. It is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. It is divided into three parts –
(a) Fore brain (Cerebrum) is the main thinking part of
the brain. All our thoughts, sensations, actions and
movements are controlled by the cerebrum.
the hind brain. It has reflex centres for eye movement
and hearing response.
(c) Hind brain (Cerebellum) is the second largest part of
brain. The surface is of grey matter, deeper part is of
white matter. Cerebellum maintains posture, regulates
muscle tone.
2. Medulla oblongata controls involuntary movement, acts as
reflex centre for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing
etc.
to stimulus by an organ without involving brain for its
initiation. The pathway which is followed by this is called
reflex arc. E.g. Knee-jerk reflex, sneezing , yawning , blinking
of eye.
MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
1. Tropisms (Tropic Movements) : A growth movement of a
plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the
direction of stimulus determines the direction of response
is called tropism.
(a) Nastic (Nastic movements) : It is not a directional
movement of the plant part with respect to the
stimulus.
(b) Thigmonasty : It is the non-directional movement
of a plant part in response to the touch of an object.
E.g.- Mimosa pudica (Chui-mui).
(c) Photonasty : The non-directional movement of a plant
part (usually petals of flowers) in response to light is
called photonasty.
HORMONES
which are produced in any part of the plant.
geotropism 2, 4 - D is used to avoid pre-harvest fruit
in oranges, apples, used as weedicide.
(ii) Gibberellins : These can increase the height of plant,
can induce parthenocarpy, stimulate flowering.
22
(iii) Cytokinins : Promote cell division, inhibit or delay
ageing, organ formation.
(iv) Ethylene : It’s a gaseous plant hormone, used in
artificial ripening of fruits, promote ageing in plants,
breaks dormancy of several organs.
(v) Abscisic Acid (ABA) : Also known as stress hormone.
It is a growth inhibitor, inhibit the process of flowering,
seed development.
2. Hormones in Animals :
(i) Hypothalamus : The hypothalamic hormones are also
called releasing hormones : TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH.
(ii) Pituitary gland : It has two lobes anterior (adenohypo-
physis) and posterior (neurohypophysis).
(a) Anterior lobe : Secretes TSH (Thyroid Stimulating
hormone), ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone),
GH (Growth hormone), FSH (Follicle stimulating
hormone), LH (Luteinizing hormone), Prolactin.
(b) Intermediate lobe : production of melanin pigment.
(c) Posterior lobe :
(A) Oxytocin : Released during child birth, during
breast feeding.
(B) Vasopressin : It’s an antidiuretic hormone which
controls the secretion of urine by kidney.
(iii) Pineal : It secretes biogenic amine hormone called
melatonin. It inhibits ovarian growth and ovulation.
(iv) Thyroid : Thyroxine promotes the growth of body tissues.
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium level.
(v) Parathyroid : It increases blood calcium level from bone to
blood.
(vi) Pancreas : It is exocrine as well as endocrine. The endocrine
part is called islets of Langerhans. It consists of a and b
cells. b cells secrete hormone insulin which regulates blood
sugar level. Excess of glucose starts appearing in urine and
the disease is called diabetes.
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
Mendel’s laws of inheritance
The first study of inheritance was done by Gregor Mendel on
garden pea (Pisum sativum). He used a number of contrasting
characters like round / wrinkled seeds, tall/ short plants, white/
violet flowers and so on.
(i) Law of Dominance : Out of a pair of allelomorphic
characters one is dominant (expressed) and the other is
recessive/unexpressed. The benefit of this law is that
recessive (harmful) characters not expressed in hybrid and
can exist for several generations.
(ii) Law of Segregation : The factors for each character
segregate during gametogenesis. As a result, each gamete
receives only one factor for each character and hence is
always pure.
(iii) Law of Independent Assortment : The two factors of each
trait assort at random and independent of the factors of
other trait at the time of meiosis and get randomly as well
as independently arranged in the offspring.
SEX DETERMINATION
All human chromosomes are not paired. 22 pairs are called
autosomes. Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes XX.
But men have a mismatched pair XY.
BIOLOGY
EVOLUTION
It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the
primitive organisms over millions of years in which new species
are produced.
The evidences of evolution are :
(i) Homologous organs : The organs which have same
fundamental structure but different functions.
(ii) Analogous organs : The organs which have similar functions
but are different in their structural detail and origin. E.g.
wings of insect and wings of bird. The organ which are
present in reduced form and do not perform any function in
the body but correspond to the fully developed functional
organs of related animals called vestigial organs
(iii) Fossils : Fossils are the remains of the past and the study of
fossils is known as paleontology.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the
evolutionary principle in his famous book “The origin of
species”. The theory proposed by him is popularly known
as theory of natural selection.
Speciation
The process by which new species develop from the existing
species is known as speciation.
(i) Geographical isolation of a population caused by various
types of barriers (such as mountain ranges, rivers and
sea).
(ii) Genetic drift caused by drastic changes in the frequencies
of particular genes is by chance alone.
(iii) Variations caused in individuals due to natural selection.
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
1. Green revolution has increased food grain production
while white revolution has increased production of milk.
2. Based on the seasons of cultivation, crops are classified in
two categories:
(i) Kharif Crops : Crops grown in rainy season from
July to October are kharif crops . Example: Paddy,
soyabean, maize, cotton, and green gram etc.
(ii) Rabi Crops : Crops grown in winter season from
November to April are rabi crops. Example: Wheat,
gram, peas, mustard and linseed etc.
3. Hybridisation : Crossing between genetically dissimilar
plants is hybridization. The crossing may be intervarietal
(between different varieties), intergeneric (between
different genera), interspecific (between different species
of the same genus). The most common type of breeding is
intervarietal.
4. Manure : It is prepared by decomposition of animal excreta
and plant waste. Plants like sunhemp or guar are grown
and then mulched by ploughing them into the soil.
5. Organic farming: It is a farming system using organic
manures, recycled farm-wastes and use of bio-agents such
as culture of blue-green algae in preparation of biofertilisers,
neem leaves or turmeric specifically in grain-storage as
bio-pesticides.
6. Irrigation : Various irrigation systems are adopted to
supply water to agricultural lands, they are – Wells, canals,
rivers, tanks etc. Rain water harvesting and watershed
management increases the availability of water.
 BIOLOGY
7. Cropping Patterns
(i) Mixed cropping : Growing two or more crops
simultaneously on same land is mixed cropping.
(ii) Inter-cropping : Growing two or more crops
simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern
is inter cropping.
(iii) Crop-rotation : Growing of different crops on a piece
of land in a pre-planned succession is crop rotation.
8. Animal husbandry : It is the scientific management of
animal livestock in various aspects such as feeding,
breeding and disease control. The animal included are
cattle, goat, poultry, sheep and fish.
9. Cattle farming: Indian cattle belong to two different species
Bos indicus, (cows) and Bos bubalis, (buffaloes).
10. Poultry farming : They are farmed to produce layers for
eggs and broilers for meat.
11. Fish production: It provides animal protein for us.
– Capture fishing obtained from natural resources.
– Culture farming obtained by fish farming.
12. Bee-keeping : It has become an agricultural enterprise
for honey production. Its a low investment activity
and produces wax also. Local varieties of bees used for
honey production are – Apis cerana indica (Indian bee),
A. dorsata (Rock bee), A. florae (little bee).
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
1. Incomplete dominance is the phenomenon where dominant
allele do not completely express itself. Example, In
Mirabili’s jalapa (four O’ clock).
2. In codominance, both the alleles of a gene are equally
dominant i.e. the dominant character is not able to suppress
the recessive character & thus both the characters appear
side by side in F1 hybrids. F1 generation resembles both the
parents. E.g., ABO blood group.
3. Linkage is the phenomenon of certain genes staying
together during inheritance through generations without
any change or separation. This is due to their location on
the same chromosomes.
4. The rearrangements of linked genes due to crossing over is
known as recombination. 3. Restriction endonucleases which can break DNA at specific
5. Phenomenon that results in alteration of DNA sequence and
consequently results in change in genotype and phenotype
of an organism is called mutation.
Mutagens are various chemical and physical factors
that induce mutations, e.g., UV radiations, carcinogenic
chemicals like nicotine, nitric oxide (NO).
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
1. Formation of new DNA strand from old DNA is called
DNA replication or DNA duplication.
2. Process of copying genetic information from DNA to RNA
is called transcription.
3. Transfer of genetic information from a polymer of
nucleotides to a polymer of amino acids is called translation.
This is accomplished with the help of genetic code which
is row of three consecutive nucleotides – coding for 20
amino acids.
23
HEALTH AND DISEASES
1. AIDS : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome,
recognized first in USA in 1981. It is caused by HIV
(Human immunodeficiency virus), a retro virus having
2-strands of single stranded RNA (RNAss), with reverse
transcriptase enzyme.
2. Vaccination : It is the inoculation/injection of weak or
attenuated antigens, or a toxin, or a protein, into the body.
The introduction of antigens stimulates the production
of antibodies and memory cells, which protect the body
against that antigen/disease.
3. The study of cancer is called ‘Oncology’. The cancer is
unregulated and uncontrolled proliferation of cells, or the
breakdown of regulatory mechanism that governs normal
cell division.
4. The Immunity is the resistance against pathogens, foreign
materials and cancer etc. It is of 2-types-I.
(a) Innate Immunity : This immunity is by birth, and
develops by virtue of genes.
(b) Acquired Immunity : It can be acquired before birth
(from mother through placenta) or after birth. There is
antigen-antibody reaction in this immunity.
Antigens : The ‘Antigen’ is an acronym for antibody generating
material.
Antibodies : They are pure proteins (γ-globulins). Since they
participate in the immune system, they are also known as
immunoglobulins (Ig).
Drugs : Drugs are chemicals that alter the functioning of the
body.
(i) Sedatives and tranquillizers - eg. Barbiturates (used in
sleeping pills), Valium,
(ii) Opiate narcotics (opioids) - eg. Opium, Morphine,
Pathedine and Heroin etc.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Biotechnology is the application of techniques using live
organism to get desired product of human welfare. It
includes recombinant DNA, gene cloning, gene therapy.
2. rDNA technology is hybridization of DNA from different
sources to achieve desired genotype and phenotype in an
organism.
sites. They are appropriately called molecular scissors or
biological scissors.
4. Vectors are cloning vehicles required to transfer DNA of
interest from one organism to another.
5. Plasmids are extra-chromosomal, circular, double stranded
autonomously replicating DNA sequence in bacterial cell.
6. Cosmid can be defined as the hybrid vectors derived
from plasmids which contain cos site of lambda phage.
7. Bt cotton is the first genetically modified crop of the country.
ORGANISMS AND ENVIRONMENT
1. Adaptations the morphological, physiological or
behavioural attributes that enable the organisms to survive
and reproduce in their habitat.
2. The population is a group of individuals of a particular
species, which potentially interbreed and live in a well
defined geographical area, and also share or compete for
similar resources.
24 BIOLOGY
3. Birth or Natality rate – It is the number of births per 8. Ecological succession is the successive development
thousand of a population per year. of different biotic communities at the same site.
4. Death or Mortality rate – It is the number of deaths The communities develop one after another till the
occurring in a population of one thousand per year. development of a community which is near equilibrium
5. The growth of population with time shows specific and with the environmental conditions. This is called climax
predictable patterns. The 2-common patterns are community.
• Exponential growth
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
dN
= (b − d) × N 1. Biodiversity means diversity or heterogeneity at all levels
dt of biological organization, i.e., from macromolecules of
dN the cells to the Biomass.
If (b – d) = r, then = rN
dt The important levels of biodiversity are
(i) Genetic diversity,
Here ‘r’ is called ‘Intrinsic rate of natural increase’ or
(ii) Species diversity
Biotic potential (maximum capacity of reproduction),
(iii) Ecological diversity
Which indicates the impact of biotic and abiotic factors in
2. Ecological diversity
population growth.
It is the diversity at community level. It can be of 3-types
• Logistic growth
(i) Alpha (α) diversity : It is the diversity of organisms
dN  K − N
= rN  within the same community or habitat.
dt  K 
(ii) Beta (β) diversity : It is the diversity between
K = Nature’s carrying capacity in that habitat communities or different habitats.
(K – N)/ K or 1– N/ K = environmental resistance (iii) Gamma (γ) diversity : It is the diversity of organisms
6. Population Interactions over the entire geographical area, covering several
S. N. Name of interaction Species A Species B ecosystems or habitats and various trophic levels and
1 Parasitism + – food webs.
3. Biosphere reserves – They represent natural biomes which
2 Commensalism + 0
contain unique biological communities.
3 Mutualism + + 4. National Parks – They are reserved for the betterment of
4 Predation + – wild life, both fauna and flora.
5 Competition – – 5. Sanctuaries – In sanctuaries the protection is given to fauna
only. The activity like harvesting of timber, collection of
6 Amensalism – 0
forest products and private ownership rights are permitted
so long as they do not interfere with the well being of the
ECOSYSTEM
animals.
1. Ecosystem is the functional unit of nature where living
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
organisms interact with each other and with their
1. Pollution is an undesirable change in physical, chemical
environment.
or biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil. The
2. Productivity refers to the rate of biomass production i.e.
agents that bring about such an undesirable change are
the rate at which sunlight is captured by producers for the
called Pollutants.
synthesis of energy rich organic compounds.
2. In a green house the glass panel lets the light (with long
3. Primary productivity is the amount of biomass produced
wave- infra red – radiation) in, but does not allow heat
per unit area over a time period by plants during
(with short wave infra red) to escape.
photosynthesis.
3. The term ‘Green House Effect’ is derived from this
4. Gross primary productivity (GPP) – It is the rate of
phenomenon of green house. It is a naturally occurring
production of biomass or accumulation of energy by green
phenomenon that is responsible for heating of earth surface
plants per unit area per unit time. GPP depends on the
and atmosphere.
chlorophyll content.
4. The ozone (O3) found in upper part of the atmosphere, i.e.,
5. Net primary productivity = Gross primary productivity –
Stratosphere, is Good ozone, since, it acts as a shield for
Respiration losses. (or GPP–R = NPP)
absorbing UV-radiations from sun.
6. Food chain is an order or sequence of different organisms
5. The ozone depletion is occurring widely in the Stratosphere,
which are arranged in a way that the food is passed from
the depletion is particularly marked over ‘Antarctic region’;
one type of organism to other organisms such that the
and this has resulted in the formation of a large area of
organisms of one order or trophic level are the food of the
thinned ozone layer called ‘Ozone Hole’.
organisms of next order.
6. Deforestation is the conversion of the forested area into
7. Food web refers to a group of inter- related food chains in
non- forested area.
a particular community.