Giant metallic structure

- All metals have this structure

- Positive metal ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons (“sea” of electrons)
- The strong electrostatic attraction between the +ve ions and the delocalized -e are the
metallic bonds

Trend
- Atomic size ​decreases​ from left to right
- Strength of metallic bond ​increases
- Mp and bp ​increases

- Atomic size increases down the group

- Strength of bond decreases
- Mp and bp decreases

Properties
- Metals have ​high mp and bp​ (except mercury) in general as ​metallic bonds are strong
and much energy is needed to break them
- Metals have ​higher mp and bp​ than substances with a simple molecular structures
∵​ metallic bond is stronger than intermolecular​ force and thus more energy is needed to
break the metallic bonds
- Most metals have ​higher densities​ than water because of the strong metallic bonds so
that the metal atoms are usually ​packed closely​ in the solid. (except Li, Na, K)
- Most metals are ​hard​ because of the strong metallic bonds. ​Relative motion of the atoms
is restricted​.
- Metals are ​ductile and malleable​ because the ​layers of atoms can slide over each other
→ the metals do not break as the non-directional metallic bonds still hold the atoms tgt
- Metals are ​good conductor of heat and electricity​ because the ​delocalised e-​ can move
freely

*conditions for conducting electricity

a) Presence of delocalized e-
1. All metals (s) / (l)
2. Graphite (s)
b) Presence of mobile ions
1. Ionic compounds (l) / (aq)
2. Acidic and alkaline substance (aq)
 properties reasons

- high mp and bp​ (except mercury) - metallic bonds are strong​ and much
energy is needed to break them

- higher densities​ than water - strong metallic bonds so that the

metal atoms are usually ​packed
closely​ in the solid

- hard - strong metallic bonds → ​Relative

motion of the atoms is restricted​.

- ​ductile and malleable - layers of atoms can slide over each

other
→ the metals do not break as the
non-directional metallic bonds still
hold the atoms tgt

- good conductor of heat and electricity - delocalised e-​ can move freely

- Group I has relatively low mp and bp as a result of ​weaker metallic bonds

(1 outermost shell e-)
Giant ionic structure
- All ionic compounds have giant ionic structures
- The oppositely charged ions in an ionic compound are held tgt regularly by strong
electrostatic forces (ionic bonds) to form a giant lattice

Properties
- Ionic compounds are usually in ​crystalline​ form, having repeating arrangement of ions
- ionic compounds have ​high mp and bp​ because the ions are held tgt by s​trong ionic
bonds​. Much energy is needed to break these ionic bonds
- In ​solid​ state, ionic compounds do ​NOT conduct electricity​ because the ions are not
mobile
- 熔 → In ​molten​ state / ​liquid​ state / ​aqueous​ state, the ​molten​ state / ​liquid​ state /
aqueous​ state
- Ionic compounds are ​hard​ because ions are ​held tgt closely​ by strong ionic bonds and
relative motion of the ions is restricted
- Ionic compounds are ​brittle​ because when a force is applied, ions of the ​same charge
may come tgt and cause ​repulsion​, the solid thus breaks apart
- Ionic compounds usually have a ​high density​ because the ions are​ held tgt closely​ by
the strong ionic bond
- Ionic compounds may contain ​water of crystallisation

Properties Reason

- high mp and bp - held tgt by s​trong ionic bonds​.

Much energy is needed to break
these ionic bond

- solid​ state → do ​NOT conduct - ions are not mobile

electricity
- molten​ state / ​liquid​ state / - Ions are mobile
aqueous​ state → can conduct
electricity

- hard - held tgt closely​ by strong ionic

bonds and ​relative motion of the
ions is restricted

- brittle - when a force is applied, ions of the

same charge​ may come tgt and
cause ​repulsion​, the solid thus
breaks apart

- ​high density - ions are​ held tgt closely​ by the

strong ionic bond
Giant Covalent Structure
- Carbon (diamond)
- Carbon (graphite)
- Silicon
- Silicon oxide

- The atoms (millions or more) are held tgt by strong covalent bonds to form a gant
network
- Covalent substances having giant covalent structures are not regarded as molecular
substances (they do not contain molecules)
- Molecule → describe substances with similar molecular structures

1. Diamond
- Electronic arrangement: 2, 4
- Each C atom can form a max of 4 single bonds with other atoms, using ALL
outermost e-
- Each C atom in diamond forms ​strong covalent bonds​ ​with ​four​ ​other C atoms
- Each C atom is ​tetrahedrally​ bonded to 4 other C atoms
- All bond angles = 109.5

2. Graphite
- Layered structure
- C atoms within the same layer are held together by ​strong covalent bonds​.
Each C atom forms strong covalent bonds with ​3​ other C atoms ​using 3 out of 4
of its outermost shell
- Van der Waals’ forces​ ​ exist between layers

Applications
- Dry cells
- Pencils
- Solid lubricant

3. Silicon
- Same structure as diamond
- Each Si atom forms strong covalent bonds with ​4​ other Si atoms using all four
outermost electrons

4. Silicon oxide SiO​2

- A compound
- Ratio of Si atom : O atom = 1:2
→ each Si atom is bonded to ​4​ O atoms
→ each O atom is bonded to ​2​ Si atoms
Properties
- High mp and bp​ because the atoms are held tgt by ​strong covalent bonds​, requires a lot
of energy
- Cannot conduct electricity​ since there are neither delocalised e- nor mobile ions
(exception: graphite has delocalised e-)
- Very ​hard​ because atoms are held tgt by strong covalent bonds to form a giant network
→ ​relative motion is restricted
(exception: graphite is soft because it has a layered structure with a weak van der
Waals’ forces between the layers → allow the layers to ​slide​ past each other)
- Insoluble​ in all solvents​ because breaking the strong covalent bonds requires a lot of
energy

Properties Reason

- High mp and bp - atoms are held tgt by ​strong covalent

bonds​, requires a lot of energy

- Cannot conduct electricity - neither delocalised e- nor mobile ions

(exception: graphite has delocalised e-)

- Very ​hard - atoms are held tgt by strong covalent

bonds to form a giant network →
relative motion is restricted

- Insoluble​ in all solvents - breaking the strong covalent bonds

requires a lot of ​energy
Simple molecular structure
- Covalent substances having simple molecular structures are regarded as ​molecular
substances​ (they consist of molecules)
- Exist as​ separate / discrete molecules
- Atoms within the same molecule are held together by ​strong covalent bonds
- Separate molecules are held tgt by ​intermolecular forces

- Noble gases consist of monoatomic molecules (atom=molecule)

- Van der Waals’ force is a type of intermolecular force

- Liquid state → random packing

- Solid state → regular packing

- Intermolecular force is a much weaker attractive force compared to covalent bond / ionic
bond / metallic bond

Trend
- Strength of van der Waals’ force / intermolecular force increases with ​molecular​ size
(refer to no. of occupied shells)
→​ higher mp and bp

Properties
- Usually have ​low mp and bp​ compared to metals, ionic compounds and substances with
giant covalent structures
→ melting or boiling of substances with simple molecular structures ​break the
intermolecular forces​ NOT the COVALENT BONDS
→ intermolecular forces are much weaker forces compared to ionic bond, metallic bond
and covalent bonds → small amount of energy needed to break the intermolecular
forces to separate molecules
- Do not conduct electricity​ in both solid and liquid (no delocalized e- or mobile ions)
→ some can, when react / dissolve on water to give mobile ions
- Sms solids are usually ​soft​ because the molecules are held by weak intermolecular
forces

Flow (bp/mp)
- (No of occupied e​-​ shells)
- Molecular size
- Strength of van der Waals’ force
- Bp / Mp (higher bp, higher volatility)
 Properties Reason

- low mp and bp - intermolecular forces are much

weaker forces

- do not conduct electricity​ in both solid - no delocalized e- or mobile ions

and liquid

- soft - molecules are held by weak

intermolecular forces