History of Paving :

Although pavers made out of concrete may be a new product, the use of paving blocks
as a surfacing material is anything but new. The first record of stone paving dates back
to 4000 BC in Assyria and by 2000 BC, flagstones were being used to pave village
streets. Cobblestones were the traditional method of stone paving, being uncut and
often water-worn stones or large pebbles about 150mm in size. Later hand-cut stone
blocks were introduced. Road-making using brick was common in Mesopotamia n 2000
BC and clay brick paving was in use in India in 300 BC. It was the Romans who
introduced hexagonal-shaped flagstones as a surface course, so the concept of shaped,
rather than rectangular blocks, is certainly not new. Perhaps the most famous of all
Roman roads is the Appian Way, built by Roman engineers in 312 BC. The 377
kilometer road Roman road built 2000 years ago using segmented
was surfaced
with tight fitting
paving stones
that still carries
traffic between
Rome and Italy’s
south eastern
port of Brindisi.

Concrete paving
blocks were first
manufactured in the Netherlands in 1924. It was probably World War II that led to the
growth of concrete blocks as a paving material. Large areas of the Netherlands were
destroyed during the War and, because clay bricks were in short supply (and what was
available was being used to rebuild housing), concrete blocks were introduced as an
alternative. Subsequently, concrete block paving (cbp) became recognized as a paving
material in its own right. The research carried out by Shackel in the late ’70s and early
’80s remains the most comprehensive yet conducted into the performance of concrete
block paving. A hierarchy of block shapes was developed, the existing design curves
were examined, the role of the bedding and jointing sands was investigated in earnest,
and various base and sub-base materials were tested.
APPLICATIONS OF PAVING BLOCK PA
VINGCK PAVING
Concrete pavers are a versatile paving material, which due to the availability of many
shapes, sizes and colures, has endless streetscape design possibilities.

The use of concrete block paving can be divided into the following categories.

ROADS

 Main roads
 Residential roads
 Urban renewal
 Intersections
 Toll plazas
 Pedestrian crossings
 Taxi ranks
 Steep slopes
 Pavements (sidewalks)

COMMERCIAL PROJECTS

 Car parks
 Shopping centers and malls
 Parks and recreation centers
 Golf courses and country clubs
 Zoos
  Office parks
 Service stations
 Bus termini
 Indoor areas
 Places of worship

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

 Factories and warehouses

 Container depots
 Military applications
 Mines
 Wastewater reduction works
 Quarries
 Airports and harbors

DOMESTIC PAVING

 Pool surrounds
 Driveways
 Patios
 Townhouses and cluster homes

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

 Cladding vertical surfaces

 Storm water channels
 Embankment protection under freeways
 Roof decks

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

 Factories and warehouses

 Container depots
 Military applications
 Mines
 Wastewater reduction works
 Quarries
 Airports and harbors
DOMESTIC PAVING

 Pool surrounds
 Driveways
 Patios
 Townhouses and cluster homes

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

 Cladding vertical surfaces

 Storm water channels
 Embankment protection under freeways
 Roof decks

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

 Factories and warehouses

 Container depots
 Military applications
 Mines
 Wastewater reduction works
 Quarries
 Airports and harbors

DOMESTIC PAVING

 Pool surrounds
 Driveways
 Patios
 Townhouses and cluster homes

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

 Cladding vertical surfaces

 Storm water channels
 Embankment protection under freeways
 Roof decks

ROADS:
The change in texture of the road surface at intersections produces an audible
change in road noise, thereby alerting drivers to the fact that they are
approaching the intersection. The surface characteristics of the blocks offer a
greater resistance to skidding in wet weather, largely due to the chamfered
joints of the blocks and the rapid dissipation of surface water. Should remedial
work be necessary, e.g. on underground services, blocks can be removed and
replaced without impairing the overall appearance of the road pavement. The
use of red blocks on roads at the approaches to the intersection produces a
distinct visual difference, thereby promoting care and awareness among drivers.
Major road construction using concrete block paving. A technically excellent
surfacing, which also provides community upliftment in the from the job creation
during the construction.

At pedestrian crossings, a designer can place a different texture or colour from

that of the street or parking area. This distinguishes pedestrian areas from
vehicular areas, providing a safe haven for the pedestrian, especially those with
physical handicaps.

COMMERCIAL PROJECTS

Car parks are typically exposed to the full rigours of sun and rain. Unlike asphalt
surfaces, concrete block paving shows little weathering or deterioration under these
circumstances and yields low maintenance costs. An imaginative designer can
overcome the drab monotony too often characteristic of parking lots, by exploiting
the wide range of colours and textures provided by concrete pavers. Another
advantage of concrete block paving is the maintenance-free Demarcation of parking
areas. Concrete block paving provides an attractive hard-wearing surface for
parks. It blends with the environment and breaks up the harshness of
conventional hard Landscaping.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS

At factories and warehouses

concrete block paving has the
ability to withstand
concentrated heavy loads and
to resist the wheel loads of off-
road vehicles such as cranes
and forklifts. At factories and
warehouses, concrete block
paving has the ability to
withstand concentrated heavy
loads and resist the wheel
loads of off-road vehicle such
as cranes and forklifts.
 DOMESTIC PAVING

Concrete block paving provides functional yet very attractive pool surrounds.

SPECIALISED APPLICATIONS

Embankment protection alongside

freeways. The use of concrete block
paving is a very effective and quick
method of slope protection

PATTERNS IN CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS –

Concrete block pavers come in a variety of shapes and sizes . If we consider for a
moment the aesthetics of concrete block paving, three fundamental aspects present
themselves:

 Shapes
 Colours
 Patterns
 Applying just a few variables to each aspect presents a myriad of options from
which even the most discerning client may happily choose.

SHAPES –

Aristocrat Satinpave

Conleaf Classic Cobble

Clover Tiffany Honeystyle

Corolock, Double zig zag Corolink

COMPARISON OF CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS WITH OTHER TYPE OF PAVEMENT

In certain specific areas of application, block paving, with its cost-effectiveness,

aesthetic qualities, ease of construction and maintenance and in-service advantages, is
the paving of choice. In Table 2, a comparison with conventional flexible and rigid
pavements, based on these attributes is given. In general, it can be said that concrete
block paving excels in terms of cost and performance in the following circumstances:

 Where heavy or concentrated wheel loads are to be carried and especially where a
high frequency of turning or slewing movements is expected.
 Where volume of traffic is high.
 Where sub-grade conditions are poor.
 Where the pavement must withstand severe in-service conditions such as
considerable temperature variations, frequent fuel, oil or lubricant spillage or
extensive, significant and sub-stained settlement.
 Where ready access to underground services is required.
 Where the appearance and aesthetic qualities of the pavement are major design
considerations.

ADVANTAGES OF PAVING BLOCKS –

 High abrasion and skid resistance.

 No damage from petroleum products.
 No damage from concentrated point loads or high
 Temperatures.
 No damage by soap or detergents

REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS

Properties :

 Blocks should meet structural requirements for paving specified in terms of block
compressive strength and /or tensile splitting strength).
 Blocks should be durable: they should be able to withstand abrasion , impact and
chemical attack .
 Blocks should be of uniform dimensions to facilitate correct and easy placing and
ensure good readability .

Market Potential of Paver Blocks in Assam

Construction industry and development of infrastructure facilities are a priority at

present and government has laid a lot of emphasis on the same. Providing housing to
one and all is also a priority. Besides government initiative in construction of houses,
private sector builders are also very actively involved in different housing projects. All
these activities call for landscaping provision of garden path for the area and provision
for paved foot paths. Even otherwise pavement, Bus stops carriage ways also require
paved paths. All these necessarily need cement concrete blocks/Tiles. Such concrete
blocks are also used inside factories and residential complexes for paving the approach
roads. This paving prevents water accumulation in the region and avoids formation of
slosh mud pools there by maintaining the cleanliness of the area and its beauty. The
demand for such blocks and tiles is generally from urban and semi urban areas as such
the unit manufacturing the product should be accordingly located. The demand for such
products depends on the growth of economy and rate of urbanization. With massive
urbanization work taken up by the government and providing better facilities to
population the demand for these concrete products is bound to grow.

A lot of face-lift is being given to roads, footpaths along the roadside. Concrete paving
blocks are ideal materials on the footpaths for easy laying, better look and finish.
Whereas the tiles find extensive use outside the large building and houses, lots of these
materials are also used in flooring in the open areas of public offices and commercial
buildings and residential apartments.

In Assam, after trial run, is using the block paving technology to build rural roads in
particular to enhance their durability. The State PWD has almost completed repairing
and construction of 27,000 km roads under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY) in the State by March 31 in 2019. Out of 27,000 km roads, there will be 8,000
km new rural roads under the PMGSY, adding that the rest 19,000 km rural roads built
during 2005-06 under the same scheme will be repaired. The planned use of the block
paving technology in constructing the rural roads will result in additional expenditure
of Rs 1,200 crore. The State will have to bear the additional expenditure since it is
planning to use the new technology in constructing the village roads. Block paving also
known as brick paving is a commonly used decorative method of creating a pavement
or hardstanding. It has been extensively used in a number of countries for quite some
time as a specialized problem-solving technique for providing pavement in areas where
conventional types of construction are less durable due to many operational and
environmental constraints.
Further, the Urban Development Department, Government of Assam also approved an
amount of Rs. 155.63 crore for roads using Paver Vlocks in 63ULBs(Urbaan Level
Bodies) in the end of 2018.

The Public Works Department is Now relying on Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement
(ICBP) technology (block paving technology) for laying pavements in areas where
conventional types of construction are not possible and are less durable due to
operational and environmental constraints.

ICBP technology, successfully used in footpaths, fuel stations and rural roads developed
under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna in country mainland, is increasingly being
used in the State where water seepage is prevalent and drainage conditions are poor. It
is also used in hill areas that receive excess rainfall.

Maintenance Free

ICBP technology have been used elsewhere even hairpin curves since more than a decade ago
on an experimental basis. They have withstood the time and heavy traffic. The concerned
PWD has not taken up any maintenance of these blocks till date, as was reported.

The concrete paver blocks are selected depending on the traffic flow in the area. For the
PWD, the technology provides many advantages — quality of the blocks can be ensured
at the factory itself, there is no need to deploy heavy construction equipment and the
roads can be opened to traffic immediately after work.

The ICBP technology also helps in conservation of natural materials, particularly soil,
gravels and aggregates. Only roughness felt by the motorists on stepping into such
pavements had been reported to us, he added.

PWD officials said that the quality of materials used, strength of the cement concrete,
durability and dimensional tolerance were of great importance for achieving
satisfactory quality and performance of block pavements.

All these aspects have been outlined in the Indian Roads Congress and Bureau of Indian
Standards.

The Government of Assam is implementing many Schemes for the development of the
Roads Infrastructure in the State apart from works under the direct funding of APWD
under which the ICBP technology is gaining momentum and the prospects of such units
to cater to the demands of all the below Schemes is very promising:

 PMGSY(Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana), a Centrally Sponsored

Scheme
 RIDF(Rural Infrastructure Development Fund) under funding from
NABARD
 SOPD (State Own Priority Development Scheme)
 SDRF(State Disaster Response Fund)
 ARMF( Assam Roads Maintenance Fund)
 CM's Special Package for Different Districts
 NEC’s Road Schemes
 Concrete Block Pavements for Roads



 Brajendra Singh, Chief Consultant, Cement Manufacturers’ Association, New
Delhi

 Road surfaces may be paved or unpaved. Paved roads have flexible, rigid or a
combination of the two types of surfaces. Rigid pavements consist of several
types. They could be made from concrete; they could be brick-paved or cobble
stoned. They could also be sheer rock, as my personal experience has shown.
Several years ago, I was the engineer-in-charge of carving out a road from the
highly mountainous terrain of the Spiti Valley. Long stretches of the proposed
road passed through sheer cliffs made out of solid rock. Cutting the alignment in
such areas with individual hand-held, petrol motor powered drills, while
suspended from ropes in mid-air, was an extremely instructive experience, but
its details are not relevant to this article. What is relevant is that after the
required width (normally 3 to 5 metres) had been scooped out of the virgin rock,
we just did not have any material to lay on the road surface. So we let the cut
remain as it were, the uneven but hard rock along its base acting as the road
surface.

Reverting back to the topic of this article, concrete roads can be constructed in a
variety of ways –plain jointed concrete, fibre– reinforced concrete, roller
compacted concrete, continuously reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete
and concrete block paving. It is proposed to discuss the last-named i.e. concrete
block paving, in this article, as the technique has certain unique advantages.
Relevant to this article. What is relevant is that after the required width
(normally 3 to 5 metres) had been scooped out of the virgin rock, we just did not
have any material to lay on the road surface. So we let the cut remain as it were,
the uneven but hard rock along its base acting as the road surface. Reverting
back to the topic of this article, concrete roads can be constructed in a variety of
 ways – plain jointed concrete, fibre– reinforced concrete, roller compacted
concrete, continuously reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and concrete
block paving. It is proposed to discuss the last-named i.e. concrete block paving,
in this article, as the technique has certain unique advantages.

The concept of block pavements for roads is not new Even 5000 years ago, brick
pavements for highways were commonly used, as can be seen in the old ruins in
the West Asian Region, which was earlier known as Mesopotamia. Evidence of
such pavements using bricks laid in bitumen mortar, can still be seen in Babylon
and surrounding areas, where as early as 3000 BC, the earliest use of bitumen in
road construction was recorded. The use of brick pavements for road
construction, in the ancient Indus Valley civilization of our country, is also a
proven fact. Nearer home, some recent excavations of old road works at
Fatehpur Sikri near Agra have revealed that about 500 years back, hard stone
blocks set with lime mortar were used for paving purposes at that time. In this
context, it is interesting to note that the stone used there for purposes of paving
roads, had a higher resistance to abrasion than the local stone variety commonly
used in buildings near the site of excavations. It is abundantly clear from the
properties of road and building materials used then, that due to importance was
given to the wear and tear and damage caused by wheels of chariots, horses’
hooves and horse driven vehicles, to stone pavements. 


 For paving purposes, higher quality stone was therefore imported from long
distances. The importance attached to interlocking of stones and wedge action
for improved strength and stability, is also evident from the construction
techniques adopted then, as revealed by the excavations at Fatehpur Sikri.

It is, therefore, not quite clear as to why in India, the ancient concept of block
pavements has not developed to take the shape of modern block paving
techniques, as it has in Europe, U.S.A. Australia and some other countries. The
early city streets in European countries, particularly in Holland, were paved with
cobble stones of about 100 to 150 mm diameter which were taken from river
beds, and laid on a layer of sand. Due to their rough and uneven surface
 characteristics, these were, in later years, replaced by stone setts generally made
of granite, about 90 to 180 mm thick and laid 45° to the road axis in a stretcher
or herringbone pattern. The joints in good quality stones were less than 10 mm
wide, while in poor quality stone these wereabout 20 mm wide. In the
20thCentury, these joints were sealedin their lower portions with sand, the
upper 40 mm of the joint beingfilled with limestone dust mixed with bitumen.
Often the stones were laid in curves of about 1.5 mradius, the largest stones laid
inthe center. Due to the high cost of stone sett pavements, whenever the road
surface started wearing out, recycling was resorted to by merely turning over
the stone o rmaking it a cube, so that all six faces could be used in turn to carry
traffic, which saved the cost of re-laying the pavement with fresh stones. In order
to reduce the noise created by the steel or wooden wheels and horses’ hooves
moving over stone sett pavements, the stone setts were replaced in some cases
by block of wood, 125 to 250 mm in length and 75 to 100 mm square in cross-
section. Thesewere laid on end, with the grain running vertically, and bedded on
3 cm thick bituminous mixture. However, these proved to be slippery and noisy
when wet so, because of their high absorptive characteristics, the technique was
abandoned with the advent of modern pneumatic-tyred motor vehicles.


 In several European countries, vitrified bricks have been used for the past two
centuries on city streets, mainly for pedestrians, while stone sett pavements
were used for carrying wheeled traffic. The durability of ordinary
brickpavements in ancient times, like in Pre-Aryan India, was of a low order and
so they were not very popular. It was only after vitrified bricks (fired at high
temperatures) came into being, did these find a wider application. In areas,
where hard stone metal needs to be carted from long distances while suitable
type of clay is locally available (like in parts of Uttar Pradesh), good quality over-
burnt clay bricks have been widely used for paving purposes. Cost-wise,paving
bricks were found, generally, to be more economical than stone setts. Usually the
paving bricks used in Europe and in India were about 200 mm long, 100 mm
wide and 80 mm deep. Brick pavements generally had a service life of less than
 20 years; but in Hungary, where high quality bricks were made from clay with
highlime content, moulded in steel forms under high pressure and fired at high
temperatures, brick pavements gave a service life of even 30 years or more. The
most extensive use of brick pavements appears to havebeen in Holland.
However, with high speed and high load intensity traffic, the brick pavements
have gradually faded, giving way to the modern high strength concrete block
pavements.

As an improvement on the use of stone setts the use of precast concrete blocks
for paving purposes date back to the end of 19th century. Their size initially was
around 240 mm x 120 mmx 80 mm, nearly the size of a standard building brick.
To start with, the cost of bricks and blocks were about the same, but with
increasing mechanization and lower energy consumption, concrete blocks were
found to be more economical than bricks. In the middle of the last century, just
after the Second World War, the acute shortage of bricks for building purposes
gave a further fillip to the extensive use of concrete blocks for road paving
purposes. The main advantages of the latter, however, were better uniformity in
concrete blocks compared to stone setts (thus doing away with the necessity of
dressing the faces), higher strength, higher abrasive resistance and eventually,
lower cost in comparison to paving bricks. In the first stage of evolution of using
concrete blocks for roads, the same shape and dimensions as of paving bricks,
were adopted. Later, while still retaining the length, breadth and depth
proportions of building bricks, the shape of concrete blocks was dentated to
provide key-ins with adjoining units. Further alternations in shape and size were
brought about to optimize performance under traffic and to permit convenient
mechanical block laying at the same time.

During the latter half of the 20th Century, the growth of block paving has been
fairly high in Europe, as indicated by the following representative figures.

While earlier on, concrete block paving was already an accepted road building
technique in Central and South America, and in South Africa, it was introduced in
the 196 0s in UK, Canada, USA, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. More recently,
it is catching up in the Gulf Region and other parts of Asia.


 The growing popularity of concrete block paving has resulted in a large number
of various types of such paving systems being marketed, as well as world wide
research on the subject. International conferences on this theme are also being
held periodically.

Concrete pavements for roads have several advantages over bitumen pavements,
such as long life, negligible maintenance, user and environmental friendliness,
usage of indigenous material and fuel saving. Over and above all these, concrete
block pavements have additional advantages, such as no requirement of
machinery for laying, they can be opened for traffic immediately, after laying,
they provide convenient access to utilities and they possess factorycontrolled
quality.

Concrete paving block pavements have been thereby successfully used in India
on city streets; residential streets and parking areas; markets, service stations
and bus terminals. They have also been used for secondary roads in the northern
parts of our country.

Many city streets in major metropolitan cities of Europe, Australia, Central and
South America, South Africa and Japan are now paved with concrete blocks. Such
pavements are specially relevant on city streets in view of the ease with which
access can be made to underground services like water pipes, cable ducts,
telephone lines etc. Besides, block pavements can successfully carry heavy and
slow moving traffic, at the same time keeping their maintenance Economical as
also convenient. Pedestrian crossings with colored blocks can be easily
delineated and hence pavement markings may not be necessary. At signalized
intersections, where heavy vehicles have to frequently apply brakes to stop and
again start, the tangential shear forces can be much more readily taken up by
concrete block pavements as compared to the conventional bituminous
pavements, which tend to deform under such high stresses. A similar situation
exists at roundabouts. In commercial/business and shopping centres, block
pavements have been found successful due to their ability to carry heavy traffic
at relatively low maintenance cost, with least disruption to traffic during
maintenance works.

In several developed countries, streets in and around residential areas and in

housing complexes are increasingly being paved with concrete paving blocks, as
these can be easily reinstated after making any changes in underground public
utility services as may be required for repairs, changes or up gradation, and can
be opened to heavy traffic directly after construction, without having to wait for
curing or setting of pavement materials. Moreover, the maintenance costs of
such streets are low. Such block pavements are therefore known to enhance the
property value of surrounding houses or building lots. Thus the slight increase in
pavement construction costs can be recovered through the increment in cost of
houses/land. Block pavements also enhance the aesthetics of a residential area.

Concrete paving blocks have been widely used in street side and other car
parking areas, since their deterioration due to weathering is of a much lower
order in comparison to conventional bituminous pavements and maintenance
costs are also significantly lower. By using different colors and textures, the
parking areas, access lanes and pedestrian crossings can be clearly and
effectively demarcated on a permanent basis, instead of repainting of lines
having to be resorted to, every year.

In market areas, concrete block pavements on approaches and in the market

itself have been constructed in several countries for providing surface drainage,
as these areas are to be washed daily. At such places darker colors of blocks are
recommended so as not to be vulnerable to stains by market produce/foodstuff.
These block pavements are designed to carry loaded trucks and have the
advantage that even during maintenance, no disruption to traffic is caused.

The use of block pavements in petrol stations/service centres has become

popular in South Africa and Australia, besides Europe, since the concrete blocks,
unlike conventional bituminous surfaces,remain unaffected by fuel/oil spillage s
o common in petrol stations/service centres. Different companies tend to use a
specific color identifiable with them, at all their stations/centres.

Use of concrete block pavements has special relevance at bus stops, bus
terminals and bus service depots. Firstly, the high stresses caused by buses and
channelised slow moving traffic can be better withstood by concrete paving
blocks in comparison to bituminous pavements; and secondly, frequent stopping
and starting at bus stops, which causes rutting and shoving of bituminous
pavements, does not cause any such problems in concrete block pavements.
Also, the spillage of fuel and oil, associated with bus traffic and at bus
terminals/service centers do not pose any problem if concrete blocks are used
instead of bituminous surfacings. These favorable aspects have made the
concrete block pavements for bus depots/bus terminals and service centres very
popular.

When compared to the utilization of block paving technology in developed

countries in Africa, Asia and the rest of Europe and USA, and even in less
developed and developing countries of the World, it is to be admitted that our
country is lagging far behind. In India, just a small beginning has been made in
this direction although there appears to be an increasing awareness for the vast
potential that this versatile technology holds for the country. With the rapidly
developing economy of India, improved and modernized industrial activities are
inevitable and endless possibilities exist in these for utilizing the block paving
technology for roads. In the transport sector, concrete block pavements have
tremendous possibilities.

In the roads sub-sector: city streets, particularly at signalized intersections, bus

stops, terminals and service centres; side walks and cycle tracks; parking areas;
roads in residential areas; market centers, commercial complexes and
community centers, petrol stations etc. can be paved with concrete paving blocks
in preference to conventional bituminous materials, thus overcoming several of
the present-day problems with which all road users in India are familiar.
Drawing on the experiences of other countries, this technology can be utilized
for lower maintenance cost, least disruption of traffic with the flexibility of easy
alterations to modified designs, easy access to underground services, practically
unsusceptible to weathering deterioration and fuel/oil/ lubricant spillage.
Moreover, it can save the country significant amounts of foreign exchange
incurred on bituminous materials.

For railways and airports also, immediate use can be made in railway on the
aprons/taxiways at airport terminals besides internal/access roads in railway
stations.
 For heavy duty paving, the concrete block technology can be adopted to
advantage on roads in industrial areas, loading docks and ramps, approaches to
shipyards, warehouses and godowns, and military bases.

In the building sector, the concrete paving blocks in different shapes, sizes,
colors and texture would be an architect’s delight as in several countries abroad,
for paving of driveways, walkways, parking areas, etc.

Of special importance in the Indian context is the aspect of quality control. Being
pre-cast in a central plant, much more effective quality control can be exercised
on paving blocks than what is possible for pavements laid at the site, particularly
compared to when conventionally used bituminous materials are involved, and
heating of bitumen as well as aggregates has be done at controlled temperatures.
Furthermore, the technology can be suitably modified from the one being
practised in the developed world, to make it reasonably labor-intensive.

As the studies abroad indicate, the energy consumption is lower in case of

concrete paving blocks in comparison to when road construction is done
through the use of bituminous materials. Also maintenance efforts and related
maintenance costs are lower; aspects which are so vitally important in the
Indian context. Additionally, the foreign exchange component of costs in respect
of concrete paving blocks will be significantly lower in comparison to paving
with bituminous materials. This is because bitumen is obtained from crude oil,
and Indian crudes, being non-asphaltic in nature, do not yield bitumen. All the
bitumen we use, comes from imported crude oil.
 Recommended Grades of Paver Blocks for Different Traffic Categories

Grade Designation Specified Traffic Category Recommended

of Paver Blocks Characteristics Minimum Paver
Compressive Block Thickness
Strength of Paver (mm)
Blocks at 28 days
(N/mm²)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
M 25-M 30 25-30 Non-traffic 50
M 30-M 35 30-35 Light 60
M 35-M 45 35-40 Medium 60, 80
M 45-M 55 45-55 Heavy to Very 80, 100, 120
Heavy


 CHAPTER 4 – RESOURCES

4.1 Main Resources

The main resources for the production of cement-based products include the following:

 Land and building

 Plant and machinery
 Raw materials viz Portland cement, stone aggregates, natural sand, stone crush,
synthetic and natural pigments
 Power
 Water
 Skilled and non-skilled workers
It has been envisaged in the project the land for the project would be available on lease
basis from Government of Bhutan. The building and the shed as per requirements has to
be constructed for the unit. There would be two production sections of the unit viz
cement concrete block manufacturing section and cement concrete tiles & mosaic
flooring tiles section. Persons having sufficient experience in the production of these
products have to be employed as production supervisor so as to ensure the
manufacturing of quality goods. Experienced machine operators would also be needed
for main machine for hydraulic presses. The operators can also be trained by the
machine manufacturers at the site of the factory during installation and commission of
the machine.

4.2 Raw materials and consumables

4.2.1 Raw materials for cement concrete blocks

The main raw materials required include cement, stone aggregates, fine and coarse
sand, chemical additives and water. The details are as under:

o Portland cement complying to Indian Standard grade 33, 43 & 53 is widely used
in the manufacture of blocks.
o The stone aggregate should be hard preferably more than 5 on Moh’s scale. It
should be free from deleterious matters. Grit size of 8 mm & less is mostly used.
o However in case of large size blocks the mesh size could be up to 12 mm.
o The natural sand & stone crush of size 2 mm & below is used. It should be free
from clay dust & deleterious matters.
 o The water should be free from the matters harmful to concrete and
reinforcement or matters likely to cost efflorescence in the product.
o Additives and admixtures are used to accelerating the process of setting, water
reduction, minimizing of air en-trapping & as super plasticizers. Chemical
additives are also used for imparting water proofing characteristics. Colors and
pigments are also used for imparting color to the products.

4.2.2 Raw materials for cement concrete tiles and mosaic flooring tiles

The details of raw materials used for plain cement tiles, plain colored tiles and terrazzo
tiles are as under:

 White or Grey colored Portland Cement of various grades confirming to Indian

Standard such as IS 269, IS 8041, 8042, IS 1489, grade 43, 53 etc. are used.
 Stone crush of 6 mm & below is normally used for backing layer. It should be free
from soft, honey combed particles & deleterious matters. For the wearing layer
the aggregate consists of marble or stone chips of similar character & hardness,
Marble powder & Dolomite powder is also used.
 Synthetic or natural pigments are used in the concrete mix to obtain colorful
tiles of desired shades. It should provide durable colors and should be free from
matters deleterious to concrete pigments either singly or in combination. It is
recommended to use pigment to a maximum of 9% by weight of cement used in
the top layer concrete. The pigment should be finer than cement (fineness
between 2-15 m2/kg). It should be free from zinc compound and organic dyes.

4.3 Comparative analysis of sources and prices of critical inputs & consumables

As mentioned earlier, the raw materials required for manufacture of cement products
include the following: -

 Portland Cement grey

 White cement
 Stone aggregates
 Marble stone chips / powder
 Natural river sand
 Stone dust
 Natural / Synthetic pigments
 Additives
The major raw materials for the project include cement, stone aggregates and sand /
stone dust. All these raw materials are available in Bhutan and the cement could be
directly procured from the cement companies. The stone aggregates, stone dust and
river sand is also available in and nearby the site location and can also be sourced from
the nearby Bhutan rivers, etc. The pigments and additives are also available in the local
markets or can be procured directly from outside the NER

4.4 Recommended sources

A list of raw material supplier has been given in the Annexure II. As mentioned above, it
would be more economical to purchase the cement directly from cement companies.

4.5 Annual requirement of raw materials

The annual requirement of various raw materials along with their prices have been
given in the chapter 9 relating to cost presentation.
 CHAPTER 5 – THE PLANT
5.1 Selection of technology
The basic process involved in the manufacture of cement concrete blocks includes mixing of
cement, stone aggregate and sand in appropriate proportion and casting of blocks. The
manufacturing process for paver blocks and cement concrete tiles and mosaic flooring tiles also
involves similar operations. For the manufacturing of cement concrete blocks, manual, semi-
automatic and automatic processes of operation are used. The major item of machines for
automatic, semi automatic & manual process are similar except that in case of automatic
machines, the transportation of raw material, mixture, charging of press & shifting of green
product from one machine to the other is carried out with the help of material handling
equipments such as shovel loader, conveyer belt, screw conveyer & fork lifter etc. Keeping in
view, the size of demand for these products in Bhutan, a semi automatic process has been taken
into consideration in the proposed project. The plant would have following two manufacturing
sections.

 Hollow blocks and Paver blocks section

 Mosaic tiles and Colored tiles section

5.1.1 Process Technologies used

As mentioned above, for the production of cement products normally following type of process
technology are used

 Manual process wherein the mixing of various ingredients and casting of blocks
and bricks is carried out manually.

 Semi-automatic process using semi-automatic machines for mixing and casting

operations.
 Fully automatic process.

5.1.2 Factors influencing the choice of technology

A number of factors need to be taken into considerations while deciding the choice in favour of a
process technology. These factors mainly include

 Factor inputs
 Market findings viz size of market and recurrence of repeat demand

 Purchasing power of consumers and prevailing price spectrum

 Future projections of market demand

 Availability of skilled manpower and support facilities

 Availability of infrastructure and transport facilities

 Environmental considerations

5.1.3 Technology recommended

As stated earlier, the project is based on semi-automatic process technology wherein for mixing
and casting semi -automatic machines are proposed to be used. Keeping in view, the relatively
small size of demand in Bhutan, the semi-automatic operations are most suited and this would
offer the following main advantages.

 Low capital cost

 Common mixing plant for all the products

 Facility for easy change of modes

 Feasibility for production of low volumes of a specific size and design of the
product.

5.2 Production Capacity

In both the manufacturing sections, an appropriate product mix of most commonly used items
has been taken into considerations while calculating the production capacity of the unit. The
annual production capacity of both the sections has been taken for the manufacture of blocks &
tiles. For the purpose of financial analysis product mix has been taken into consideration on the
basis of single shift working for 300 days in a year. 100 days of production has been taken for
the manufacture of each item mentioned below. 90% of installed machine capacity has been
taken as the production capacity of the plant at optimum. The product mix along with quantity of
each item of production per annum is as given under.

Cement concrete blocks and paver blocks:

Solid blocks 390 x 190 x 140 2,00,000 nos

Hollow blocks 390 x 190x 190 2,00,000 nos

Paver blocks 225 x 112 x 80 6,00,000 nos

Cement Concrete tiles and Mosaic Flooring tiles:

Grey mosaic tiles 300 x 300 x 22 3,00,000 nos

Grey mosaic tiles 250 x 250 x 22 3,00,000 nos

Colored tiles 250 x 250 x 22 2,50,000 nos

5.3 Details and specification of machinery and equipments:

A). For cement concrete block manufacturing section:

Particulars of Machine

1 Hydraulically operated stationary block making machine with:-

Hydraulic system - 5 HP Mould vibrator – 2 HP x 2 Ram vibrator – 1.5 HP x 1 Moulding area –

860 x 600 (mm) Pallet feeder – hydraulic x 1 Mix feeder – hydraulic x 1

Mix feeder bin - hydraulic x 1

Moulds:-

2 200 x 200 x 400 (mm) cavity block ram & mould

3 150 x 200 x 400 (mm) cavity block ram & mould

4 100 x 200 x 400 (mm) cavity block ram & mould

5 200 x 200 x 400 (mm) solid block ram & mould

6 150 x 200 x 400 (mm) solid block ram & mould

7 100 x 200 x 400 (mm) solid block ram & mould

8 Paver block mould

(or mould of any size as per market demand)

9 Pallet stacker

10 Pan mixer of 500 kg. capacity with 15 HP motor

11 Mix conveyor with 2 HP motor

12 Platform electronic weighing scale 500 kg. capacity

13 Water dosing pump with 2 HP motor

14 Wheel barrows with pneumatic wheels

15 Pallet truck 1500 kg. capacity

16 Pallet truck capacity 500 kg. with pneumatic wheels
17 Pallets size 900 x 650 x 250 (mm)

18 Skip loader
19 Color mixer 100 kg. capacity 7 HP

B). Cement concrete tiles and mosaic flooring tiles section:

Particular of Machine

20 Hydraulic press (Cap. 150 kg/ sq. cm) with pressure gauge
21 Hydraulic double piston pump with 5 HP motor combined with safety valve,
capable of feeding 4 to 5 presses, ram vibrator 1.5 HP, mould vibrator 2 HP

22 Leveling (grinding) machine complete with all attachments grinding capacity 4

tiles at a time (5 HP)

23 Semi polishing machine with 2 HP motor for sample polishing for testing
24 Mould with 1 set of extra mould

25 Pallets
26 Tipping borrows

5.4 Process of manufacture

5.4.1 Cement concrete blocks

The manufacturing process of cement concrete blocks mainly involves mixing and casting of
blocks. The concrete mix in respect of cement aggregate and sand should be suitably
proportioned to gain required strength of block conforming to the standards. The factors like
quality of raw materials, grading, homogenous mixing, vibro pressing and curing plays a vital role
in producing quality blocks. The coarse, fine & medium grade materials should preferably be
mixed in the ratio of 40:20:40 for obtaining better interlocking of grains. Vibration & pressing
action together helps in better dispersion of mixture and compaction. The amount of water
required for the mixture varies depending upon the grading of aggregated & capacity of press
machine.

PAN MIXER SKIP LOADER

VIBRO-HYDRAULIC PRESS

Batching equipment is used for proportioning the ingredient accurately. Concrete mixer is used
for homogenous mixing and blocks are shaped in a vibro compactor. Material handling is carried
out with the help of shovel loader, screw & belt conveyer and forklift etc. The blocks after
formation are stacked on pallets and carefully shifted to shed in a humid atmosphere to develop
initial strength in 24-36 hours. The blocks are stacked & sprayed with the water. The spraying of
water must be continued intermittently for a period of three weeks for complete curing. The
blocks are then allowed to dry for four week before dispatch.
As stated above, keeping in view the size of the demand for these products in Bhutan, a semi-
automatic process has been recommended in the project.

5.4.2 Paver Blocks

The manufacturing process for Paver blocks is similar to the process employed for block making
and the raw material used are also same. However, for various raw materials and their quality
the corresponding Indian Standard may be referred to. The pavers are made both in the natural
color and in a range of other shades. The top layer of the Paver is laid with the coloring material.

Synthetic or natural pigments are used in the concrete mix to obtain coloured Paver blocks of
desired shades. It should provide durable colors and should be free from matters deleterious to
concrete pigments either singly or in combination. It is recommended to use pigment to a
maximum of 9 percent by weight of cement used in the top layer concrete. The pigment should
2
be finer then cement (fineness between 2-15 m /kg). It should be free from zinc compound and
organic dyes.

In the production process of Paver blocks, the raw materials are mixed in suitable grade & ratio.
After homogenous mixing, it is compacted with the help of suitable die in a Vibro-pressing
machine. For colored layer of blocks, the pigment is separately mixed in a counter current mixer
with fine grade aggregate. The mixture of desired colour is uniformly spread over the top layer of
the block with the help of a front feed drawer. In case of non
automatic process, the mixture is spread manually before compaction. The paver blocks are
sifted in a shade with the help of pellet stacker/forklift. After initial development of strength in a
period of 24-36 hrs, the blocks are stacked & subjected to water spraying and misting for curing.
After three weeks of curing, the block are allowed to dry before dispatch.

The process flowchart for the manufacture of cement concrete blocks and paver blocks is as
given below:

PROCESS FLOW CHART

SAND AGGREGATE PORTLAND CEMENT

PROPORTIONING AND BATCHING

WATER MIXER

MIXER FOR
VIBRO-PRESSING
COLOUR

STACKING OF GREEN MATERIAL

 CURING

FINISHED PRODUCT
DRYING

5.5 Cement concrete tiles and mosaic flooring tiles

Basically, the manufacturing process of tiles is also similar to production

of blocks. Cement, coarse & fine aggregate are mixed in a ratio of 1:4 for the
backing layer. A homogenous mass is obtained with the help of a suitable mixes
by adding required quantity of water. The mixture for wearing layer is separately
prepared using marble chips, colored stone chips, marble dolomite powder with
grey or white cement. The selection of pigment, marble or colored chips etc. is
made to produce distinctive designs

& deep color shades. The pressing of the tiles in done in a Vibro-press in two
successions for molding the backing & facing layers.

Suitable iron moulds are fitted with the bottom plate of the press. The
facing mixture is first spread into the mould to a thickness of about 6.5 mm &
then backing mixture is filled to form a thickness of 15.5 mm. It is pressed to
form the shape at a pressure of around 150 kg/sq. cm. The tiles are ejected from
the moulds and stacked in shade for 24 hours to develop initial strength. It is
then sprayed with water alternatively immersed in water for curing. After two
weeks, the cured tiles are stacked in shade for drying and then ground &
polished to make the top surface smooth. The tiles are finally finished manually
for any minor visual defect and packed for dispatch.
 The process flowchart for the manufacturing of plain and coloured
mosaic tiles is given below: -

PROCESS FLOW CHART

SAND AGGREGATE CEMENT MARBLE CHIPS,

POWDER

PROPORTIONING AND BATCHING

WHITE
WATER MIXER COLOURS
CEMENT

MIXER FOR

VIBRO-PRESSING TOP LAYER MIX

TOP LAYER
 SETTING

CURING

TOP-LAYER GRINDING

POLISHI
NG
FILLING & REPAIR
 FINISHED PRODUCT

5.6 Process and quality control

The products proposed to be manufactured by the unit are the basic construction materials
and it is desirable that they are manufactured as per quality standards. Accordingly, a
common testing laboratory for both the sections is purposed for the testing of raw
materials and finished products and also to ensure in process quality control. The
laboratory will be equipped with the following equipments to carry out the various tests as
per standard procedure. The details of the tests which need to be carried out and the list of
equipment is as given below:

5.6.1 Physical Tests:


 Visual inspection for defect like crack, chipping, open course, sponginess

 Dimensions, flatness of tiles surface, perpendicularity, straightness

 Density

 Moisture absorption

 Drying shrinkage

 Water absorption

 Compressive strength

 Modulus of rupture

 Abrasion resistance
5.6.2 Testing Equipments:

 Steel scale, calipers, rectangle, vernier scale, magnifying glass etc

 Balance with accuracy up to 2nd place of decimal

 Electronic platform type weighing machine

 Vibrating screen set (for grading of raw material)

 Equipment for determination of porosity and water absorption

 Glass apparatus like beaker flask, test tube, etc

 Universal testing machine

 Micro meter gauge, dial gauge

 Abrasion testing machine

 Drying oven

 Rapid moisture testing equipment

5.6.3 Plant Layout

5.7 Technical know-how

The manufacturing process for the production of cement based products is relatively
simple and involves two major operations viz mixing of cement, stone aggregates and sand
in suitable proportion and casting of the mix in the form of blocks of requisite size. The
ratio of the ingredients in the mix has to be suitably adjusted to impart the required
strength to the block depending on its sues. These ratios are well-known for various
standard products. Proper mixing, Vibro pressing and proper curing also play major role in
the quality of the products. Besides, design of the product is another aspect which needs to
be looked into. With a view to produce quality goods at economical cost, experienced
people in the production of similar products need to be employed. The basic details of the
technology and machine operations are also provided by the machine manufacturers. The
machine suppliers also train the operators and skilled workers at their own factory or at
the site of installation of their machines. This aspect has been discussed by IDRG team with
some of the machine suppliers also. A provision has been made in the project for process
and quality control laboratory and the finer technological details viz ratio proportion of
ingredients and curing time could be adjusted keeping in view the local conditions and the
test results of the products.

5.8 Requirement of power and fuel

It is estimated that 45 KWH power connection would be required for the production unit
including the power requirement for production machines and general purpose lighting.
The cost of the power has been calculated on the basis of Re. 1.45 per unit.

5.9 Requirement of manpower

The annual production turnover and the financial projections are based on single shift
operation of machines. For operation of the unit, 3 managerial and office staff, 3 marketing
executives, 1 laboratory technician, 1 laboratory assistant, 2 plant supervisors, 4 skilled
workers and 15 unskilled workers would be required. In case the unit is required to be
operated in more than one shift, additional staff would be required. In addition to this,
there would be a requirement of contract workers during the construction phase of the
factory and installation of machinery and equipment. The organization chart for single shift
operation would be as under:

5.10 Organization Chart

 Manager

(Overall head of the factory operations)

Production Testing and Administration

Quality control

Section section and accounts

Accounts and

administration

Plant Laboratory staff – 2 nos

supervisor – 2 technician – 1

Machine Laboratory
operators – 4 assistant – 1

Unskilled

workers – 15

The project has a good employment potential for skilled and unskilled workers, which
would be employed in the production unit. Beside the project would generate employment
potential in marketing & sales of its produce, transport of raw materials and finished
products. The project would thus create opportunity both for direct & indirect
employment.
 CHAPTER 7 – ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

7.1 Environmental aspect of manufacturing process

The manufacturing process involved in the production of cement based products are
basically mixing of various ingredients viz cement, stone aggregate and sand, the
conversion of raw material mix into the form of paste followed by casting of the mix in
requisite shape and sizes. There are no solid, liquid or gaseous effluents generated during
the manufacturing process. However, while preparing the mix of cement, stone aggregates
and sand, some dust particles get floated in the air causing higher level of suspended
particulate matter (SPM) in the air. This could be checked and controlled by providing
appropriate coverings to the mixing bins, use of exhaust fans and sprinkling of water on
sand and stone aggregates as also during mixing operations. A provision of dust collector
would further minimize the SPM in the air and improve the working conditions in and
around the manufacturing unit. The wearing of mask by workers to protect them from
inhaling of dust particles is also recommended.

7.2 Waste generated and mitigation measures

In the manufacturing process of cement based products, no solid, liquid or gaseous wastes
are generated. However, as mentioned above, during handling of cement, stone aggregates
and sand, dust particles flow in the air resulting in higher level of suspended particulates
matter (SPM). In order to reduce the SPM, various methods could be used viz covering of
mixing bins, used of exhaust fan, sprinkling of water and use of dust collectors. Besides,
there would be some waste of metal scrap, wooden scrap, broken bricks, stone aggregates,
etc during construction phase of the project. The waste generated during construction
phase is mainly used for earth filling & flooring. The details of the waste generated during
construction phase and project operation phase along with mitigation measures are given
below in subsequent paras.

7.2.1 Waste generated during construction phase and mitigation modes

The details of the waste generated during construction phase and the mitigation measures
are as under:
 Type of Mitigation
S. No. waste/scrap Quantity measures Impact on

Environment

1.Metal scrap Around 2-3 % of Sold to tradeNo adverse

the steel used in channels forimpact

construction reprocessing.

2.Wooden scrap Around 5-7% of Used as fuel. No adverse

the wood used in impact

construction.

Used for earth

3.Clay stones,Depending upon filling. No adverse

mounds on the impact.

topography of the

construction site.

5% of the
4.Brick stone cement quantity Used for flooring No adverse

aggregate used and earth filling. impact

7.2.2 Waste generated during project operation phase and mitigation modes

The details of the waste generated and the mitigation measures are as under:

S. No. Type of waste Quantity Mitigation Impact on

measures environment
1. Liquid effluents Nil Not applicable No adverse
impact
2. Gaseous effluents Nil Not applicable No adverse
impact
3. Solid effluents orSmall SPM can beNo adverse
waste quantity checked byimpact
 * During handling sprinkling of
of raw materials, water, covering
there is likely to be of mixing bins
higher level of and use of dust
SPM in the air in collectors.
the production
shed.

CHAPTER 8 – IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE

8.1 Implementation Schedule – Table

 Particular From To Total Weeks
Arrangement of Funds through
Bank/
Own 1 8 8

Procurement of Land 1 7 7

Procurement of Tech. know how/

transfer of technology 1 18 18

Finalization of Building Contracts 6 11 5

Placement of Orders for Building

Material 7 14 7

Placement of Orders for Machinery 9 19 10

Construction of Manufacturing
premises 13 43 30

Delivery of Machinery 27 43 16

Erection, Commissioning of Plant &

Machinery & Utilities 41 46 5

Procurement of Raw Material and

Trial Runs 46 48 2

Training for workers 48 49 1

Commercial Production 49 50 1

Implementation schedule – Graphic view

Implementation Schedule

Market Potential
Cement concrete tiles and paving blocks find applications in pavements, footpaths, gardens,
passenger waiting sheds, bus-stops, industry and other public places. The product is
commonly used in urban areas for the above applications. Hence, the unit may be set up in
urban and semi-urban areas, near the market.

S.No. Dimensions Recommended values

Tolerance limit

Thickness <100mm

Thickness >100mm

1. Width, W To be specified by manufacturer

± 2mm ± 3mm

2. Length, L To be specified by manufacturer

± 2mm ± 3mm

3. Thickness, T 50 to 120 mm ± 3mm ± 4mm

4. Aspect ratio (L/T)

Maximum 4.0 + 0.2 + 0.2

5. Arris/Chamfer Minimum: 5mm

Maximum: 7mm

± 1mm ± 1mm

6. Thickness of wearing layer

Minimum: 6mm +2mm + 2mm

7. Plan area, Ast Maximum: 0.03m2 + 0.001m2 + 0.001m2

8. Wearing face area,

Minimum 75% of plan area

- 1% - 1%

9. Squareness Nil ± 2mm ± 3mm