SAINT MARY’S ANGELS COLLEGE OF PAMPANGA

Olongapo-Gapan Road, Sta. Ana, 2022, Pampanga

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
IN HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD ENGINEERING
(CEPC 313)

A.Y. 2020-2021

REFERENCES:

1. The Handbook of Highway Engineering, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2006
2. MATHalino.com by Rommel Vertera
3. Surveying for CIVIL and GEODETIC Licensure Exam by Venancio I. Besavilla, 1984
Unit 8: Geometric Design for Highways and Railways (Superelevation
and Earthworks)
OBJECTIVE

Highway geometric design refers to the calculations and analyses made by transportation engineers (or
designers) to fit the highway to the topography of the site while meeting the safety, service and
performance standards. It mainly concerns with the elements of the highways that are visible to the
drivers and users. However, the engineer must also take into consideration the social and environmental
impacts of the highway geometry on the surrounding facilities. Usually, highway geometric design has
the following objectives:

1. Determine, within the allowance permitted by the design standard and right-of-way, the routing of
proposed highway.
2. Incorporate, within the design standard, various physical features of the road alignment to ensure
that drivers have sufficient view of the road (and obstacles) ahead for them to adjust their speed of
travel to maintain safety and ride quality.
3. Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and plan for the construction of a section of
the proposed highway.
4. Explain the methods used in the haulage of large volumes of earthwork calculation.
5. Explain the method used in calculating the haulage of large volumes of earthwork for construction

MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE

Vehicle traveling on a horizontal curve may either skid or overturn off the road due to centrifugal force.
Side friction f and superelevation e are the factors that will stabilize this force. The superelevation e =
tan θ and the friction factor f = tan φ. The minimum radius of curve so that the vehicle can round the
curve without skidding is determined as follows.

From the force polygon shown above

𝐶𝐹
tan(𝜃 + ∅) =
𝑊
𝑊𝑣 2
𝑔𝑅
tan(𝜃 + ∅) =
𝑊
 𝑊𝑣 2
tan(𝜃 + ∅) =
𝑊𝑔𝑅
(Eq. 8.1)

𝑣2
tan(𝜃 + ∅) =
𝑔𝑅

The quantity v2/gR is called impact factor.

Impact Factor
(Eq. 8.2)
𝑣2
𝑖𝑓 =
𝑔𝑅

Back to the equation tan (θ + φ) = v2/gR

𝑣2
tan(𝜃 + ∅) =
𝑔𝑅
From trigonometric identities we can conclude that;

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑣2
=
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑔𝑅
Recall that tanθ = e and tan φ = f

𝑒+𝑓 𝑣2
=
1 − 𝑒𝑓 𝑔𝑅
There are, however, practical limitations of e and f : Firstly, e = 0.12 (almost 1 in 8). High e value should
only be used on low volume road, and when no snow or ice exists. Most common values are e = 0:04 to
e = 0:06. Studies have shown that f depends on tire and pavement conditions and v; with higher speeds
corresponding to lower f: AASHTO recommends the use of f = 0.10 for v = 110 km/h to f = 0.15 for v = 60
km/h. When the product of e and f becomes negligible, the above equation may be re-written into
conservative form of

𝑣2
e+f=
𝑔𝑅
(Eq. 8.3)

𝑣2
R=
𝑔(𝑒 + 𝑓)
For the above formula, v must be in meter per second (m/s) and R in meter (m). For v in kilometer per
hour (kph) and R in meter, the following convenient formula is being used.

km 2 1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 2
(𝑣 ) ( × )
R= ℎ𝑟 1 km 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑔(𝑒 + 𝑓)
1 2
𝑣 2 (3.6)
𝑅=
𝑔(𝑒 + 𝑓)
𝑣2
𝑅=
(3.62 )(𝑔)(𝑒 + 𝑓)
 𝑣2
𝑅=
(3.62 )(9.81)(𝑒 + 𝑓)
Radius of curvature with R in meter and v in kilometer per hour
(Eq. 8.4)

𝑣2
𝑅=
127(𝑒 + 𝑓)
PROBLEM

The design speed of curve portion of the Manila-Cavite circumferential road is only 80 kph. The radius of
the curve portion is 350 m.

a. Allowing a skid resistance or friction factor of 0.12, what must be the super elevation rate in m/m to
avoid overturning?
b. Compute the impact factor to be considered in the design.
c. Compute the angle of embankment to prevent overturning.

EQUILIBRIUM SUPERELEVATION

In figure above, if θ is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal line, then
(Eq. 8.5)
𝑒
tan 𝜃 =
𝐺
Also,
(Eq. 8.6)
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝐹
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊
From these 2 equations;
𝑒 𝐶𝐹
=
𝐺 𝑊
 𝑊𝑣 2
𝑒 𝑔𝑅
=
𝐺 𝑊
𝑒 𝑣2
=
𝐺 𝑔𝑅
(Eq. 8.7)
𝐺𝑣 2
𝑒=
𝑔𝑅
Where e is the equilibrium superelevation, G is the gauge, V is the velocity in (m/s), g is the acceleration
due to gravity, and R is the radius of the curve in meters (m). For v in kilometer per hour (kph) and R in
meter, the following convenient formula is being used.

(Eq. 8.8)

𝐺𝑣 2
𝑒=
127𝑅
NEGATIVE SUPERELEVATION

When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a branch line, the
superelevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line curve cannot be
provided.

• AB, which is the outer rail of the main line curve, must be higher than CD.
• For the branch line, however, CF should be higher than AE or point C should be higher than
point A. These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within one layout.
• In such cases, the branch line curve has a negative superelevation and, therefore, speeds on
both tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.

The provision of negative superelevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed over the main
line can be calculated as follows:

a. The equilibrium superelevation for the branch line of the curve is first calculated using the
formula
𝐺𝑣 2
𝑒=
127𝑅
 b. The equilibrium superelevation e is reduced by the permissible Cant Deficiency (Cd) and the
resultant superelevation to be provided is
(Eq. 8.9)
𝑥 = 𝑒 − 𝐶𝑑
where, x is the superelevation, e is the equilibrium superelevation, and Cd is 75 mm for Broad
Gauge, and 50 mm for Meter Gauge, The value of Cd is generally higher than that of e, and,
therefore, x is normally negative. The branch line thus has a negative superelevation of x.
c. The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a superelevetion of x, is then
calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd). The safe speed is also calculated and
smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum permissible speed on the main line curve.

PROBLEM

Calculate the superelevation and the maximum permissible speed for a 2° BG transitioned curve on a
high-speed route with a maximum sanctioned speed of 110 km/h. The speed for calculating the
equilibrium superelevation as decided by the chief engineer is 80 km/h and the booked speed of goods
trains is 50 km/h.

EARTHWORKS

AREAS OF CROSS-SECTION NOTES OF AN EARTHWORKS

PROBLEM

Given the cross-section notes of an earthworks for the proposed extension of NLEX

STA 10 + 100
6.45 0 4.5
+2.3 +1.5 1.0
a. Compute the side slope S of the section.
b. Compute the width of road base.
c. Compute the area of the cross-section.

VOLUME OF EARTHWORK

1. End Area Method

(Eq. 8.10)
(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )𝐿
𝑉=
2
2. Prismoidal Formula
 (Eq. 8.11)
𝐿
𝑉𝑝 = (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 )
6
𝐴𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

3. Volume with prismoidal correction: (Applicable only to three level section)

(Eq. 8.12)
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐𝑝
𝑉𝐸 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑉𝑐𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(Eq. 8.13)
𝐿
𝑉𝑐𝑝 = (𝐶 − 𝐶2 )(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )
12 1

PROBLEM

The areas in cut of two irregular sections 65 m. apart are 36 sq. m. and 72 sq. m. respectively. Base
width is 10 m, side slope of 3H:2V. Using prismoidal correction formula, find the corrected volume of cut
in cu. m. between the two stations.

CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF CUT SECTION FROM THE FINISHED ROADWAY

PROBLEM

From station A with center height of 1.4 m. in fill, the ground makes a uniform slope of 5% to station B
whose center height is 2.8 m. in cut. Assuming both sections to be level sections having a width of
roadway of 14 m and side slope of 2:1 for both cut and fill, compute the cross-sectional area of cut 48 m.
from sta. A. Distance from sta. A to sta. B is 60 m.

LIMITS OF FREE HAUL AND ECONOMICAL HAUL

PROBLEM

The grading works of a proposed National road shows the following data:
FHD = 50 m
LEH = 450 m
Cost of haul = P0.25 per meter station
Compute the cost of borrow.

PROBLEM

The cross-sectional area of station 2 + 210 is 40 m2 in fill and at station 2 + 810 is 60 m2 in cut. The free
haul distance is 100 m. The balancing point is at station 2 + 510. The ground surface is sloping upward
from station 2 + 210 to station 2 + 510 and also uniformly upward from station 2 + 510 to station 2 +
810. Determine the stationing (along fill) of the limits of free haul
MASS DIAGRAM

To construct the Mass Haul Diagram manually:

• Compute the net earthwork values for each station, applying the appropriate shrink factor
• Net cuts have a positive value, net fills have a negative value
• The value at the first station (origin) = 0
• Plot the value of each succeeding station which equals the cumulative value to that point, i.e.,
the value at i = net cut/fillla+b+c+…i
MASS HAUL DIAGRAM

PROBLEM

The following are the data on a simple summit mass diagram.

STA Mass Ordinate m3

0 + 000 -80
0 + 500 -120

Initial point of limit of freehaul distance = +600

Initial limit of economic haul = +200
Free haul distance = 60 m.
Limit of economical distance = 400 m.
Cost of Haul = P120 per cu.m. per meter station

a. Determine the volume of waste in

b. Determine the volume of borrow in
c. Determine the overhaul volume in
d. Determine the length of overhaul if the total cost of hauling is P192,000.

PROBLEM

Using the following notes on cuts and fills and a shrinkage factor of 1.25.

a. Find the mass ordinate at station 20 + 040

b. Find the mass ordinate at station 20 + 120
c. Find the mass ordinate at station 20 + 180
STATIONS VOLUMES
CUT (m3) FILL (m3)
20 + 000 60
20 + 020 70
20 + 040 30
20 + 060 110
20 + 080 50
20 + 100 50
20 + 120 40
20 + 140 60
20 + 160 20
20 + 180 30