ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND

TECHNOLOGIES

CRITERIAS FOR SELECTION OF FOUNDATION OF HIGH RISE

ASSIGNEMENT – V

SOMESH SIDDHARTH (A1988520002)

SEMESTER –I
M.ARCH
(ASAP)

Under the Supervision of

Ar. Rajeev Sinha

Lecturer of
ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOHGIES [ARCH644]

AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

AMITY UNIVERSITY UTTER PRADESH
SECTOR 125, NOIDA -201303, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

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FOUNDATION
A structure essentially consists of two parts, namely the super structure which is above the plinth level and
the substructure which is below the plinth level.
Substructure is otherwise known as the foundation and this forms the base for any structure. Generally,
about 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the foundation.
The soil on which the foundation rests is called the “foundation soil”.

A FOUNDATION IS PROVIDED FOR THE FOLLOWING PURPOSES:

•To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a larger area.
•To support the structures.
• To give enough stability to the structures against various disturbing forces, such as wind and rain.
•To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.

Types of foundation :
The two main types of foundation:
•Shallow foundation
•Deep foundation
Types of Shallow foundation :
•Isolated footing (single footing, Column footing)
•Combined footing
Types of Deep foundation :
 Pile foundation
 Pier foundation

FOUNDATION

SHALLOW DEEP
FOUNDATION FOUNDATION

ISOLATED COMBAINED PIER PILE

FOOTING FOOTING FOUNDATION FOUNDATION

PAD STRIP RAFT LOAD BEARING

FRICTION PILE
FOUNDATION FOUNDATION FOUNDATION PILE

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Factors Affecting the Selection of Foundation
 UTILITY OF THE BUILDING: We use buildings for different purposes i.e. industrial or residential or
institutional purpose. If the building is of more importance like schools or hospitals, it needs better
and long-lasting foundation system support.

 LIFESPAN OF THE STRUCTURE: Building a strong foundation leads to longer life span of a building. If
you want to expand the service life of the foundation, you need to construct a building with a solid
foundation. Proper planning and use of right material can lead to the longer life span of a building.

 NUMBER OF FLOORS: HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING: Height of the building is one of the major criteria
for selecting the right foundation. Furthermore, if the building has a greater number of floors, you
have to construct a stronger foundation.

 LOADS FROM THE STRUCTURE: Gravity and lateral loads act on a house or on a building. It is an
important and remarkable consideration for the final selection of the construction. Based on the
location of the houses or buildings, a combination of dead loads and live loads are considered.
Other loads like wind loads, snow loads, earthquake loads, etc. need to be also considered

 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION: Number of trending construction materials are available

nowadays. Selection of material such as bricks, stone, steel, concrete, etc. for construction also
affect the selection of foundation.

 UNDERSTANDING THE SOIL TYPE IS IMPORTANT: There are various types of soils such as sandy soil,
loose soil, clayey soil or expansive soils, etc. The soil nearer to the soil surface is called topsoil and
next 3.00 m depth from the surface is called as subsoil. These subsoils are used for back filling the
foundation of buildings.

 WATER TABLE LEVEL:A foundation system depends on the depth of the water table. A foundation
should rest either on fully dry soil or on fully wet soil. Avoid a soil layer that dries and wet
alternately with change in the seasons. To know more, read how to do foundation in water

 BUILDING LOCATION: Natural disasters like the earthquake, cyclone, flood, volcano, etc. often exert
destructive impact on the foundation of a structure. That is why, the effects of these inevitable
natural calamities are to be counted at the time of the selection of a foundation.

 ADJOINING STRUCTURE/WATER BODIES/SLOPES: In building a construction, selection of foundation

also depends on the neighboring structures. If the foundations of an adjoining structure are very
near to the target foundation, it may affect the choice as the safety of adjoining structure is of
paramount importance. Furthermore, if the adjoining structure is a high-rise or an old property or is
built with lesser/compromised depth of foundation, the selection often becomes challenging.
Also, the factors like proximity to a river, lake, or any other water body or closeness to a natural
drain or close vicinity to a slope should be taken in counting. If anything, similar is found, it needs
thorough investigation and sound engineering judgment to pacify the adverse effect if any. In such
case, experts should be final decision taker about the best foundation for the building.

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Shallow foundation (spread foundation):
Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width.
Isolated footing (single footing, column footing):
In framed structures where several columns are to be constructed, isolated footings can be adopted.
The columns involved can be provided with masonry or concrete footing.
If masonry footing is provided, steps are given and the foundation area is thus increased so that the
stresses developed at the base is within the limit.
 Isolated footing (single footing, column footing)
1) Sloped column footing
2) Simple wall footing
3) Simple column footing
4) Stepped wall footing
5) Stepped column footing
 Combined footing:
This type of footing is adopted when the space between two columns is so small that the
foundation for individual columns will overlap.
Combined footings are proportioned in such a way that the center of gravity of the loads coincides
with the center of gravity of the foundation. Hence these footings have either a trapezoidal or a
rectangular shape.
 Deep foundation :
Deep foundation consists of pile and pier foundations.
This consists in carrying down through the soil a huge masonry cylinder which may be supported by
the sides of soil or may be supported on solid rock (hard stratum).
 Pile foundation :
Pile is an element of construction used as foundation. It may be driven in the ground vertically or
with some inclination to transfer the load safely.
If the load is supported by the effect of friction between the soil and the pile skin, it is called friction
pile.
Friction piles may be made of cast iron, cement concrete, timber, steel, wrought iron and
composite materials.
If the load is supported by resting the pile on a very hard stratum, it is called load bearing pile.
Load bearing piles are steel sheet piles, concrete piles and timber piles.
Piles may be cast-in-situ or precast.
They may be cased or uncased.
A slender, structural member consisting steel or concrete or timber.
It is installed in the ground to transfer the structural loads to soils at some significant depth below
the base of the structure.
 Pier foundation : A pier is a vertical column of a relatively larger cross-section than a pile. A pier is
installed in a dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole of a large diameter to the desired depth and
then backfilling it with concrete.
A distinction between a cast-in-situ pile and a pier is rather arbitrary. A cast-in-situ pile greater than
0.6 m diameter is generally termed as a pier.
The difference between the pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method of construction.
Though pile foundations transfer the load through friction and bearing, pier foundations transfer
the load only through the bearing. Generally, the pier foundation is shallower in-depth than the pile
foundation. Pier foundation is preferred in a location where the top strata consist of decomposed
rock overlying strata of sound rocks. In such a condition, it becomes difficult to drive the bearing
piles through decomposed rock.

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 In the case of stiff clays, which offer large resistance to the driving of a bearing pile, pier foundation
can be conveniently constructed.
 Types of pier foundation
1) Masonry or concrete pier
2) Drilled caisson
When a good bearing stratum exists up to 5m below ground level, brick masonry or concrete
foundation piers in excavated pits may be used. The size and spacing of the pier are dependent
upon the depth of the hard bed, nature of overlying soil and super-imposed load.
 Raft foundation :It is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil reinforced with
steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the structure to the soil. Usually, mat
foundation is spread over the entire area of the structure it is supporting.
Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or commercial buildings
where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos, foundations for heavy industrial equipment etc.
Followings are the different types of raft foundation used in construction:
Flat plate mat
Plate thickened under the column
Two-way beam and slab Raft
Plate raft with pedestals
Plied raft
Rigid Frame Mat or Cellular Raft Foundation

Different Types of Soil and Selection of Foundation

 Clay: Clay is an expansive soil made up of tiny particles. When wet, clay greatly expands, but when
it is dry, it will shrink significantly. When clay is moist, it is very pliable and can easily be moved,
manipulated, and shifted. These extreme changes can put a great deal of pressure on foundations,
usually causing them to shift up and down or crack, which is why clay generally is not the best soil
on which to construct a residential or commercial building.
The first 900-1,200mm layer of clay is subject to movement due to expansion and shrinkage
depending on moisture content, so it is generally necessary to excavate foundations to a depth
where the moisture content of the clay remains stable. British Standard 8004 recommends a
minimum depth of 1m for foundations but if there are, or were, trees nearby, depths of up to 3m
may be necessary.
In clay, prior to concreting the foundations, the trench is often protected from heaven by lining it
with a compressible layer (e.g. clay board).
 Rocky soil: Rocks such as limestone, granite, sandstone and hard solid chalk have a high bearing
capacity. When the soil is rocky with high bearing capacity, then strap foundations work well. The
preferred depth of foundation is less than 0.7meter.
There are varieties of rock, such as limestone, bedrock, and sandstone — all of which have
exceptionally high bearing capacities, making them a suitable soil type for supporting residential or
commercial buildings. It’s crucial that a rock surface is a level before building a foundation,
otherwise, the foundation must be held into place with anchors.
 Gravel and sand: When the ground has gravel and soil in the sub base, then combined footing and
strap foundations work the best. The depth of foundation is less than 1m. Such soils are extremely
suitable for constructing foundations and have a good bearing capacity. When the capacity of
bearing is more footing or strip foundation is used and when the bearing capacity is comparatively
low, combined footing or wide stripped foundation is preferred.
When compacted with gravel and other materials, sand does not retain water. Therefore, it will not
cause any structures above it to shift. Sand and gravel have the largest particles of the various soil
types, which is why it doesn’t retain moisture but drains easily. When soil and sand are compacted
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 and moist, it holds together fairly well. Additionally, if the two are compacted, they make for good
soil to support a foundation due to their non-water-retaining properties. However, when moist, the
particles will lose their friction and can be washed away, which can leave gaps beneath the
foundation and cause settlement issues down the road. Luckily, quality helical piers are an effective
fix for foundations that are built on and supported by sand.
Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand subsoils are usually adequate for strip foundations.
Generally, a depth of 700mm is acceptable, as long as the ground has adequate bearing capacity. If
the water table is high (i.e. the gravel is submerged), the bearing capacity is halved, so it’s
important to keep the foundations as high as possible. A shallow, reinforced, wide strip foundation
may be suitable. Sand holds together reasonably well when damp, compacted and uniform, but
trenches may collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain the ground in trenches until the
concrete is poured
 Hard Clay: Usually clay has a higher moisture content and when the moisture content becomes
stable up to certain depth it becomes suitable for the substructure. Raft foundation is preferred
when the clayey soil is compact and hard. Even strap foundation can also be used.
 Soft clay: Soft clayey sand is prone to expansion and shrinkage. They have a low bearing capacity
and are unsuitable for footing and strap foundation. In such case, Pile foundation is used. Piles are
dug deeper until the stable strata is attained and is suitable for construction of substructure.
 Firm clay over soft clay: A traditional strip foundation is sometimes acceptable but it is important
not to over-dig as this may increase the stress on the softer clay beneath. A common solution is to
dig wide strip foundations with steel reinforcement — however, an engineered foundation may be
necessary.
 Peat :Peat is one of the poor subsoils for foundation. If a layer of peat is excavated from ground and
a stable soil with bearing capacity is found, then strap foundations work well. In case no stable soil
is found, then raft foundations are used.
Peaty soil is typically dark brown or black in color and is easily compressible because of how much
water it can hold. This soil type is formed by decomposed organic material, is usually found near
wetlands, and is extremely porous. Like clay, peat expands when wet, and in extremely dry
conditions, it not only shrinks, but it also is a potential fire hazard. It is a very poor subsoil when it
comes to supporting, as foundations are most stable on soil that does not shift or change structure
depending on weather conditions and that doesn’t have a low bearing capacity.
Peat and lose waterlogged sand are very poor subsoils. If the peat can be stripped back to find a
suitable load-bearing ground of at least 1.5m depth, strip foundations may be suitable. A reinforced
raft foundation will likely be required.
 Recommended foundation
Concrete piles extended to the firm soil layer below
For small projects, pad and beam foundation took to firm strata blow.
Raft foundation for the case where firm strata are not available at reasonable depth but
there is hard surface crust with 3-4m thick of suitable bearing capacity.
 Factor to be considered
Pile types include bored cast in place with the temporary casing, driven cast in place, and
driven precast concrete.
Allow for peat consolidation drag on piles
If the raft foundation is used, entries to the building shall be flexible.
Special high grade and protection are likely to be required in aggressive peats.
If the peat layer is shallow over a firm layer of soil, dig it out and replace it with compacted
fill. For this, use a raft or reinforced widespread foundation dependent on the anticipated
settlement.
Frequently, Sub-soil can be improved using Vibrio treatment, and it would an economical
solution if employed in conjunction with a strip or raft foundation.
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  Loam: When it comes to the ideal soil type for foundations, loam may be the best option.
Generally, loam is a combination of clay, silt, and sand. Loam is dark in color and soft, dry, and
crumbly to the touch. Loam is great for supporting foundations due to its evenly balanced
properties, especially how it handles moisture in an evened way and will generally not expand or
shrink enough to cause damage. Loam is good soil for supporting a foundation and building, as long
as there are no miscellaneous soils that find their way onto the surface.
The type of foundation selected for a structure is controlled by numerous factors including earlier
site usage, adjacent construction, soil type, size of the development process, etc. While considering
these factors, the type of soil and its properties play a very crucial role.
 Silt: Silty soil is made of smaller particles, which is why it is able to retain water longer. However,
because of its tendency to retain moisture, the soil is cold and drains poorly. This causes the silty
soil to expand, putting pressure against the foundation and weakening it, making it not ideal for
supporting a foundation.

FOUNDATION FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS:

CHARACTERISTICS OF TALL BUILDINGS
There are a number of characteristics of tall buildings that can have a significant influence on foundation
design, including the following:

 The building weight, OR the vertical load to be supported by the foundation, can be substantial.
Moreover, the building weight increases non-linearly with height, and so both ultimate bearing
capacity and settlement need to be considered carefully.
 High-rise buildings are often surrounded by low-rise podium structures which are subjected too
much smaller loadings. Thus, differential settlements between the high- and low-rise portions need
to be controlled.
 The lateral forces imposed by wind loading, and the consequent moments on the foundation
system, can be very high. These moments can impose increased vertical loads on the foundation,
especially on the outer piles within the foundation system. The structural design of the piles needs
to take account of these increased loads that act in conjunction with the lateral forces and
moments.
 The wind-induced lateral loads and moments are cyclic in nature. Thus, consideration needs to be
given to the influence of cyclic vertical and lateral loading on the foundation system, as cyclic
loading has the potential to degrade foundation capacity and cause increased settlements.
 Seismic action will induce additional lateral forces in the structure and also induce lateral motions
in the ground supporting the structure. Thus, additional lateral forces and moments can be induced
in the foundation forces system via two mechanisms:
 Inertial and moments developed by the lateral excitation of the structure;
 Kinematic forces and moments induced in the foundation piles by the action of ground movements
acting against the piles.

 The dynamic response of tall buildings poses some interesting structural and foundation design
challenges. In particular, the fundamental period of vibration of a very tall structure can be very
high (10 s or more), and conventional dynamic loading sources such as wind and earthquakes have
a much lower predominant period and will generally not excite the structure via the fundamental
mode of vibration.
 However, some of the higher modes of vibration will have significantly lower natural periods and
may well be excited by wind or seismic action. These higher periods will depend primarily on the
structural characteristics but may also be influenced by the foundation response characteristics.
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  The factors that may influence the type of foundation selected to support a tall building include the
following:

 Location and type of structure.

 Magnitude and distribution of loadings.
 Ground conditions.
 Access for construction equipment.
 Durability requirements.
 Effects of installation on adjacent foundations, structures, people.
 Relative costs.
 Local construction practices.

DESIGN ISSUES AND CRITERIA

The following issues will generally need to be addressed in the design of foundations for high-rise
buildings:
 Ultimate capacity of the foundation under vertical, lateral and moment loading combinations.
 The influence of the cyclic nature of wind, earthquakes and wave loadings (if appropriate) on
foundation capacity and movements.
 Overall settlements.
 Differential settlements, both within the high-rise footprint, and between high-rise and low-rise
areas.
 Possible effects of externally imposed ground movements on the foundation system, for example,
movements arising from excavations for pile caps or adjacent facilities.
 Dynamic response of the structure-foundation system to wind-induced (and, if appropriate, wave)
forces.
 Earthquake effects, including the response of the structure-foundation system to earthquake
excitation, and the possibility of liquefaction in the soil surrounding and/or supporting the
foundation.
 Structural design of the foundation system, including the load-sharing among the various
components of the system (for example, the piles and the supporting raft) and the distribution of
loads within the piles. For this, and most other components of design, it is essential that there be
close cooperation and interaction between the geotechnical designers and the structural designers.