Philippine-American War, war between the United
 William McKinley convened the
States and Filipino revolutionaries from 1899 to 1902, an
insurrection that may be seen as a continuation of
the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule. The Treaty of
Paris (1898) had transferred Philippine sovereignty from Spain
to the United States but was not recognized by Filipino
leaders, whose troops were in actual control of the entire
archipelago except the capital city of Manila. Although an end
to the insurrection was declared in 1902, sporadic fighting
continued for several years thereafter.
The End Of Spanish Rule And The First Philippine
Republic
In preparation for possible war against Spain, Assistant
Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt placed the U.S.
Asiatic squadron in Hong Kong on alert. When war was
declared in April 1898, Commodore George Dewey sailed
from Hong Kong and defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila
Bay on the morning of May 1, 1898, but he could not occupy
Manila until ground troops arrived three months later.
In the meantime, on June 12, 1898, the Filipinos declared
independence and proclaimed a provisional republic with
Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as president. Within days, on the other
side of the Pacific, the American Anti-Imperialist League had
begun to take shape. This organization, which opposed
American involvement in the Philippines, grew into a mass
movement that drew support from across the political
spectrum. Its members included luminaries such as social
reformer Jane Addams, industrialist Andrew Carnegie,
philosopher William James, and author Mark Twain.
On August 13 Manila fell after a bloodless “battle.” Spanish
Gov. Fermín Jáudenes had secretly arranged a surrender after
a mock show of resistance to salvage his honour. American
troops were in possession of the city, but Filipino insurgents
controlled the rest of the country. The leaders of
the nascent Philippine Republic did not recognize U.S.
sovereignty over the islands, and the U.S. rejected Filipino
claims of independence; conflict was inevitable. On the night
of February 4, 1899, shooting erupted on the outskirts of
Manila. Morning found the Filipinos, who had fought bravely,
even recklessly, defeated at all points. While the fighting was
in progress, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation of war against
the United States. Anti-imperialist sentiment was strong in the
United States, and on February 6 the U.S. Senate ratified
the treaty that concluded the Spanish-American War by a
single vote. U.S. reinforcements were immediately sent to the
Philippines. Antonio Luna, the ablest commander among the
Filipinos, was given charge of their military operations but
seems to have been greatly hampered by the jealousy and
distrust of Aguinaldo, which he fully returned. Luna was
murdered, and on March 31, 1899, the rebel capital
of Malolos was captured by U.S. forces
In March 1900 U.S. Pres.
Second Philippine Commission to create a civil government
for the Philippines (the existence of Aguinaldo’s Philippine
Republic was conveniently ignored). On April 7 McKinley
instructed commission chairman William Howard Taft to
“bear in mind that the government which they are establishing
is designed not for our satisfaction, or for the expression of
our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and
prosperity of the people of the Philippine Islands.” While
nothing explicit was said about independence, these
instructions were later often cited as supporting such a goal.
The Guerrilla Campaign
Meanwhile, the Filipino government had fled northward. In
November 1899 the Filipinos resorted to guerrilla warfare,
with all its devastating consequences. The major operations of
the insurrection were conducted in Luzon, and, throughout
them, the U.S. Army was assisted materially
by indigenous Macabebe scouts, who had previously served
the Spanish regime and then transferred that loyalty to the
United States. The organized insurrection effectively ended
with the capture of Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901, by U.S.
Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston. After learning of the location of
Aguinaldo’s secret headquarters from a captured courier,
Funston personally led an audacious mission into the
mountains of northern Luzon. He and a handful of his officers
posed as prisoners of war, marching under the guard of a
column of Macabebe scouts who were disguised as rebels.
Aguinaldo, who had been expecting reinforcements,
welcomed the lead elements of the force only to be stunned by
a demand to surrender. When Funston arrived, Aguinaldo
remarked, “Is this not some joke?” before being led back to
Manila
Although Aguinaldo pledged his allegiance to the United
States and called for an end to hostilities, the guerrilla
campaign continued with unabated ferocity. Brig. Gen. Jacob
F. Smith, enraged by a massacre of U.S. troops, responded
with retaliatory measures of such indiscriminate brutality that
he was court-martialed and forced to retire. After the surrender
of Filipino Gen. Miguel Malvar in Samar on April 16, 1902,
the American civil government regarded the remaining
guerrillas as mere bandits, though the fighting continued.
About a thousand guerrillas under Simeón Ola were not
defeated until late 1903, and in Batangas province, south of
Manila, troops commanded by Macario Sakay resisted capture
until as late as 1906. The last organized resistance to U.S.
power took place on Samar from 1904 to 1906. There the
rebels’ tactic of burning pacified villages contributed to their
own defeat. Although an unconnected insurgency
campaign by Moro bands on Mindanao continued sporadically
until 1913, the United States had gained undisputed control of
the Philippines, and it retained possession of the islands until
1946.
Casualties
The human cost of the war was significant. An estimated
20,000 Filipino combatants were killed, and more than
200,000 civilians perished as a result of combat, hunger, or
disease. Of the 4,300 Americans lost, some 1,500 were killed
in action, while nearly twice that number succumbed to
disease.
 Battle of Calumpit (Filipino: Labanan sa Quingua),
alternately known as the Battles of Bagbag and Pampanga
Rivers, was fought from April 25–27, 1899. Taking place
after the Battle of Quingua, the fighting around Calumpit saw
US forces under General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. once again
face General Antonio Luna's main force, with whom they had
clashed during the fall of Malolos
Beginning on March 25, the Americans began their drive to
capture Malolos, the Philippine capital at the time, hoping that
it would shatter the morale of the Filipino troops. [3] This was
achieved on March 31, amidst token resistance by about 5,000
Filipinos. The capital had already been transferred to San
Isidro, Nueva Ecija, before the debacle, and the main Filipino
force, under the command of General Antonio Luna, had
moved to the Calumpit–Apalit Line.[3] MacArthur, meanwhile,
rested with his troops in Malolos to prepare the drive against
the Calumpit–Apalit Line.[3] The Battle of Quingua, which
occurred on April 23, signaled the beginning of a new
American offensive. It was one of the flanks in the Filipino
line of defense
 Malolos Congress
Emilio Aguinaldo issued a decree on July 18, 1898 asking for
the election of delegates to the revolutionary congress, another
decree was promulgated five days later, which declared that
Aguinaldo would appoint representatives of congress because
holding elections is not practical at that time. He appointed 50
delegates in all (but this number fluctuated from time to time).
In accordance with these two decrees, Aguinaldo assembled
the Revolutionary Congress at the Brasoain Church in
Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898.
The atmosphere was festive and the Pasig Band played the
national anthem. After Aguinaldo had read his speech
congressional elections were held among the delegates
present. The following were among the most important
achievements of the Malolos Congress:
 
1. In September 29, 1898, ratified the declaration of Philippine
independence held at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898
2. Passage of a law that allowed the Philippines to borrow P
20 million from banks for government expenses
3. Establishment of the Universidad Literatura de
Filipinas and other schools
4. Drafting of the Philippine Constitution
5. Declaring war against the United States on June 12, 1899
 
Malolos Constitution  Japanese. Japan formally surrendered in September 2, 1945.
A committee headed by Felipe Calderon and aided by
Cayetano Arellano, the constitution was drafted, for the first
time by representatives of the Filipino people and it is the first
republican constitution in Asia. The constitution
was inspired by the constitutions of Mexico, Guatemala, Costa
Rica, Brazil, Belgium and France. After some minor revisions
(mainly due to the objections of Apolinario Mabini), the
final draft of the constitution was presented to Aguinaldo. This
paved the way to launching the first Philippine Republic. It
established a democratic, republication government with three
branches - the Executive, Legislative and
the Judicial branches. It called for the separation of church and
state. The executive powers were to be exercise by the
president of the republic with the help of his
cabinet. Judicial powers were given to the Supreme Court and
other lower courts to be created by law. The Chief justice of
the Supreme Court was to be elected by the legislature with
the concurrence of the President and his Cabinet.
 First Philippine Republic
The first Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos,
Bulacan on January 21, 1899. After being proclaimed
president, Emilio Aguinaldo took his oath of office.
The constitution was read article by article and followed by a
military parade. Apolinario Mabini was elected as a prime
minister. The other cabinet secretaries were: Teodoro Sandico,
interior; Baldomero Aguinaldo, war; Gen. Mariano Trias,
finance & war; Apolinario Mabini, foreign affairs; Gracio
Gonzaga for welfare, Aguedo Velarde, public instruction;
Maximo Paterno, public works & communication; and Leon
María Guerrero for agriculture, trade & commerce.
The Philippine National Anthem
 Aguinaldo commissioned Julian Felipe, a composer from
Cavite province was asked to write an an instrumental march
for the proclamation of independence ceremony. The original
title was "Marcha Filipina Magdalo". This was later changed
to "Marcha Nacional Filipina". The lyrics was added in
August 1899 based on the poem titled "Filipinas" by Jose
Palma. The original lyrics was written in Spanish, then
to English (when the Flag Law was abolished during the
American period) then later, was translated to Tagalog, which
underwent another change of title to “Lupang Hinirang”, the
Philippine National Anthem.
The Philippine Commonwealth Era
The Commonwealth era is the 10 year transitional period in
Philippine history from 1935 to 1945 in preparation for
independence from the United States as provided for under the
Philippine Independence Act or more popularly known as
the Tydings-McDuffie Law. The Commonwealth era was
interrupted when the Japanese occupied the Philippines in
January 2, 1942. The Commonwealth government, lead
by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio S. Osmeña went into exile in
the U.S., Quezon died of tuberculosis while in exile and
Osmeña took over as president. At the same time, the Japanese
forces installed a puppet government in Manila headed by Jose
P. Laurel as president. This government is known as the
Second Philippine Republic. On October 20, 1944,
the Allied forces led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur landed on
the island of Leyte to liberate the Philippines from the
After liberation, the Commonwealth government was restored.
Congress convened in its first regular session on July 9, 1945.
It was the first time the people’s representatives have
assembled since their election on November 11, 1941. Manuel
Roxas was elected Senate President, and Elpidio Quirino was
chosen President Pro Tempore. Jose Zulueta was speaker of
the house, while Prospero Sanidad became speaker pro
Tempore. The first law of this congress, enacted as
commonwealth act 672, organized the central bank of the
Philippines. The commonwealth deal also tackled the issue of
collaboration. In September 1945 the counter intelligence
corps presented the people who were accused of having
collaborated with, or given aid to, the Japanese. Included were
prominent Filipinos who had been active in the puppet
government that the Japanese had been established. ”A
Peoples Court" was created to investigate and decide on the
issue.
Amidst this sad state of affairs, the third commonwealth
elections were held on April 23, 1946. Sergio Osmeña and
Manuel Roxas vied for the Presidency. Roxas won thus
becoming the last president of the Philippine Commonwealth.
The Commonwealth era formally ended when the United
States granted independence to the Philippines, as scheduled
on July 4, 1946.
 
Important legislations and events during the American period
that made the Philippines a commonwealth of the United
States:
 
The Philippine Bill of 1902 - Cooper Act
 United States Congressman Henry Allen Cooper sponsored
the Philippine Bill of 1902, also known as the Cooper Act.
The bill proposed the creation and administration of a civil
government in the Philippines. President Theodore
Roosevelt signed it into law in July 2, 1902.
 
Here are some of the more important provisions of
the Cooper Act:
 
▪ Ratification of all changes introduced in the Philippine
government by the president of the U.S., such as the
establishment of the Philippine Commission, the office of the
civil governor and the Supreme court
▪ Extension of the American Bill of Rights to the Filipinos
except the right of trial by jury
▪ Creation of bicameral legislative body, with the Philippine
Commission as the upper house and a still-to-be-elected
Philippine Assembly as the Lower House
▪ Retention of the executive powers of the civil governor, who
was also president of the Philippine Commission
▪ Designation of the Philippine Commission as the legislating
authority for non-Christian tribes
▪ Retention of the Judicial powers of the Supreme court and
other lower courts
▪ Appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners who
would represent the Philippines in the US Congress but would
not enjoy voting rights
▪ Conservation of Philippine natural resources
 
The bill contained 3 provisions that had to be fulfilled first
before the Philippine Assembly could be establishing these
were the:
 
▪ Complete restoration of peace and order in the Philippines
▪ Accomplishment of a Nationwide census
▪ Two years of peace and order after the publication of the
census
 
The Philippine Assembly
 
The assembly was inaugurated on October 16, 1907 at the
Manila Grand Opera House, with US secretary of
War William Howard Taft as guest of honor. Sergio Osmeña
was elected Speaker while Manuel Quezon was elected
Majority Floor leader. The Recognition of the Philippine
Assembly paved the way for the establishment of the
bicameral Philippine Legislature. The Assembly functioned as
the lower House, while the Philippine Commission served as
the upper house.
 
Resident Commissioners
 
Benito Legarda and Pablo Ocampo were the first
commissioners. Other Filipinos who occupied this position
included Manuel Quezon, Jaime de Veyra, Teodoro Yangco,
Isaro Gabaldon, and Camilo Osias.
 
The Jones Law
 To further train the Filipinos in the art of government,
the U.S. Congress enacted the Jones Law on August 29, 1916.
It was the first official document that clearly promised the
Philippine independence, as stated in its preamble, as soon as
a stable government was established. The Jones Law or the
Philippine Autonomy act, Replace the Philippine bill of 1902
as the framework of the Philippine government. It provide for
the creation of the executive powers. The vice governor
general, assisted by his Cabinet, would exercise executive
powers. The vice governor would act concurrently as the
Secretary of Education.
 
Creation of the Council of State
 Upon the recommendation of Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio
Osmeña, Governor General Francis Burton Harrison issued an
executive order on October 16, 1981, creating the first Council
of State in the Philippines. It was the Council’s duty to advise
the governor general on matters such as the creation of
policies for administering government offices.
 
The Council held meetings once a week and whenever the
governor general called for one. It was composed of the
governor general, the department secretaries, the speaker of
the Lower House, and the Senate president. During Harrison’s
term, the executive and legislative branches of government
worked harmoniously with each other.
 
The Os-Rox Mission
 One delegation, however, that met with partial success was
the Os-Rox Mission, so called because it was headed by
Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas. The Os-Rox group went to
the United States in 1931 and was able to influence the U.S.
Congress to pass a pro-independence bill by Representative
Butter Hare, Senator Henry Hawes, and Senator Bronso
Cutting. The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law provided for a 10-year
transition period before the United States would recognize
Philippine independence. U.S. President Herbert Hoover did
not sign the bill; but both Houses of Congress ratified it. When
the Os-Rox Mission presented the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law
to the Philippine Legislature, it was rejected by a the
American High Commissioner representing the US president
in the country and the Philippine Senate, specifically the
provision that gave the U.S. president the right to maintain
land and other properties reserved for military use. Manuel
Quezon was tasked to head another independence mission to
the united States.
 The Tydings-McDuffie Law
In December 1933, Manuel L. Quezon returned to the
Philippines from the United States with a slightly amended
version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill authored by Senator
Milliard Tydings and representative McDuffie.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the new U.S. president,
signed it into law on March 24, 1934. The Tydings-McDuffie
Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act of the United
States Congress; Public Law 73-127) or more popularly
known as the The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for the
establishment of the Commonwealth government for a period
of ten years preparatory to the granting of Independence. See
the full text of the Tydings-McDuffie Law or Continue
to Japanese Occupation, Allied Liberation.
 
TAFT COMMISSION
President William McKinley appointed the Taft Commission
on 16 March 1900 to supervise the adjustment of the
Philippine Islands' government from military command to
civil rule. The five-member commission assumed legislative
authority on 1 September 1900, less than two years after Spain
ceded the Philippines to the United States following
the Spanish-American War of 1898. On 4 July 1901, William
Howard Taft, president of the commission, became the
Philippines' first civilian governor.The commission defined its
mission as preparing the Filipinos for eventual independence,
and focused on economic development, public education, and
the establishment of representative institutions. The
commission went on to establish a judicial system, organize
administrative services, and create a legal code that included
laws regarding health, education, agriculture, and taxation
Schurman Commission, also known as the First Philippine
Commission, was established by United States
President William McKinley on January 20, 1899, and tasked
to study the situation in the Philippines and make
recommendations on how the U.S. should proceed after
the sovereignty of the Philippines was ceded to the U.S.
by Spain on December 10, 1898 following the Treaty of Paris
of 1898.[1][2]Its final report was submitted on January 3, 1900,
and recommended the establishment of a civil government
having a bicameral legislature and being financially
independent from the United States. The report also
recommended the establishment of a system of public
Specific recommendations included the establishment of
civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief
executive in the islands at that time was the military
governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature,
autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal
levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.
The Balangiga Massacre of September 28, 1901, is
considered as one of the bloodiest events during the
Philippine-American war
Republic Act 6692 enacted on February 10, 1989,
declared September 28 of every year as "Balangiga
Encounter Day," a special non-working holiday in
Eastern Samar to commemorate the uprising of fellow
Filipinos and to honor the gallantry of those killed.
In the beginning, residents of Balangiga town and
Company C, the 9th US infantry regiment, had a good
relationship. According to historians, relations went
downhill after two American soldiers allegedly tried to
molest a Filipino woman tending a store.
hen locals came to the woman's defense, the soldiers
wanted revenge. Since then, people in Balingaga were
subjected to forced labor and detention with only little
food and water. 
The locals also protested the move of the US garrison to
cut food and other supplies in the town. 
Balangiga police chief Valeriano Abanador, along with
guerilla officers Captain Eugenio Daza and Sergeant
Pedro Duran Sr, plotted the uprising against the
Americans.
The plan was executed on September 28, 1901, during
the supposed funeral procession for children killed by
cholera. Abanador initiated the first strike by shooting
an American sentry after chatting with him.
The church of Balangiga rang its bells, signaling the start
of the attack. The men dressed as women pulled out
their weapons – mainly machetes – and attacked the US
troops. Locals also headed to the barracks to attack
unsuspecting American soldiers.
At least 48 out of the 78 American soldiers were killed
during the surprise attack.
The following day, American forces decided to retaliate.
General Jacob H. Smith vowed that he would turn the
town into a "howling wilderness," earning him the
nickname "Howling Jake."
"I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill and burn. The
more you kill and burn the better it will please me. I
want all persons killed who are capable of bearing arms
in actual hostilities against the United States," Smith
said. Smith's remark became even more infamous when
he instructed his men to "kill everyone over 10."
Soldiers also burned and looted the villages in
Balangiga.The killings did not end there, as the US
continued to enforce a "scorched-earth policy" until
1902, which meant the total destruction of the town
and 2,500 were killed.