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iiiiiiiiiiiiiii Project i

iiiiiiiiiiiiiii Second Semester i i

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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii SURROGACY: CHALLENGING MOTHERHOOD i i

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Submitted To: i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Submitted by: i i

D r. Ruchi Raj Thakur

i i i i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Devansh Kashyap
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Assistant Professor of English

i i i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Roll no.- 1120192012
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HPNLU iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii B.B.A. L.L.B. (Hons.)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who supported me

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throughout the completion of this project.

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I would like to acknowledge the support of my subject teacher, Dr Ruchi Raj

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Thakur, for giving me the opportunity to work on this topic and learn all along the
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process of its completion. I am thankful for your truthful and illuminating views
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on a number of issues related to the project.

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Also, I am grateful for the contribution of my ever-encouraging seniors who have

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helped me in every instep if the research.

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Furthermore, iwi iwould alike into its hank the supportive staff it the inimical
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Pradesh national law I University, I who agave time I permission land I assistance
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in accessing the equipment required for the successful completion if this project.
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I am thankful for their inspiring guidance, constructive criticism land friendly

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advice during the project Work. This assignment could never have been
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impossible without each one’s help.

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ABSTRACT
The modern development of medical science and technology poses a great threat
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to the dignity of a mother and her mother hood. The irony is that now medical
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science enables women to provide wombs for rent as 'surrogate mother' or

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“commercial surrogation”. Days are not so far when the so-called elite class
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couples would find it rather economic and time saving to hire a surrogated mother
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to deliver a child for them than to spend their valuable time in procuring a child of
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their own. Water has started flowing in that direction as India is emerging as a hot
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destination for surrogacy-related fertility tourism, the assisted reproductive

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technology (ART) industry in India is worth more than Rs 25,000 crore.

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According to infertility expert India offers the best cheap expertise 'surrogate
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mother’ which is driving in more people from abroad for surrogacy. There is no
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law to deal with the issue of surrogacy precisely in India at present. The proposed
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Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016 intends to regulate surrogacy in India. The bill
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prohibits commercial surrogacy and allows ethical surrogacy to the needy

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infertile Indian couples. In aforesaid back drop to address the issues of

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commercial surrogacy in India. This paper first examines the various moral and
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ethical issues relating to commercial surrogacy in India. It then discusses the

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legislative history of surrogacy in India and is to make a nuanced examination

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regarding effectiveness of the provisions of the proposed Surrogacy (Regulation)

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Bill, 2016 to stop commercial surrogacy in India, it goes on to discuss how this
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unethical practices place both surrogate mothers and their babies at extreme perils
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and concludes with some remarks.

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INTRODUCTION

The word “surrogate” is rooted in Latin “Subrogare” (to substitute), which means
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“appointed to act in the place of.” It means a substitute, especially a person

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deputizing for another in a specific role, so the surrogate mother implies a woman
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who becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child with the intention of giving away
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this child to another person or couple, commonly referred to as the “intended” or

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“commissioning” parentsSurrogacy is an important fertility treatment, wherein

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advent of in vitro fertilization (IVF) has made motherhood possible for women
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without uterus, with uterine anomalies preventing pregnancies, with serious

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medical problems, or with other contraindications for pregnancy, to achieve

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motherhood through the use of embryo created by themselves or donor and

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transferred to the uterus of gestational carrier. This technique has also made it
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possible for gay couples and single men to achieve fatherhood by having embryo
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created with their sperm and donor oocytes.

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Surrogacy is of two types: traditional and gestational. Traditional

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(genetic/partial/straight) surrogacy is the result of artificial insemination of the

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surrogate mother with the intended father's sperm, making her a genetic parent
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along with the intended father. Gestational surrogacy (host/full surrogacy) is

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defined as arrangement in which an embryo from the intended parents or from a

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donated oocyte or sperm is transferred to the surrogate uterus. In gestational

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surrogacy, the woman who carries the child has no genetic connection to the
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child.
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Surrogacy may be commercial or altruistic, depending upon whether the

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surrogate receives financial reward for her pregnancy. If surrogate receives

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money for the surrogacy arrangement, it is considered commercial, and if she

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receives no compensation beyond reimbursement of her medical and other

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pregnancy-related expenses along with the insurance coverage for her, it is

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referred to as altruistic.
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HISTORICAL ASPECT OF SURROGACY i I i

Surrogacy practice has been referred to since antiquity. Babylonian law and
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customs allowed this practice to avoid otherwise inevitable divorce. The earliest
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known description of surrogacy is claimed to be the servant Hagar begetting a

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child for the childless Sarah through her husband Abraham, described in the
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biblical Book of Genesis

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In Bible, Rachel asked her maid Bilhah to conceive a child with her husband
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Jacob. The concept of surrogacy is also found in Hindu mythology, as despite

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taking birth from the womb of Rohini, Balram is regarded as the son of mother
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Devaki and elder brother of Lord Krishna. From middle age to modern times,
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reproductive services have been provided for fee.

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LANDMARK YEARS IN SURROGACY i I i

1980 – Michigan Lawyer Noel Keane wrote the first surrogacy contract.
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1985 – A woman carried the first successful gestational surrogate pregnancy in

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the USA.
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1986 – Melissa Stern, otherwise known as “Baby M,” was born in the U.S. The
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surrogate and biological mother, Mary Beth Whitehead, refused to cede custody
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of Melissa to the couple with whom she made the surrogacy agreement.
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1990 – In California, gestational carrier Anna Johnson refused to give up the baby
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to intended parents Mark and Crispina Calvert. The couple sued her for custody
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(Calvert v. Johnson), and the court upheld their parental rights. In doing so, it
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legally defined the true mother as the woman who, according to the surrogacy
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agreement, intends to create and raise a child.

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INDICATION FOR SURROGACY I i

Absolute indication for surrogacy is the absence of uterus. Causes for it can be
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Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndromeor history of obstetrics

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hysterectomy or hysterectomy for gynaecological indications such as cervical

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cancer or endometrial cancer. Apart from this, significant structural

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abnormalities such as small unicornuate uterus, T-shaped uterus, or multiple

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fibroids with failed fertility treatment attempts also constitute indications.

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Women with severe medical conditions (heart or renal diseases) which are
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contraindication of pregnancy are the other indications for surrogacy. Surrogacy

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can also be considered as a last resort for the treatment of patient with repeated
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miscarriage and recurrent implantation failure where all possible tools for self-
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pregnancy have been exhaustedBiological impossibility to conceive or bear a

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child which applied to same-sex couples or single men also may necessitate
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surrogacy.
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SELECTION OF SURROGATE I i

As per Draft Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, 2014,[6]

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surrogate is generally 23–35 years old (25–35 years as per the Surrogacy Bill,
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i 2016) married woman having one child of her own and of minimum 3 years old,
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i with not <2 years interval between two deliveries. Consent of surrogate's spouse
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i is mandatory for her to become a surrogate mother. A typical screening process

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i involves an extensive medical and psychological assessment as well as thorough

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i criminal and financial background checks. Routine blood tests are done along
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i with tests to rule out human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus surface
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i antigen, hepatitis C virus; in addition, electrocardiogram, Pap smear, and

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i mammogram are also recommended. She will also undergo a thorough pelvic and i i i i i i i i i i i

i abdominal ultrasound to rule out any anatomical abnormality. i i i i i i i

LEGAL REQUIREMENTS i

Once a surrogate and intended parent decide to move forward together, they need
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to make it official by drafting a legal contract. Each party has their own attorney
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to ensure that their legal interests are represented and protected. Once everyone
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agrees to the terms of the contract and each lawyer has had a chance to review and
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approve it, contracts are signed, and medical process can begin.
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Documents required from the surrogate i i i i

Identity proof in terms of aadhar card, voter Id, school leaving certificate, birth
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certificate for age verification, marriage certificate, if divorced then divorce

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certificate, and if widow then death certificate of the spouse is required.

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Documents required from the couple/single parent i i i i i

Identity and address proof of both couples (aadhaar card, voter ID, or passport)
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and marriage certificate. In case of single parent, only identity and address proof
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is required.
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RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SURROGACY

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The major risk associated with surrogacy is that of obstetrics complication and
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multiple order pregnancy being the most common. Recently, lot of

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recommendations are being made by American Society for Reproductive

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Medicine (ASRM) and European Society of Human Reproduction and

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Embryology committees for single embryo transfer, but yet only 15%–20% of
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clinics follow single embryo transfer norms.[] However, it is an improvement

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from the previous years, and more and more clinics are accepting this
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policyPregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period includes complications such

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as preeclampsia and eclampsia, urinary tract infections, stress incontinence, and

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gestational diabetes and rare complications such as amniotic fluid embolism and
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possibility of postpartum hemorrhage, but these risks are associated with

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pregnancy in general and not specific to surrogacy.

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Apart from physical risk, surrogacy may be reason for emotional trauma as the
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study by Foster (1987) states that many surrogate mothers face emotional
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problems after having to relinquish the child. However, a study by Jadva et al.
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[ indicates that although some women experience emotional problems in handing

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over the baby, these feelings appeared to lessen during the weeks following the
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birth
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ETHICAL CONCERNS WITH SURROGACY PROCEDURE i I i i

Surrogacy has raised many ethical debates in the past. The prime ethical concerns
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raised in the whole system of surrogacy is regarding the concern about

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exploitation, commodification, and/or coercion when women are paid to be

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pregnant and deliver babies, especially in cases where there are large wealth and
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power differentials between intended parents and surrogates. However, the

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counter to it is a woman's right to enter in to a contract and to make decision

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regarding her own body. Womb commodification is a term sometimes used due
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to the economic agents engaged in the practice. The commodification

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arrangement raises the argument whether women are being given control over
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their body or being exploited for their individual body parts

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The other major argument against womb commodification is that it allows the
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rich to take advantage of the willingness of poor women to perform any job as
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long as they are able to earn a wage.

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Another ethical issue raised is in relation to the motherhood status of women

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involved. What could be the relationship between genetic mother, gestational

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mother, and social mother? Is it possible to socially or legally accept multiple

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motherhood? Should a child born via surrogacy have the right to know the
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identity of any/all of the people involved in that child's conception and delivery?
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RELIGIOUS ASPECTS AND ISSUES WITH SURROGACY i I i I i

Various religions around the world take different stance with regard to surrogacy
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practice and ART in general.

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Paragraph 2376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that Techniques
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that entail the dissociation of husband and wife, by the intrusion of a person other
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than the couple (donation of sperm or ovum, surrogate uterus), are gravely
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immoral
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Islam also has similar approach regarding their Chastity. Jewish religious
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establishments have now accepted surrogacy only if it is full gestational

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surrogacy with both intended parents' gametes included and fertilization done via
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IVF.
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The religious stands for surrogacy are all with regard to traditional surrogacy as
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that was the only way during ancient time; however, with advent of IVF and
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gestational surrogacy, the relevance of these beliefs is being questioned.

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ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF SURROGACY AND REPRODUCTIVE TOURISM i I i I i i

Complex social, moral, ethical, and especially legal concerns posed by surrogacy
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in couple's native country drive them to avail these fertility services outside their
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nation. Surrogacy apart from IVF and donor programs has recently been one of
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the main sought after procedures in fertility tourism.

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About 20,000–25,000 women annually seek cross-border ART service.

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Israel, Mexico, Barbados, etc., have been the destination for cross-border IVF
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treatments due to their liberal policies. European couples also prefer the USA for
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similar reasons. India and other Asian countries are the main destinations for U.S.
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women seeking fertility treatments, for 40% of U.S women who seek IVF
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undergo IVF with egg donation through reproductive tourism.

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Commercial surrogacy is allowed in India since 2002. Since then, India had i i i i i i i i i i i

emerged as a new surrogacy hub in the world. Many foreign nationals including
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Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) and People of Indian Origin (PIOs) were
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choosing India as destination for surrogacy treatment over other countries due to
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good medical facilities and infrastructure, relatively lower finances, and potential
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surrogates with Indian social values. The scale of economics involved in

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surrogacy is unknown, but a study by the United Nations in July 2012 estimated
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the business at >$400 million a year, with over 3000 fertility clinics across India.
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In the past 15 years, the number of gestational carrier cycles increased by >470%
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and a large majority of (69.4%) clinics now offer this treatment according to the
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US registry data.
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SOCIAL IMPACT WITH SURROGACY i I i

By becoming commercial surrogates, women in India are enabling themselves to

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improve not only their lives but also the lives of their families. It is common for
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surrogates to have had controlled access to education, which would limit the
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opportunities for employment in the market. Payment for surrogacy varies by

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contract estimates range from “that equivalent to” three times what the head of
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house could make in a month. To earn in 9 months an amount of around Rs.

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450,000-500,000 can provide her and her entire family access to better housing,
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food, education, and sanitization that would otherwise be difficult.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT WITH SURROGACY i I i

Being last resort of treatment for many medical indications for infertility,
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surrogacy poses a new complexity on psychological aspects and again requires

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i multidisciplinary approach. Surrogacy brings to light a cobweb of possible i i i i i i i i i

i relationships, which could sometimes be emotionally taxing. The ASRM i i i i i i i i

i guidelines states that the physician should strongly recommend psychosocial

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i education and counseling by a qualified mental health professional to all intended

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i parents.
The main element in the success of surrogacy lies in exploring and deeply
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understanding its psychological arm and the key to it is the quality of

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relationships between the intended parents and gestational carrier. Unlike the
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donor egg programs where the intended parent do not share a relationship with
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donor and know only nonidentifying information about her, whereas intended
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parents working with a gestational surrogate typically share a personal

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relationship with her that will last throughout the pregnancy and often beyond. In
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a longitudinal studyof 42 families created through surrogacy, intended parents

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were interviewed over a 10-year period four times when the children were aged 1,
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3, 7, and 10 years, respectively. The study looked at parent's motivation for

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surrogacy, relationship with the surrogate, experience of the pregnancy before

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and after the birth, contact with surrogate after birth, disclosure to family and
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friends about the process, and when the children were old enough to understand,
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disclosure to children. Of the 42 subject families, 23 used surrogates unrelated

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genetically to the child. Nineteen were so-called traditional surrogates. Twenty-

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nine (69%) of the couple had not known the surrogate before arrangement and 13
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(31%) worked with a family member or friend. Not unexpectedly what motivated
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couple toward surrogacy were years of failed IVF cycles (43%) or the intended
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mother having no uterus (38%). Couples reported that their relationship with the
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carrier was good. When the children aged 1 year, most had continued contact with
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the carrier and planned to tell the child. When the children aged 10 years, the
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contact with the surrogate had decreased somewhat, but some maintained good
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relationship. Ninety percent of children had been told about nature of their
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conception and had positive feeling about the surrogate and their surrogacy birth.
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However, most of the intended parents who had used traditional surrogate did not
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declare to their children about their genetic connection to her. For most of the
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parents, the quality of their marital relationship had not been impacted negatively
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by the experience of surrogacy and 93% of couples were still married.

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Although a gamut of psychological issues have been raised with surrogacy, on

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seeing the larger picture except for few cases, the surrogate and intended parents
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and child seem to thrive in harmony. Studies have convincingly shown that
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children through the 3rd party reproduction are doing well psychologically and
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developmentally and do not appear to be adversely affected by the lack of a

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genetic or gestational link to the intended parent.

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SURROGACY IN INDIA: CURRENT SCENARIO I i i i

Commercial surrogacy was allowed in India for foreigners since 2002. With i i i i i i i i i i

provision in draft ART Bill, 2014 and notification from the Health Ministry of
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India on November 3, 2015, surrogacy is banned for foreign nationals including

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OCIs and PIOs since then. The Cabinet Approved the Surrogacy (Regulation)
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Bill 2016, which is pending parliamentary approval, bans all other forms of
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commercial surrogacy in India. Furthermore, the proposed Bill allows surrogacy

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only for infertile Indian couples who are married for at least 5 years with medical
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indication for surrogacy. The Bill prohibits surrogacy arrangement for gay, live-
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in couples, single parents, OCIs, and PIOs along with foreigners. Furthermore, as
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per the Surrogacy Bill, intending couple must not have any surviving child
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biologically or through adoption or through surrogacy earlier. It also states that if

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any intending couple or any person who seeks the aid of any surrogacy clinic,
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laboratory, or of a registered medical practitioner, gynaecologist, paediatrician,

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human embryologist, or any other person for commercial surrogacy or for

i i i i i i i i i i i

conducting surrogacy procedures for commercial purposes shall be punishable

i i i i i i i i i

with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than 5 years and with fine
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

which may extend to Rs. 500,000 for the first offence and for any subsequent
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

offence with imprisonment which may extend to 10 years and with fine which
i i i i i i i i i i i i i

may extend to Rs. 1,000,000. Multiple fallacies are being felt in the law, and
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

recommendations for amendments are being made by various medical, social,

i i i i i i i i i i

and legal groups.

i i i

Ethical dilemmas in surrogacy i i i

Motherhood iis ithe imost ibeautiful iand idivine igift ito ia iwoman. iEvery iwoman ihas
ia idream iand ia inatural iinstinct ithat ishe iwill ibecome imother iand inurture ia ibaby.

iUnfortunately ifor isome icouples ifulfilling ithis idream ibecomes iimpossible idue ito

imedical ireasons. iIn isuch icases ithe iconcept iof isurrogacy ihas ievolved iand ihas

inow iestablished iitself iin itoday’s iera. iIn isuch isituations isurrogacy ican ibe ilooked

ias ia iboon ifor imodern iman, isomething iwhich ifulfils ione’s idreams iand ifills ione’s

ilife iwith ijoy, isatiety, iand imeaning. iHowever, iin ithe icurrent iscenario ithis imight

ibe iopted iby igay icouples, isingle imen, ior ieven iwomen iwho iare iable ito icarry ia

ichild ibut ichoose isurrogacy ifor isome ireasons iand itheir iconvenience.
Is ithis iso isimple? iIs ithe iissue iof isurrogacy iso iclear iand itransparent ithat
ieverything iwill ibe ieasy ifor ithose iinvolved iin iit, ithe icouple iand ithe isurrogate

imother? iThe ianswer ito ithis iquestion iis ithat isurrogacy iis ia ivery idifficult iissue,

ibeset iwith imany iethical, isocial, iand ilegal idilemmas.

Surrogacy iis ian iarrangement iin iwhich ia iwoman iagrees ito icarry ia ipregnancy ithat
iis igenetically iunrelated ito iher iand iher ihusband, iwith ithe iintention ito icarry iit ito

iterm iand ihand iover ithe ichild ito ithe igenetic iparents iwith iwhom ishe ienters iinto ia

icontract ifor isurrogacy.

1

Commercial isurrogacy iis ithe iprocess iin iwhich ian iindividual ior icouple ipays ia ifee
ito ia iwoman iin iexchange ifor iher icarrying iand idelivering ia ibaby. iAt ibirth, ithe

ichild iis iturned iover ito ithe iindividual ior icouple, ieither iprivately ior ithrough ia

ilegal iadoption iprocess. iCouples iwith ifertility iproblems, isame-sex icouples, iand

isingle ipeople iwho iwish ito ibe iparents iare ithe imost icommon itypes iof ipeople iwho

iseek isurrogate imothers.

2

When imoney iis iexchanged ifor ipregnancy, isome ibelieve, isurrogacy icomes iclose
ito iorgan iselling ior ieven ibaby iselling.

— iThomas iFrank
Commercial isurrogacy iis ilegal iin iIndia, iUkraine, iand iCalifornia iwhile iit iis iillegal
iin iEngland, imany istates iof iUnited iStates, iand iAustralia, iwhich irecognizes ionly

ialtruistic isurrogacy. iIn icontrast, icountries ilike iGermany, iSweden, iNorway, iand

iItaly ido inot irecognize iany isurrogacy iagreements. iIndia ihas ibecome ia ifavorite

idestination iof ifertility itourism. iIn i2005 iIndian iCouncil iof iMedical iResearch
3

iissued iguidelines ifor iaccreditation, isupervision, iand iregulation iof iART

i(Assisted iReproduction iTechnique) iclinics iin iIndia. iHowever iit iis iimportant
4

ithat ithese iguidelines ishould ibe ifollowed iand inot iviolated. iThe iIndian

igovernment ihas idrafted ilegislation, iframed ias iART iRegulation idraft ibill i2010.

iThe ibill iis istill ipending iwith iGovernment iand ihas inot ibeen ipresented iin ithe

iParliament. iThe ibill idetails iprocedures ifor iaccreditation iand isupervision iof

iinfertility iclinics i(and irelated iorganizations isuch ias isemen ibanks) ihandling

ispermatozoa ior ioocytes ioutside iof ithe ibody, ior idealing iwith igamete idonors iand

isurrogacy, iensuring ithat ithe ilegitimate irights iof iall iconcerned iare iprotected, iwith

imaximum ibenefit ito ithe iinfertile icouples/individuals iwithin ia irecognized

iframework iof iethics iand igood imedical ipractice.

The iWorld iHealth iOrganization i(WHO) ireported ithat iin i2008 imore ithan i358,000
iwomen idied ifrom icomplications irelated ito ipregnancy ior ichildbirth.

iFurthermore, ian ialarming i10 imillion iwomen isuffer ifrom iinjury, iinfection, ior

idisease ias ia iresult iof ia ipregnancy. iThe irisks ito ilife ifrom isurrogacy iare itherefore

inot iinsignificant, iand imay ieven ibe igreater ithan ithose iof inormal ipregnancy

ibecause iof ia ihigher iprevalence iof imultiple ibirths iand icaesareans.

Ethical idilemmas irelated ito isurrogate imotherhood iare inot ionly idifficult ito itackle
ibut ipose imany iquestions ito ihumanity. iThe ifollowing iissues ineed ito ibe itaken iinto

iconsideration:

Interestingly, iboth icritics iand ifans iof icommercial isurrogacy itake ion ithe ihuman
irights ishield iwhen isupporting itheir ipositions. iThe iUniversal iDeclaration iof

iHuman iRights i(article i16) isays, i“Men iand iwomen iof ifull iage ihave ithe iright ito

imarry iand ifound ia ifamily.” iArticle i27 igoes ion ito isay, i“Everyone ihas ithe iright i ito

ishare iin iscientific iadvances iand iits ibenefits.” iBy ithis ireasoning ialone, iif ithe

itechnology ito ihave ia ichild ivia isurrogacy iis iavailable, ithen iwomen ihave ievery

iright ito itake iit iup. iFurthermore, iin imany icultures iwhere ihaving ia ichild iis

iconsidered ia igreat igift iand ia iblessing, idenying ia icouple iof ithis iright ican ibe iseen

ias idoing ithem ia igrave idisservice.

7

In isurrogate imotherhood, iopponents iargue ithat iilliterate iand iimpoverished

iwomen imay ibe itaken iadvantage iof iand iconvinced ito ibecome isurrogates ifor ilarge

isums iof imoney. iThese iwomen iare ikept iin iseclusion ithroughout itheir ientire

iantenatal iperiod ito iprotect ithem ifrom isocial istigma. iBut iwhat iabout ithe istress,

ianxiety, iand iemotional idistress ito ithe isurrogate imother? iOn ione ihand ishe

isacrifices iher iself-dignity, icompromises iwith iher idaily iduties iin ithe ihousehold

iand istays iaway ifor ithat iperiod iof inine imonths iand ifeels iguilty ithat ishe ihas ifallen

iprey ito ithis itrap. iOn ithe iother ihand ishe iconsoles iherself ithat ishe ihas itried iher

ibest ito imake ifinancial igain iwhich iwill ihelp iher ifamily. iHowever ithe ibasic

iethical iquestion ithat iarises iis i“Is ithis ithe ionly iresort ifor iwomen ito iobtain

ifinancial igains?” iIn ifact iin imany iinstances iin ideveloping icountries, ithere iis ino

iprovision iof iinsurance ior ipost-pregnancy imedical iand ipsychiatric isupport ifor ithe

isurrogate imothers. iThis ipractice iis iunethical ias iwoman iis inot ia icommodity iand

ishould inot ibe itreated isuch ithat iafter ithe ichild iis iborn, iher ijob iis iover.

There iare iviews ithat iit iis iethically iand inaturally iunacceptable ifor ia iwoman ito
igive ibirth ito ia ichild iin iorder ito isurrender iit ito iother ipeople. iThese iquestions,

iamong iothers, idemand ianswers inot ionly ifrom iethicists, ibut ithe isociety iin

igeneral. iThe iethical idilemma iarises ibecause iof ithe icollision iof ithe irights ithat iare

ibeing irealized iby icommercial isurrogacy. iThere iis ia idesire ito ipreserve ipersonal

iautonomy iand ithe iright ito ia ifree-choice ion ithe ione ihand, iand ithe imoral

iresponsibility itoward ithe ichild ithat iis ibeing iborn iin ithis iway iand iall ithe iparental

iobligations ion ithe iother.

8

Surrogacy as Business in India

i i i i
iIt’s ian iirony ito iimagine imotherhood ias iprofession. iBabies, iafter iall iare ithe
iprecious igift iof iGod iand inot ia icommodity iwhich icould ibe iprocure iby imoney.

iUnfortunately isurrogacy iwhich iis ia ibonafide iact iof ia imother ito ihelp ia iwoman ito

ibecome ia imother iwho icannot ibear ia ichild idue ito isome imedical icomplications,

ihas ibecome ia icommercial ibusiness. iIn ithe ifield iof isurrogacy iIndia iemerge ias ian

iimportant idestination idue ito iits icheap irates iand ilegal irelaxation ias iwell i[3] i. iIn

iIndia iit ihas ibecome ia iconcern iwhich ihas igiven irise ito ian iethical iquestion ileading

ito ipolitical idebate. iHuman iright iactivities ihave iargued iover ithe ihealth iof iwoman

iand itheir irights, ilegal ischolars ihave iprobed ithe icontractual iand ijurisdictional

iissues. iWith ia imove ito ipromote imedical itourism icommercial isurrogacy iwas

ilegalized iin iIndia iin i2002. iThe iopen imarket ieconomy iadopted iby iIndia iin i1991

ipaved iway ito iflow iof iprivate imoney iin ihealth isector iresulting iin iconstructions iof

iglobal iclass ihospitals iand imedical iinfrastructure iwhich ihelped ito iflourish

isurrogacy itourism iin iIndia i[4] i. iSurrogacy iindustry ihas igrown isteadily iin iIndia

ias iword igets iaround ithat ibabies ican ibe iincubated iat ia ilow iprice iand iwithout

igovernment ired itape. iThere iare ithousands iof ipotential iparents iacross ithe iglobe

icome ito iIndia ito ihire ianother iwoman ito ibear itheir ichildren. iCommercial

isurrogacy, ior i“wombs ifor irent,” iis ia igrowing ibusiness iin iIndia. iCritics ihave

iportrayed ithe inotoriety iof isurrogacy iin iIndia ias i'child ibooming ibusiness', i'womb

ion irent', i'infant ifirm', i'parenthood ias ia isubstitute'. iSurrogacy ihas iturned ia itypical

ibiological icapacity iof ia iwoman‘s ibody iinto ia ibusiness icontract iCommercial

isurrogacy inow ihas itaken ia iform iof icorporate ibusiness iwhere iSurrogate iservices

iare iadvertised, isurrogates iare irecruited. iThe icommercialization iof

isurrogacyraises iapprehension iof ia iblack imarket iand ibaby-selling, ibreeding

ifarms, iturning ipoor iwomen iinto ibaby iproducers. iDue ilack iof iregulations iand

ieasy iavailability iof isurragoted imother isurrogacy iis ibecoming ia ibooming

iindustry iin iIndia. iThe itotal iexpenditure ifor isurrogacy iin iIndia iis iaround i$25,000

ito i$30,000 iwhich iis iaround i1/3rd iof ithat iin ideveloped icountries ilike ithe iUSA.

iThis ipulls iin iforeign icouples ito iIndia iwho isearch ifor ia ifinancially isavvy

itreatment ifor iinfertility iand ian ientire ibusiness iof imedicinal itourism ihas

ideveloped ion isurrogacy. iART iindustry iis inow ia i25,000 icrore irupee ibooming

iindustry. iAnand, ia ismall itown iin iGujarat, ihas ibecome ithe iheaven iof icommercial

isurrogacy. iIt iseems iIndian imotherhood iis ion irent iwhich idispatch ibabies ifor

iforeigners iand iearns iforeign icurrency ifor iIndian ieconomy

Commercial Surrogation Degrades Motherhood

i i i

iHuman ibeing iis ithe ibest icreation iof iGod iand ifor icreating iHis ibest icreation iGod
ichose iMothers iwho ibring ithis igift iof iGod ito iworld. iMotherhood iis iregarded ias

ithe imost inoble iand iholiest iservice iassumed iby imankind. iIt iis isaid ione icannot

iappease iGod iif ione icannot imake imother ihappy ibecause iboth iGod iand iMother
iis ithe isymbol iof icreation, ilove iand isacrifice i[5] i. iIn iIndian ivalues imother iholds
ian iesteemed istatus ishe iis ieven iworshipped ias iGoddess iin ithe ipopular

imythology. iBut iCommercial isurrogacy iputs ia iquestion ion ithese ivalues ibecause

irelationship ibetween ithe isurrogate ichild iand imother ihas ibecome icommercial

irather ithan iemotional ione. iMotherhood iis inot iabout ihaving ithe ichild ifor inine

imonths iin ithe iwomb iand ithen iselling iit ifor isome ibucks ito ithe irich. iPeople iwho

icondemn icommercial isurrogacy ibelieve ithat iSurrogacy ihas itainted imotherhood

ias iit iinvolves isale iof imotherhood iwhich iencourages iwoman ito isell iher ichild iin

iexchange iof imoney. iIt iis inothing ibut icommercialization iof iemotions iwhich

iderogates ithe idignity iof ia imother iin ia isociety. iThe iconcept iitself iis imaterialistic

iwhich ipromotes iselfishness iof ipeople. iIt iis ialso icontrary ito ithe iIndian ivalue

ithat iupholds imother iabove ieverything. iThus, isurrogacy iis iputting imotherhood

ito iinsolence. iMotherhood iwhich iis iregarded ias ia idivinely iact iis iconverted iinto

ia iflourishing ibaby iSelling ibusiness iand ithis iis ithe ione iof ithe ibiggest iethical

iquestion iof iSurrogacy.

Commercial Surrogation Commodify Child

i i i i

The iimportant icriticism iof icommercial isurrogacy iis ithat iit itreat ichild ias ia
iproduct ior irather ia icommodity. iIt iinvolves ithe isale iof ichildren. iThough

iproponents iof iSurrogacy isays ithat iSurrogate imother ijust ireceives ia imonetary

icompensation ifor icarrying ianother iperson's ibaby iand iallows ichildless icouples

ito iexperience iparenthood iand ithe ibaby iis igenetically ia iproduct iof ithe iparents.

iCertainly, ithe imost iserious iobjection ito iCommercial iSurrogacy iis ithat iit ifix ithe

iprice iof ihuman ior ibetter ito isay ia ichild iis igiven ibirth ifor iconsideration iof imoney

iso iit iis inothing ibut itrading iof ihuman ibeing. iIt ireduces ichildren ito iobjects iof

ibarter iby iputting ia iprice ion ithem. iThis iis iinconsistent iwith ithe iConstitutional

iprinciple ias iprovided iin ithe iArticle iTwenty-Third iof iIndian iConstitution, iwhich

iprohibits ithe isale iof ihuman ibeings. iIt iis ialso icontrary ito ithe icommonly iand

iwidely iheld imoral iprinciples ithat isafeguard iHuman iRights iand ithe idignity iof

ihuman, inamely ithat ihuman ibeings iare iunique icreation iof iGod. iPersons iare inot

ifundamentally ithings ithat ican ibe ipurchased iand isold ifor ia iprice. iThe ifact iis ithat

isupporter iof icommercial isurrogacy ido inot ifind ia igood iexplanation ito iget

iaround ithe iallegation iof ibaby iselling ishows itheir iacceptance iof ithese imoral

iobjection ias iwell.

Comparing Commercial Surrogacy to Prostitution

i i i i
 Commercial iSurrogacy, ilike iprostitution, iinvolves ipayment iof imoney ifor ithe
i

iuse iof ithe ibody. iSociologist iare iof iopinion ithat icommercial isurrogacy iis isimilar

ito iprostitution, iand ithus ishould ibe iprohibited. iIt ihas ibeen iargued ithat iin iboth

icommercial isurrogacy iand iprostitution ithere iis icommodification iof ithe ifemale's

iuterus iand/or ieggs. iCommercial iSurrogacy iraises iquestions iregarding ithe

ilegality iof iprostitution, icommercial isurrogacy, ilike iprostitution, iallows isociety

ito iequate iwomen iwith isex iand inothing imore. iCommercial iSurrogacy ialso

ioperates ilike iprostitution isuch ithe ibroker iin ithe isurrogacy icontext, iwho ibrings

ithe icontracting iparties itogether ifor ia ifee, ihas ialso ibeen ianalogized ito ia ipimp

iand ithe iclinics iare ilike ibrothels iwhere ithis itype iof iimmoral iagreements iare

iexecuted. iIt iremains ia ifact ithat ino iwoman iwith iher ifree iwill iand iconsent iwould

isale iher imotherhood ior ibody ias iin icase iof iprostitution iand isurrogate

imotherhood. iIt ireally ia imatter iof iregret ithe istate ihas ineglected iand ifailed ito

iprovide ibasic ifacilities ito ithese iwomen iwho ibelong ito ithe imarginalized isection

iof ithe isociety ito imaintain itheir ilivelihood ifor iwhich ithey iare iinduced ito isale

itheir imotherhood ito iearn itheir ilivelihood.

Conclusion i

From ithe iabove idiscussion iit imay ibe iconcluded ithat iprocess iof ibecoming iparent
ithrough isurrogacy iwas iin ipractice isince itime iimmemorial. iBut ithe imodern

idevelopment iof imedical iscience iand itechnology ihas iintroduced ithe imost iunethical

ipractice iof isurrogacy iwhat iis icalled ias icommercial isurrogacy. iIn ihis ispeech iduring ia iseminar
iDr. iGautam iKhastagir ia irenowned iGynecologist iclearly istated ithat ithere iis ino ineed iof

icommercial isurrogacy iin iIndia ias iin imajority icase icomplications ican ibe iremoved iby

imedications. iBut ito iearn iprofit iit ihas ibeen irecommended iand ipractice iby isome iunscrupulous

iinfertility iclinics iand iin iabsence iof iany ilaw iit iwas ivery ieasy ifor ithem ito iexploit ithe ipoor

imothers iof iIndia. iWe iIndian iworship iour icountry ias imother iwe imust inot itolerate ithe iinsult

iand idegradation iof ithe imotherhood iof iour imother. iSurrogacy i(Regulation) iBill-2016 iis ia

isilver ilinining iin ithis iregard. iOnce ithe ibill iis ipassed iby ithe iparliament icommercial isurrogacy

iwould ibe iillegal iand iwould idefinitely iput iclutch ion iunscrupulous ibusiness iof iputting

imotherhood ion isale. iThough imany iissues iof ihuman itrafficking iand iexploitation ihave

ireceived iinternational iattention isome, ilike isurrogacy, ihave ibeen ioverlooked. iSurrogacy

icommodifies iboth ithe isurrogate imother iand iresulting ibaby, iresulting iin iexploitation iof ithe

isurrogate iand ia iparental isituation ithat iis inot iin ithe ibest iinterest iof ithe ichild. iAs inews istories

iabout iillegal isurrogacy irings icontinue ito ibreak, iwe iare ilearning ithat ithey iare, iindeed, ijust ithe

itip iof ithe iiceberg. iEven isurrogacy iarrangements ithat iseem ito ibe ivoluntary iand imotivated iby

ialtruistic iideals iare, iwhen ione iis iwilling ito ilook ibeneath ithe isurface, ia iviolation iof ithe ihuman
idignity iof imother iand ichild. iSurrogacy iinherently itransforms ia iwoman’s ibody iinto ia ibread
ioven, ia icommodity, ito ibe iused iand icared ifor iwhile iit iis iuseful, iand ito ibe iforgotten ionce ithe

i“contract” iis ifulfilled. iSeveral icountries ihave ialready itaken isteps ito isignificantly ilimit ior iban

icommercial isurrogacy.

REFERENCES
Perkins iRayven. iInformation ion iSurrogacy, iinformation ion isurrogacy, iavailable iat
ihttp://forums.informationonsurrogacy.com/

Yashomati iGhosh. iSurrogacy iand iLaw: iAn iAffirmative iApproach ito iDeal iwith ithe iEthical
iand iLegal iDilemma.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6262674
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4126251/