‫لؤي دهامشة‬. ‫ايهم إبراهيم جالد‬.

‫عبدهللا المحتسب‬.

July 19, 2019

Under the supervision of

professor: Ghazi
Almarahle.

Physical
properties
of materials.

References:
I. Mary Anne White Physical properties of materials.
II. Electrical and magnetic properties of metals by Fran Cverna.
III. Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction 8th
Edition.
 ‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬
Physical properties of
materials

Color and Other Optical

Properties of Materials

Mechanical Properties
of Materials

Thermal Properties of Materials

Electrical and Magnetic

Properties of Materials

 Color and Other Optical Properties of

Materials;

1
 Atomic and
Molecular
Origins of
Color:
Colors of
Pure Atomic
Semiconduct Transitions
ors
Color and
Other Optical
Properties of
Materials;
Color
Black-Body
Centers (F-
Radiation
Centers)
Vibrational
Transitions
as a Source
of Color

1. Atomic and Molecular Origins of Color:

Color in materials is caused by interactions of light waves with atoms, and
especially with their electrons in practical terms, it is the relative
contributions of light of various wavelengths that determine the color of a
material and color can also can arise from either transmission or reflection of
light. Other sources of color are light scattering, dispersion, and interference.
And color important for determining the structure of matter. And it is useful
to review the electromagnetic spectrum because light is an electromagnetic
wave.
2. Atomic Transitions:
Electronic transitions within a given atom can give rise to color through
emission of light. Example: the yellow color of sodium in the flame.
Electronic configuration of Na is 1 S 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 1 when sodium containing
material is heated in a flame such that 3 s 1 electrons are promoted to the 3 p❑
excited levels, each electron can then return to the ground state (3 s 1
configuration), concurrent with emission of yellow light. The light emitted in
this way from an atom is characteristic of the particular element because
each element has its own characteristic electronic energy levels. Other

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example the blue color of a mercury lamp is caused by two emissions, one
green and one violet (green and violet mixed together produce blue).

3. Crystal Field Colors:

Another case of absorption as a source of color involves ions present in
solids. These may be ions in a pure solid or impurity ions.
When atoms are free, as in the gas phase, we have seen that their valence
electrons can be thermally excited, giving rise to emission colors, as in the
case of sodium in a flame. However, when valence electrons combine with
one another to form chemical bonds, the ground state energy of the atom is
lowered and much more energy is then required to promote the electrons to
excited states. In many compounds the outermost electrons are so stabilized
by chemical bonding that their excitation takes energy in the UV region, so
no visible color is associated with these materials, although they do absorb
UV light. One exception is compounds containing transition metals with
incomplete d-shells. The excitation of these valence electrons can fall in the
visible region of the spectrum, and these compounds can have beautiful
colors.

3
 4. Black-Body Radiation:
black-body radiation also involves emission. Whereas gases have sharp
emission lines, condensed matter (solids and liquids) An ideal black body
emits a “spectrum” of light, and this spectrum depends only on the
temperature of the black body. Black-body radiation is often referred to as
incandescence. At a temperature T, where T > 0 K, the occupancy of states
from which the black body can emit light depends on the energy of the state.
5. Vibrational Transitions as a Source of
Color:
H 2 O , in the liquid and solid state excitation of a complex many molecule
motion in the hydrogen-bonding network in water or in ice involves
absorption of a little red-orange light. This is a rather high-energy excitation
because the excitation is to a highly excited vibrational overtone the
absorption of red-orange light depletes white light of red-orange and leaves
the complementary green-blue color.

6. Color Centers (F-Centers):

Electronic excitation can give rise to visible colors, but the electrons being
excited do not need to be bound to ions; they also could be “free.” For
example the “electric blue” color of Na dissolved in liquid ammonia comes
from the absorption of light in the yellow region by solvated electrons in
solution (the solution contains NH3, Na+,and e–).

4
 7. Colors of Pure Semiconductors:
When an electron in a metal is at an energy higher than the Fermi energy, it
is said to be conducting as it contributes to the electrical and thermal
conductivities of a metal.

Materials called semiconductors do not conduct electricity very well due to

the gap between their valence band and their conduction band, there are no
energy levels in this region in pure semiconductors.

visible light may provide sufficient energy to promote electrons

from the valence band to the conduction band of a semiconductor, and this

gives semiconductors their colors.

8. Birefringence:
can occur for materials that are anisotropic (not the same in all directions;
this is the opposite of isotropic), an unusual optical property called
birefringence (also known as double refraction). Examples of anisotropic
materials are liquid crystals (the smectic and nematic structures have the
molecules aligned along the long axis) and also, noncubic solids. In a liquid,
the atomic arrangements are, on average, the same in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, and therefore they are isotropic, but this is not so for an
anisotropic solid. Birefringence in an anisotropic material arises because
unpolarized incident light is split into polarized components (two
components for tetragonal and hexagonal crystals; three components for less
symmetric crystals) since the velocity of light is different in different
directions.

5
 9. Circular Dichroism and Optical Rotatory
Dispersion:
that light can be polarized in a particular direction;
this is referred to as linearly (or plane) polarized light. Light also can be
polarized such that the direction of polarization rotates in the plane
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the light wave. This rotation can
be clockwise or anticlockwise, giving rise to right- and left-circularly polarized
light, respectively.

 Mechanical Properties;

Mechanical
Beyond the Properties Elasticity and
Elastic Limit Related
Properties

Crack Electromechanical Defects and

Adhesion Properties: The
Propagation Piezoelectric Effect Dislocations

6
 1. Elasticity and Related Properties:
Many materials with low values of Young’s modulus are also very elastic,
that is, reversibly deformed. As with many other properties of materials, this
property can be strongly temperature dependent.
An example of a highly elastic material is a polymer. Its elasticity stems
from the coiling of long molecular chains; extension can take place by
uncoiling without much change in interatomic distance, so it takes relatively
little energy (see Figure 14.4). However, polymers with a high degree of
structural organization (either a high degree of crystallinity or extensive
crosslinking) are not very elastic, so it takes more energy to deform their
structures, and the deformation is not reversible. It is found that polymer
properties such as the glass transition temperature (Tg; whether the
temperature is less than or greater than Tg reflects the rigidity of the
polymer; see Chapter 6) can be related to mechanical properties such as
Young’s modulus, strength, and toughness. For example, Lexan (a very strong
polycarbonate with such diverse uses as bubbles on space helmets and
impact-resistant bumpers) has a very high glass transition temperature (Tg =
149°C, compared with 45°C for nylon and –45°C for polyethylene), which
means that Lexan is in its rigid glassy state at room temperature. This
correlates with Lexan’s good strength and toughness characteristics at room
temperature; polymers with lower Tg’s
would require lower temperatures for similar mechanical properties.

7
 2. Beyond the Elastic Limit:
In the region of reversible stress–strain relations—that is, the elastic region—
a strained material will return to its original dimensions once the stress is
removed. Furthermore, below the elastic limit, the strain observed is
independent of the rate at which the stress is applied.
At larger stress, a brittle material fractures (that is, the reversible stress–
strain region ends abruptly with failure), whereas a ductile material is
permanently deformed (that is, the deformation is no longer reversible). The
distinction between brittle and ductile materials is illustrated in the stress–
strain relations. When a large stress (beyond the elastic limit) is applied to a
ductile material, on removal and subsequent reapplication of the stress, the
strain path does not retrace its original route, and hysteresis results (Figure
14.10); that is, there is residual strain within the material even when the
stress is removed. The area within the hysteresis loop is proportional to the
energy given to the system. For example, in the case of a fly landing in a
spider web, the web extends due to the force of the fly landing, and then,
when the stress is over, the kinetic energy of the fly has been transferred to
the silk of the web, and it is manifest as a slight increase in both the
temperature and the extension
of the silk. The low Young’s modulus and high tensile strength of the spider
silk ensure that the web does not break when the fly contacts it.
High stress can lead to inelastic deformation; in addition, at high stress the
rate of application of the stress becomes important. For example, a bullet
shot
into ice will penetrate to about the same depth as one shot into water since
at this high stress the H2O molecules do not have time to rearrange
themselves in either ice or water. In a less extreme example, polymers
beyond
their elastic limit and subjected to stress may creep, that is, they continue to
deform with time. The temperature of a material can greatly influence the
way in which it behaves at very high stress. For a polymer below its glass
transition temperature, brittle fracture will occur; that is, there will be
fracture with little deformation. Amorphous materials tend to be brittle at

8
relatively low temperature (often, room temperature is low enough) because
the energy required to deform the material by moving atoms or molecules
past one another is much greater than the energy required to propagate
cracks (see Section 14.5). For a polymer above its glass transition
temperature, the fracture mode will be ductile (that is, with considerable
plastic deformation) and dependent on the strain rate, with slow strain rates
allowing time for rearrangement of the polymer chains, leading to greater
deformation.
3. Defects and Dislocations:
No material is perfect, and it is often the type and location of imperfections
that determine the mechanical properties of a material. Examples of point
defects (atoms missing or in irregular places in the lattice, including lattice
vacancies, substitutional impurities, interstitial impurities, and proper [or
self] interstitials) are shown in Figure 14.12. Examples of linear defects
(groups of atoms in irregular positions, including screw dislocations and edge
dislocations) are shown in Figures 14.13 and 14.14. An indication of the
concentration of imperfections is that, if point defects and linear
imperfections in 1 kg of aluminum were placed side by side, the defects
would cover the equator more than a thousand times!

4. Crack Propagation:
One important factor concerning the mechanical strength of a material is the
response of its structure to stress. Many materials will crack when they are
stressed, and in this section we examine this in terms of both structure and
energetics. The propagation of a crack in a material both releases energy (the
strain energy) and costs energy (due to increased surface area [recall that
surfaces are higher in energy than layers within the bulk materials] and
energy to reorganize the material in the region of the crack). The competition

9
between the energy cost and the energy gain can lead, in certain
circumstances, to crack propagation.
5. Adhesion:
Archaeologists have shown that adhesives were used thousands of years
ago: pitch and natural resins held spearheads to shafts. Glue, one of the
oldest adhesives known, is derived from animal skins and bones.
Adhesion of two materials results when the atoms or molecules are in such
intimate contact that weak intermolecular forces (such as van der Waals
interactions, which fall off as 1/r6, where r is the intermolecular distance)
can collectively strengthen the contact. Even when two pieces of ceramic
are broken and can be held back in place, the distances between all but
a few contact points are too large to allow adhesion to take place on its
own. An adhesive can flow into all the crevices and make intimate contact
between both parts; when the adhesive hardens (due to evaporation of the
solvent, or polymerization processes, for example), the interactions allow
adhesion. In order to adhere, an adhesive must first wet the substrate; that
is, it must spread across its surface. For this reason, the surface tension of the
liquid adhesive is an important consideration. A familiar experience is that
all liquids bead up on Teflon® surfaces, and nothing will adhere to the
surface.

6. Electromechanical properties the Piezoelectric

Effect:
One very interesting effect that relates mechanical and electrical properties
is the piezoelectric effect, first discovered by Pierre and Jacques-Paul Curie in
1870. This effect is responsible for such seemingly diverse phenomena
asWint-O-green Wint-O-green lifesavers™ lighting up when crunched, and
some children’s shoes illuminating when the shoe moves.
The requirement of the piezoelectric effect is an ionic crystal, such as
quartz, that has a non-centrosymmetric structure (in quartz this is due to the
tetrahedral arrangement of four oxygen atoms around each silicon atom).
The difference between an ionic centrosymmetric structure (positive ions
symmetrically surrounded by negative ions; no net dipole or electric
polarization of the crystal) and an ionic non-centrosymmetric crystal (positive
ions not symmetrically surrounded by negative ions; nonzero net dipole and
electric polarization of the crystal) is shown schematically in Figure 14.19. As
we have already seen in Chapter 12, a polar non-centrosymmetric ionic
crystal can be ferroelectric, meaning it has a nonzero electric dipole. (Recall
that the term ferroelectric was coined to be analogous to the term

10
ferromagnetic, which refers to a collective net magnetic dipole moment in
the structure and originally referred to iron-based permanent magnets.)
Stress applied to a centrosymmetric ionic crystal does not change the (zero)
electric polarization of the crystal (see Figure 14.19a). However, if the
structure is non-centrosymmetric, the stress would change the electric
polarization (Figure 14.19b). In a non-centrosymmetric (piezoelectric) ionic
crystal, stress has the effect of changing the electric field across the crystal. If
this happens to be part of an electrical circuit, it can induce electrical
changes. For example, the gravitational force of a 0.5-kg mass applied across
a 0.5- mm- thick quartz plate of dimensions 10 cm × 2 m induces opposing
charges of 2 × l0–9 C on the faces. The electric field from a piezoelectric
device can amount to more than 104 V, and the resulting sparks can be used
for ignition in piezoelectric propane barbecue lighters. The circuit for shoes
that make use of the piezoelectric effect is shown schematically in Figure
14.20. The converse also is true: if an electric field is applied across a
piezoelectric crystal, the crystal will have an induced strain. This can be used
to control very fine manipulations. For example, very fine motions (on the
order).

11
  Thermal properties;

Heat
capacity.

Thermal
properti
es:

Thermal
Thermal
conductivit
expansion
y

 Introduction.
The thermal properties of any material are among the most
fundamental, whether directly or indirectly involved in the material’s
application. For example, it is almost always important to know how
properties of materials change if the temperature is changed.
The thermal properties of engineering materials are diverse, and so are
their uses in different applications.
1) Heat capacity:
Heat capacity, which is the most fundamental of all thermal
properties, is related to the strength of intermolecular interactions,
phase stability, thermal conductivity, and energy storage capacity.
A solid material’s potential energy is stored as its heat energy.
Temperature of a solid is a measure its potential energy. External
energy required to increase temperature of a solid mass is known as

12
the material’s heat capacity. it is defined as its ability to absorb heat
energy. Heat capacity has units as J/mol-K or Cal/mol-K.

2) Thermal expansion
Most materials expand when they are heated, regardless of the phase of
matter. This thermal expansion (quantified as the coefficient of thermal
expansion, or CTE) can be related directly to the forces between the atoms.
Different thermal expansions of materials used together in applications can
lead to mechanical problems (loose fits or thermal stress). Increase in
temperature may cause dimensional changes. Linear coefficient of thermal
expansion (α) defined as the change in the dimensions of the material per
−1
unit length. α has units as (℃ ) .

α values:

for metals 5-25 x10-6

for ceramics 0.5-15x10-6

for polymers 50-400x10-6

Changes in dimensions with temperature are due to change in inter-atomic

distance, rather than increase in vibrational amplitude.

13
 3)Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity determines whether a material feels hot or cold to the
touch, and why some materials are good thermal insulators while others
efficiently conduct heat. In this chapter, we consider thermal conductivities
of gases and then of solids. As for electrical conductivity, the values of
thermal conductivity can vary by orders of magnitude from one material to
another and even within a given material when the temperature is changed.
Thermal conductivity is ability of a material to transport heat energy through
it from high temperature region to low temperature region. Heat is
transported in two ways – electronic contribution, vibrational (phonon)
contribution. With increase in temperature, both number of carrier electrons
and contribution of lattice vibrations increase. Thus thermal conductivity of
metal is expected to increase. However, because of greater lattice vibrations,
electron mobility decreases. The combined effect of these factors leads to
very different behavior for different metals. Eg:- Thermal conductivity of iron
initially decreases then increases slightly; thermal conductivity decreases
with increase in temperature for aluminum; while it increases for platinum.

Electrical properties of Materials:

14
ONE OF THE PRIME CHARACTERISTICS of a material that distinguishes it as a
metal is its ability to conduct heat and electricity. Metallic atoms tend to lose
electrons in their outer shell, so the substance can be thought to exist as a
matrix of positive ions in an electron gas. These free electrons have the
ability to move in an ordered manner, which we perceive as an electrical
current. The greater the mean free path of the electrons is, the more
conductive the substance will be. An increase in the motion of the atoms is
indicated by its temperature increase. Typically, metallic solids have a
diminished ability to carry current as their temperature increases. Their
resistance is said to have increased. In this book, conductance and resistance
refer to the electrical conductance and resistance, unless specifically stated
as thermal resistance and thermal conductance.

The aim of this report is to enumerate the principles that determine electrical
properties of matter.

The periodic table.

The resistance.

To flow of electric current in a material, designated R, is deter- mined by the

dimensions of the material (length L and cross-sectional area A) and the

15
intrinsic resistivity (also known as resistivity, and represented by ρ) of the
material:

R=ρL/A

Conductivity: is the measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can pass
through a material. A conductor is a material which gives very little resistance to the flow
of an electric current or thermal energy. Materials are classified as metals,
semiconductors, and insulators. Metals are the most conductive and insulators
(ceramics, wood, plastics) the least conductive.

Electrical conductivity: tells us how well a material will allow electricity to

travel through it. Many people think of copper wires as something that has
great electrical conductivity.

Magnetic properties of materials:

Magnetic materials have revolutionized our lives, from the recording and
playing of our favorite music to readable magnetic strips on our charge cards
to magnetic materials storing information in our computers. The great
advantage of magnetic materials is that they can store so much information
in such a small space.

The magnetic properties of a material can be understood in microscopic

terms when we take into account some of the special properties of moving
electrons. It is for this reason that electrical and magnetic properties are
related, and some of the terms are parallel in their use. It is the motion of a
charge (i.e., electrons; the motion of the nuclei contributes only about 0.1%
as much as the electrons to magnetic properties) that creates a magnetic
field.

16
 A magnetic field is
a Region
surrounding a
magnetic body.
This region can
induce magnetic
fields in other
bodies. Magnetic
materials, such as
iron filings, can
align themselves to
represent field
lines (also called
flux lines).

 Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials.

Imagine a hydrogen atom in which a nucleus with a single stationary and
positively charged proton is orbited by a negatively charged electron. Can we
view that electron in orbit as a sort of current loop? The answer is yes, and
you might then think that hydrogen would have a strong magnetic moment.
In fact ordinary hydrogen gas is only very weakly magnetic. Recall that each
hydrogen atom is not isolated but is bonded to one other to form a molecule,
giving the formula H2 - because that has a lower chemical energy (for H by a
whopping 218 kJ mol-1) than two isolated atoms. It is not a coincidence that
in these molecules the angular momentum of one electron is opposite in
direction to that of its neighbour, leaving the molecule as a whole with little
by way of magnetic moment. This behaviour is typical of many substances
which are then said to lack a permanent magnetic moment. When a molecule
is subjected to a magnetic field those electrons in orbit planes at a right angle
to the field will change their momentum (very slightly). This is predicted by
Faraday’s law which tells us that as the field is increased there will be a an
induced E-field which the electrons (being charged particles) will experience
as a force. This means that the individual magnetic moments no longer
cancel completely and the molecule then acquires an induced magnetic
moment. This behaviour, whereby the induced moment is opposite to the
applied field, is present in all materials and is called diamagnetism.
Hydrogen, ammonia, bismuth, copper, graphite and other diamagnetic

17
substances, are repelled by a nearby magnet (although the effect is
extremely feeble). Think of it as a manifestation of Lenz's law. Diamagnetic
materials are those whose atoms have only paired electrons. In other
molecules, however, such as oxygen, where there are unpaired electrons, the
cancellation of magnetic moments belonging to the electrons is incomplete.
An O2 molecule has a net or permanent magnetic moment even in the
absence of an externally applied field. If an external magnetic field is applied
then the electron orbits are still altered in the same manner as the
diamagnets but the permanent moment is usually a more powerful
influence. The 'poles' of the molecule tend to line up parallel with the field
and reinforce it. Such molecules, with permanent magnetic moments are
called paramagnetic.

 Ferromagnetic:
materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the absence of an
external field and exhibit very large, permanent magnetizations. The
spontaneous magnetization is not apparent in materials which have not been
exposed to an external field, because of the presence of domains in the
material each having its own direction of magnetization. When a field is
applied, the domains in which the magnetization is more nearly parallel to
the field grow at the expense of the domains with less favorable alignments.
Since the spontaneous magnetization may be several orders of magnitude
greater than the applied field, ferromagnetic materials have very high
permeabilities, e.g., as high as 106. When the applied field is removed, a part
of the induced domain alignment may be preserved so that the body acts as
a permanent magnet. Spontaneous magnetization is due to the alignment of
uncompensated electron spins by the strong quantum mechanical
“exchange” force.

 Domains and Hysteresis:

Any ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material at temperatures below Tc is
composed of small-volume regions in which there is a mutual alignment in
the same direction of all magnetic dipole moments. Such regions are called
domains. Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries or Bloch

18
walls, across which the direction of magnetization gradually changes.
Although each domain is magnetized, the material as a whole will have zero
magnetization. To give the material a net magnetization, one direction must
predominate in all domains. This may be realized either by the rotation of
the individual domains or the growth of domains, initially parallel to the
applied field, at the expense of their less favorably oriented neighbors. In the
M versus H curve, known as the magnetization curve, initially a very slow
increase in B is observed, since little domain growth occurs upon the increase
of H; however, when the favorably oriented domains begin to grow, the
magnetic induction B increases rapidly. Finally, domain growth stops and the
saturation stage begins in which the rotation of the remaining unfavorably
aligned domains occurs, since domain rotation requires higher energy than
domain growth, the slope of the B versus H curve decreases. When the field
is removed, the specimen remains magnetized. Although the domains tend
to rotate back, the large aligned domains do not easily revert to the original
random arrangement. If a reverse field (−H) is applied, the domain structure
may be changed to produce a resultant zero magnetic induction. The
magnitude of the applied field required is equal to coercive force Hc. Once
magnetized, the state H=0, B=0 is no longer attainable by simply changing the
applied field. When the specimen is repeatedly magnetized first in one
direction and then the other, the graph of magnetization versus magnetizing
field describes the hysteresis loop as shown here.

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