Making Hole

Drilling Rig is a drilling machine

Oil and gas drilling is about making a hole in the ground and
constructing a conduit for production or testing of reservoirs

Drilling oil or gas well is a complicated operation

Well plan :To drill a stable hole safely at minimum cost

Vastly different conditions exist globally

 Contracts
• Day rate contract
• Footage contract
• Turn key
• Others (sharing, development, self etc)
 Costs
• Cost per foot is a good indicator or gauging drilling
success
• Maximize drilling time and ROP, minimize Tripping and
other times
• No complications or required corrections

Ct = B + Cr ( t +T)
F
Ct : cost per foot
B : Bit cost
Cr :Rig cost per hr
t :Rotating time (hrs)
T :Tripping time (hrs)
F :footage per bit
 ROP
• Bit selection and BHA
• WOB
• RPM
• Mud properties
• Hydraulics
• Formation properties
 Well planning
• First step towards meeting goal of final
construction to specification, drilled safely
(with respect to people, property and
environment) at least possible cost
Inputs
Offset wells reports and records
Bit records, BHA reports, Mud reports, Logs,
Geological Data and studies, Hole problems etc
 Bits
• Ideal one does the job with least overall cost
• Many manufacturers with various designs
suited for different formations and conditions

Two types of Basic design

Roller cone bits (Rock bits)
Fixed cutter Bits (Fixed head or shear or drag bits)
 Roller cone bits
• Tri cone or two cone
• Milled or forged steel tooth , hardened, hard
faced etc
• Tungsten carbide inserts (TCI)

Fixed cutter bits

• Natural diamond
• Synthetic diamonds
 Bits
Fixed cutters Tricone roller

Insert Tooth bit

Natural diamond (impregnated)

Mill tooth Bit

PDC
 How bits drill ?
All bits crush, shear, scrape or plow
formation with a material of higher strength
than formation ( e.g. steel,Tunsten carbide
or synthetic/natural diamonds)
Crushing : By applying WOB
Scraping, plowing : By offsetting the cones
Shear : By WOB and RPM (Drag bits)
 Cutting action
• Roller cone bit crushes the rock by applying WOB

• Offsetting imparts scraping action highly effective in softer formation

• Natural diamond crushes and shears by pushing formation aside by

forming a groove, a slow process for hard and abrasive formations

• A Synthetic diamond bit (PDC and TSPDC) Shear and slice the
rock which is highly efficient requiring one third of energy compared
to crushing
 Roller cone bits
• Cones mounted on bearings (balls, rollers, journal) with
combinations
• Journal bearings bear maximum load due to large area of
distribution
• Two cones (developed in 1909) and three cones developed in 1923
• Each cone has a cutting structure made of steel teeth, tungsten
carbide inserts or diamond enhanced inserts
• Teeth milled in the cone body or forged (less often) or are inserted in
drilled openings on the cone
• Teeth rows carefully designed to allow rows of teeth drill an area of
hole profile projecting into full borehole profile as the bit rotates
• The placement, number, composition and shape of teeth depends
on formation to be drilled and effects drillibility
• Cone axis offset is incorporated to create scraping, shearing action
 Steel tooth bits
• Used for a wide variety of formations

• Soft formation bits have fewer and longer teeth with more offset
while hard formation bits have more and shorter teeth

• Soft formation bits have widely placed self cleaning teeth preventing
interference from cuttings causing bit ball up

• Soft formation bits have larger teeth and thus thinner cones and
smaller, lighter bearings, therefore are best operated with lower
WOB and higher RPM

• Bit selection is based on strata to be drilled with combined

formations, Slight variation in designs and features (offsets, no of
teeth, shapes, hardfacing, gauge protection etc) effect overall
performance
 Insert tooth Bits
• Chisel, conical, hemispherical inserts
• Developed initially to drill hard formation
• Have evolved a long way and are available for
drilling multiple types of formations, selection
based on economics
• Provide more consistent ROP and last longer
• Gauge protection and gauge cutters prevent
from under gauging in abrasive environment
 Fixed cutter Bits
(Introduced in 1976)
PDC bits
• Used when performance of Rock bits falls below some rate,
economics the main consideration
• Needs high RPM and optimized WOB for efficient drilling, usually run
with down hole motors Synthetic diamond crystals (0.5mm) bonded
to tungsten carbide insert, brazed in sintered matrix, in the pocket of
the body( blades)
Natural diamond bits (impregnated)
• Use industrial grade stones, set in sintered Tungsten carbide matrix
• Nearly always used on rocks classified as hard
• Center fluid passage with fluid courses designed for mud flow across
bit-rock interface, to cool bit as diamonds are thermally unstable.
Cooling is critical and overheating detrimental
• Softer formation bits have a steeper body and hard formation bits
have a flatter profile
• Hole must be totally junk free to avoid breaking diamonds off matrix
and damaging the bit
 Hybrid Bits
• Use combination of natural diamonds,
PDC and TSPDC cutters
• Most PDC and some insert bits have PDC
or natural diamonds as gauge cutters
• Suitable for soft rocks with hard stringers,
exploratory or coring applications
 Special application bits
• Reaming, hole opening tools
• Coring bits
• Sidetracking bits, eccentric bits
• Percussin drilling or Air hammer bits
• Steerable bits
• Tunnel boring heads and other special
applications
 Bit Classification
• Mixed systems existed with various
manufacturers
• IADC standardized classification (IADC
Code) indicating bit characteristics
• Four character code describes features
• In 1990 Code developed for fixed cutter
bits- four character
 Dull bit evaluation
• All bits wear out
• Less than optimum usage increases costs by means of
slow ROP, Lost cones, underuse etc
• Many times usable bits or greens are pulled because of
other reasons such as BHA change, logging, TD etc
• Operators well plan includes a bit program
• Manufacturers provide assistance by computer aided
analysis of extensive offset data and by enhancing
design features for applications and by recommending
drilling parameters
• Once pulled a bit evaluation indicates any changes
required in bit program and is critical for bit makers
future product design, by revealing potential problems
 IADC Dull Bit grading system
• Bits graded on the basis of cutting structure
wear, Bearaing wear, and gauge wear. For fixed
cutter bits, X is used in place of bearing wear
• Tooth wear 0-8 with no wear to complete wear
• Bearing wear 0-8 with no wear to complete wear
for roller bearings
• EFNX for sealed bearings,and fixed cutters
• Dull characteristics outlined with location
• Gauge wear measured
 Drilling performance
• Costs Directly influenced by Bit selection
and performance
• Selection : Drilling reports, Bit records &
parameters, offset well records
• Increasing use of computers in integrated
drilling systems helps evaluate and
improve performance
 WOB and RPM - ROP Control
• Generally increase in WOB and RPM increases ROP
when effective BH cleaning is attained by proper
hydraulics
• Can not be increased indiscriminately because it
adversely effects bearing life and cutter wear, increases
hole deviation, so there is a need to optimize
• Roller cone bits, increase in RPM is not directly
proportional to increase in ROP, (Graph)but significantly
increases in soft formations
• Automatic driller systems apply consistent WOB and
control parameters , enhancing ROP and increasing Bit
life, contributing to reduced costs
• Natural diamond and PDC Bits are best
run on lightest weight and high RPM
because of their design, cutting action and
cost
• Rotary speeds in the range of 100 are
normal, higher speed are achieved by
down hole motors and turbines
• Generally, With smooth running, optimized
WOB and RPM, Proper hydraulics, best
performance is achieved
 Drill Off Test
Helps optimize WOB and RPM
Elasticity in string varies the length at different tension levels

• Maintain constant RPM and circulation

• Slack off a given amount of weight ( on a high side) and
chain the brake
• Record the times to drill a particular increment (2-5 Kips)-
Continue till times significantly decrease
• Least amount of time is the optimum WOB
• Drill with optimized WOB and vary the RPM
• Determine times to drill the optimized weight increment at
different RPMs and select optimized RPM
• Test is suitable for steady formation, repeat when formation
changes, indicated by ROP change
 Special considerations
• WOB required to drill the hole depends on hole size and
formation and Bit
• Adding more drill collars will increase the load on the rig,
increase rotational torque and increase handling time
• Collars are more expensive to buy, run and maintain
• Deviations and doglegs in the hole will increase
rotational torque
• Dog legs and deviation cause reverse cyclic stress in
drill string causing fatigue
• Rotational HP = Torque(Ft*Lbs) X RPM/ 5250
• Rig and equipment should be selected as dictated by
operational requirements, and operations carried out
within the limitations of deployed equipment
• Combination of RPM, Torque and weight increases stress on drill
string
• To avoid complications and failures ( twist offs, bit tooth breakage,
bearing faliure etc) smooth and balanced running should be ensured
• Deviated and horizontal wells use a down hole motor or turbines
(attached to the bit) to overcome hole friction and provide High RPM
to bit
• Motor comprises of stator and rotor and is usually positive
displacement type
• Turbines have a series of blades
• To initiate a turn in the well bore (Kick off) a bent sub or bent
housing is used
• Bends are long, medium intermediate and short radius
Long radius :2-6 deg/100 ft, radius 1000-3000 Ft (stiff motors)
Medium radius: 6-40 deg/100 ft, radius 1000-140 Ft (stiff motors)
Intermediate radius : 40-70 deg/100 ft, radius 140-80 Ft (flex motors)
Short Radius :70-150 deg/100 ft, radius 82-40 Ft (articulated motors)
 Drilling Fluid (Mud)
• Transports cuttings to surface. Suspend cuttings when static

• Prevents formation fluids from entering the well bore

• Cleans the bottom hole and dislodges cuttings to enable further cutting
action

• Cleans the bit, cools and lubricates bit and Drill string

• Provides hydraulic horse power to down hole equipment, motors etc

• Protects and supports the walls of borehole and prevents formation

invasion. Maintains wellbore stability and minimizes damage to formations.

• Ensures Formation evaluation : Helps detect hydrocarbons or other fluids

• Mud pulse telemetry: transmits to and fro signals to down hole tools
• Facilitates cementing and completion
• Controls corrosion and minimizes impact to environment
 Drilling mud
• Contains three types of components
Liquid : Water, Oil or mixture (emulsion system)
Reactive solids : Those which react with mud,
mainly clays (bentonite)
Non reactive solids : weighing materials and drilled
solids ( inert)
• Mud properties which effect penetration rate
Density ( Mud weight)
Viscosity & YP
Solids content
Fluid loss
Oil content
 Density (Mud weight)
• Expressed in various units, is directly related to
hydrostatic pressure exerted. Higher differential pressure
has a high chip hold down effect and reduces ROP,
Increases differential sticking
• A mud wt that is too high may fracture the formation or
enlarge existing fracture creating lost circulation situation
• Ideal mud wt should be just enough to contain the
formation fluids. Low mud wt is a definite cost saver
• If overpressured formation is expected an intermediate
casing should be run to prevent the exposure of shallow
formations to high hydrostatic and exceed fracture
pressure
 Viscosity
• Measure of resistance to flow
• To increase viscosity a reactive clay that swells and
traps water is added to system. Polymers are often used
• High viscosity increases circulating pressures, thus when
in excess, it limits the pump pressure compromising
available bit HHP and adversely effecting ROP
• Gel strength is the capability of mud to form gel and
keep cuttings suspended when mud is static
• Viscosity and gel strength should be closely monitored
and controlled. Reduce vis by dilution with water, adding
thinners and deflocculants
• Some times Hi vis sweeps are circulated through the
system to clean the hole
 Solids content
• Low solids mud system is desirable
• Controlled by solids control equipment
(shakers, desander, desilters, centrifuges etc)
• High solids content increases PV of the mud
• Presence of abrasive solids in mud is
detrimental to pumping and circ system
 Fluid loss
• Hydrostatic pressure forces liquid content in the mud into pore
spaces of formation, creating fluid invasion

• As fluid is lost to the formation pores a cake is formed which

becomes impermeable and thus forms a barrier for further loss and
stabilizes ths borehole wall

• Excessive loss creates serious problems like a thick filter cake and
stuck drill string

• Wetting of shales causes hydration, swelling sloughing and unstable

hole causing bridges, pack offs and stuck string

• Excessive filter cake can hinder wire line logs interpretation

• Excessive fluid loss can cause damage to pay zone formations, by

fluid invasion, adversely effecting productivity
 Oil base mud- Emulsion system
• An oil emulsion mud is a water based mud
system with oil mixed in it using emulsifiers, to
use mud weights below water. It also reduces
Torque,drag and friction, improves ROP,
lubricates bit and prevents balling in hydrating
clays and shales
• It can improve ROP particularly when high
temperature, sloughing shales, drill pipe sticking
is encountered
 Oil base mud
• Has oil ( usually diesel) as liquid phase
• Contains emulsifier for some amount of water( usually
5%)
• Because of environmental concerns mud companies
have developed systems using vegetable oils and non
toxic mineral oils, synthetic oils
• Always much more expensive than water based mud
system
• Use restricted to specific and difficult drilling situations
such as
Water soluble formations
Protecting pay zones
Severe corrosion problems
Deep hi temp wells
Coring
Sticking problems
 Oil base mud- inverted emulsion
• Water is dispersed in oil, as high as upto
60%
• Reduces the required concentration of
surfactant emulsifiers required to suspend
weighing materials
• Applications are in a way similar to oil
base mud
 Air or Gas drilling
• Air used rather than mud for cleaning borehole
• Applications in old formations, hard rock country where
sloughing shales are not present,water production is less
than 50BPH
• Offers following advantages over Mud systems
Faster ROP due to no chip hold down effect
Cuttings are instantly removed
Excellent bit cooling due to gas expansion on the bit,
extending life by minimizing bearing wear
Instant formation evaluation and Oil shows evident as
bottom hole samples travel to surface much faster
 Air or Gas drilling- Disadvantages

• Water bearing formations- limitations to

handle large amount of water
• Sloughing shales- no way to exert
hydrostatic to compensate for overburden
• Danger of down hole or surface explosion
• Corrosion of drill string
 Air or Gas drilling - Equipment
• Air compressors capable of 50-3000 Cu ft/Min and up to 3500 psi , single stage
or multi stage units
• Air/Gas pumped down the string, up the annulus, released on surface through
a Blooey line away from Rig
• Air hammer and impact bit system
• BOP and bypass line , with rotating head
• Booey line to vent air or gas and cuttings a safe distance downwind
• Pilot light or flare ignition system to burn nay gas
• Equipment for foam or chemical treatment

Air velocity should be enough to lift the cuttings to surface

As the dept and ROP increase, air requirement increases, limiting the process.
Also water inflow causes cuttings to clog together and causing stuck pipe.
Surfactants, foaming agents are injected in air being pumped down the string
to create mist/foaming system
Aerated mud is created by pumping air and mud together in the standpipe
under controlled system
High annular velocity near surface due to gas expansion can cause severe
erosion, requiring casing to be set
 Bit Hydraulics
• Hydraulics deals with liquids and energy
• Generate,control, transmit power using pressurized
liquid
• Bit hydraulics removes cuttings from bit and formation
interface for further penetration
• Hyd HP at bit is the pressure loss at the bit nozzles
• System Pressure loss determined by pump output
Surface
Drill string and / Mud motor
Drill bit
Annulus
• Bit jets clean the bottom by jetting action and turbulence
 Formation properties
• Formation to be drilled is main influence on drilling program
• Petroleum geologists study offset data and predict formation tops
• Geologist, based on offset data and preset well cuttings pick casing,
coring,logging points
• Mud logging companies provide full time monitoring and analysis if
mud stream cuttings
• In general, porous permeable and recent formations drill faster than
old, compact and hard formations
• Drilling break is increased penetration mostly associated with
penetrating a porous permeable zone
• Porosity is amount of pore spaces and permeability is the degee of
interconnectivity, resulting in flow across the rock
• Overburden pressure increases with depth, resulting in compaction
and hi compressive strength, requiring more WOB/area
• Rocks have varried compressive strength, from 5KPsi to 50KPsi
• Reactive clays and shales in water based muds cause hole cleaning
problems leading to stuck pipe , requiring switch to oil base mud
system
 Formations
• Rock hardness,softness, abrasiveness
greatly influences bit selection
• Alternating layers of hard /soft formations
or dipping beds cause hole deviation
• Hole deviation controlled by stiff
BHA,WOB and monitoring
• Hole deviates up dip beacause up dip
edge bears more WOB and drills faster
• For dip angle more than 45 deg bit tends
to deviate down dip
 New technologies
• Computers and automations
• Real time Drilling data transmission and analysis
• Well planning based on wider and more intricate
analysis by computers
• MWD, LWD
• Improved Bit designs
• Improved drilling fluids, solutions to problems
that could not be solved earlier
• Automation and cyber Rigs
• Elimination of human errors