CHAPTER 2

DATA AND DATA SAMPLING

INTRODUCTION - DATA

• Data (singular, datum) – information gathered of qualitative

and quantitative variables.

• Raw data – information that have not yet been organizes

and analyzed.
 CATEGORY OF DATA

1. Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio data (based on the type of

scale used to measure the variables)
2. Qualitative and quantitative data
3. Non-cumulative data and cumulative data
4. Continuous data and discontinuous data
5. Primary data and secondary data
1.1 NOMINAL

• A set of data is nominal if the observations made (of qualitative

variable) cannot be ranked or ordered.
• Known as qualitative
• Nominal values can be stored as a word or text or given a
numerical number
• Example:
• Gender – observation made will either be female or male.
1 2
• Colour

1 2 3 4
1.2 ORDINAL
• A set of data is ordinal if the observations can be ranked
(put in order)
• The categories for an ordinal set of data have a natural
order.
• Eg:
• A doctor ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling
on a scale of 1 to 10 (Likert scale). A score of 7 means more pain
that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the
difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be the same as that
between 5 and 3.
1.3 INTERVAL DATA

• A set of data is interval if the distance between any two

adjacent units of measurement is equal but the zero point is
arbitrary.
• a measurement where the difference between two values is
meaningful.
• Eg:
• the time interval between the beginning of 1981 and 1982 is the
same as 1983 and 1984, namely 365 days.
• The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90
degrees is the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80 degrees.
1.4 RATIO DATA

• A set of data is said to be ratio data if the distance between

any two adjacent units measurement is equal and the zero
point is absolute.
• Eg:
• Length: where 0 cm means no length.
• Weight: in kilogram or gram.
 QUALITATIVE DATA AND
QUANTITATIVE DATA
QUALITATIVE DATA QUANTITATIVE DATA
- Deals with descriptions. - Deals with number

- Collected from nominal or ordinal - From ordinal (scales >5 interval),

(Likert scale) variables. interval or ratio variables.

- Data can be observed but not - Data which can be measured

measured
- Eg: length, height, area, volume,
- Eg: color, texture, aroma, taste, weight, speed etc.
appearance, beauty, gender, etc.
EXAMPLE
QUALITATIVE DATA
EXAMPLE
QUANTITATIVE DATA
 CUMULATIVE DATA & NON-
CUMULATIVE DATA

CUMULATIVE DATA NON-CUMULATIVE DATA

- Raw data which have been - Raw data which have not been
grouped. grouped.

- Usually displayed in a frequency

table and sometimes with class
interval.
EXAMPLE

• Universal burger is concerned about product waste, so the

company’s manager collected data of burger waste from
past records for 18 months with the following results.

Class interval frequency

2-7 3
2 16 4 12 19 29 24 7 8-13 2
22 14 8 24 31 18 20 16
14-19 5
20-25 4
26-31 2
Non cumulative data
∑f 16

Cumulative data
 CONTINUOUS DATA & DISCONTINUOUS
DATA
CONTINUOUS DATA DISCONTINUOUS DATA
Can take any value (within a range) Have only a certain number of values
including fractions and decimal places. (whole number)

Eg: - height (1.6 m) Eg: - number of students in a class.

- infant’s birth weight (3.5 kg) - number of red balls.
- the mother’s age (45 yrs 6
months)
 PRIMARY DATA & SECONDARY DATA
PRIMARY DATA
Raw data collected by researcher from
interviews, observation, questionnaire etc.
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
- More accurate
- Detailed information
DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
- Time consuming
- High cost
- Might be not suitable for current
research
SECONDARY DATA
Data collected by someone else or primary
data that have been processed or published
in journals, books, articles, thesis,
newspaper etc.
ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
- Save time, cost, energy
- Provide a basis for comparison with new
data collected by the researcher.
DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY
DATA
- Accuracy of secondary data is not
known
- Data may be outdated
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

What method of data collection would you use to determine:

1. The number of colony forming units per ml?

2. Hedonic test and scoring test for sensory evaluation?

 METHODS OF DATA SAMPLING

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
4. Systematic sampling
5. Convenience sampling
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Each member of a population has an

equal chance of being selected for the
sample.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Zaim wants to interview 10 female and
10 male students in PTSN.

The process of grouping members of the Sampling technique:

population into relatively homogeneous
groups, called strata before sampling. - Stratify (group) the student
population by their gender

- Use simple random sampling to choose

10 female and 10 male.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
A study to determine the average
number of computers per household in a
large city.
The total population is divided into
groups (or cluster) and then random Sampling technique:
samples of these clusters are selected.
- Use a city map
- Divide the city into blocks (cluster)
- Choose a certain number of blocks for
sampling.
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
DESCRIPTION
- Randomly select a starting point and
take every nth piece of data from a
listing of the population.
- This method is frequently chosen
because it is a simple method.
EXAMPLE
You are assigned to do a phone survey
for 100 names as a sample from 2000
residence phone number’s listing.
Sample technique:
- Find the interval, k, which is,
2000/100 = 20
- Number the population 1 – 2000
- Use a simple random sample to pick a
number that represents the first name
of the sample, x
- If x = 15th name, the subsequent
names would be 35th, 55th, and 75th
names on the list….. Until you have a
total of 100 names from the 2000
names listed.
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
DESCRIPTION
- Is non-random sampling.
- Also known as opportunity sampling,
accidental sampling, haphazard
sampling.
- It is the least desirable of all sampling
methods.
- Used when you are unable to access a
wider population, for example due to
time or cost constraints.
EXAMPLE
You want to do a study about lecturer
attitudes.
Sampling techniques:
- Interview lecturers at PTSN, others
lecturer, and few others who are
known to their parents.
Other example:
- questionnaire.