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ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

GENERAL ELECTRICAL STRUCTURE OF MATTER

 Matter – anything that occupies space and has weight.
ENGINEERING  Element – a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by
chemical action.
 Compound – a combination of two or more elements.
 Molecule – smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to before it
breaks down into the elements.
 Atom – smallest part that an element can be educed to and still keeping
the properties of the element.
Prepared By:
Prof. Rene D. Estember Parts of an Atom
• Proton – positive charge with a mass of 1.672 x 10-27 kg.
• Electron – negative charge with a mass of 9.107 x 10-31 kg.
• Neutron – no charge with a mass of 1.672 x 10 -27 kg.

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ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

The Atomic Structure of an Atom ELECTRIC CHARGE

• Nucleus of an atom is the center of the atom. It is where the protons  A body is said to be charge, if it has either an excess or deficit of
and the neutrons are located. electrons from its normal values due to sharing.
• The electrons revolve around in obits or shells around the nucleus.
• Coulomb ( C) - unit of electric charge, which is equivalent to 6.25 x
 Valence electrons – electrons found in the outermost shell or orbit of an 1018 electrons or protons. Named after French physicist, Charles A.
atom. Coulomb (1736 – 1806)
 Atomic number – represents the number of electrons or protons of an
atom. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
 Atomic mass – represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom.  Potential – the capability of doing work.
 Any charge has the capability of doing work of moving another
charge either by attraction or repulsion.
 The net number of electrons moved in the direction of the positive
charge plate depends upon the potential difference between the two
charges.
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ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE RESISTANCE

 Volt (V) – unit of potential difference, which is equal to one joule of  The fact that a wire carrying a current can become hot, it is evident
work done per one coulomb of charge. Named after the Italian that the work done by the applied force in producing the current must
physicist, Alessandro C. Volta (1754 – 1827) who invented the first be accomplished against some opposition or resistance.
electric battery. • Ohm (Ω) – practical unit of resistance. Named after the German
physicist, Georg S. Ohm (1787 – 1854).
ELECTRIC CURRENT
L V L2
 When a potential difference between two charges forces a third R  2

charge to move, the charge in motion is called an electric current. A A V
• Ampere (A) – unit of charge flow equal to one coulomb of charge Where: R = resistance (ohm)
past a given point in one second. Named after the French physicist A = cross-sectional area (square meter)
and mathematician, Andre M. Ampere (1775 – 1836).
ρ = resistivity (ohm-meter)
L = length (meter)
V = volume (cubic meter)

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ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
 Internal resistance is a concept that helps model the electrical
• Specific resistance (resistivity) – resistance offered by a unit cube consequences of the complex chemical reactions inside a battery. When a
of the material. current is flowing through a cell, the measured e.m.f. (voltage output) is
• Circular mil (CM) – area of a circle having a diameter (d) of one lower than when there s no current delivered by the cell.
mil.
 The internal resistance of a battery can not be measured using the
CM = d2 where: 1,000 mil = 1 inch "resistance" or "ohms" setting on a conventional multimeter, since it
requires a current to be observed. However, it can be calculated from
1 MCM = 1,000 CM current and voltage data measured from a test circuit containing the
battery and a load resistor RL. Since both the internal resistance and load
resistor are in series with the ideal voltage source, Kirchoff’s Laws and
Ohm’s Law give VL = (RB + RL ) x IL .
Where: RB is the internal resistance of the battery
VL is the battery voltage with a load L
IL is the current supplied by the battery with this load L
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load
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ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES ELECTRICITY: BASIC PRINCIPLES

RESISTANCE CONDUCTANCE
 Conductance is a measure of the material’s ability to conduct electric
Internal resistance increases with the age of a battery, but for most current. It is equal to the reciprocal of resistance.
commercial batteries the internal resistance is on the order of 1 ohm.  Siemens (formerly mho) - unit of conductance . Named after the
German engineer, Ernst Werner von Siemens (1816 – 1892).
1 A
It should be noted that the above only applies to ideal batteries under ideal G 
load conditions and does not directly relate to real world internal R L
resistance of batteries due to the chemical nature of the cells. 1
 

Where: δ = conductivity (siemens per meter)
L = length (meter)
A = cross-sectional area (square meter)
ρ = specific resistance (ohm-meter)
G = conductance (siemens)
R = resistance (ohm)
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DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

OHM’S LAW ELECTRICAL POWER

 Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing in an electric circuit is  Electric power - rate of using or consuming the electrical energy
directly proportional to the impressed emf applied to the circuit and  Watt – unit of electrical energy equal to one joule of energy consumed
inversely to the equivalent resistance of the said circuit, Named after in one second. Named after the British engineer and inventor James
the German physicist, Georg S. Ohm (1787 – 1854). Watt (1736 – 1819).
E E2
I
E R E  IR P  EI P  I 2R P
R I R
Where; E = impressed voltage (volt) Where: P = electrical power (watt)
I = current drawn (ampere) E = voltage (volt)
R = resistance (ohm) I = current (ampere)
R = resistance (ohm)

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DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

SERIES – CONNECTED RESISTORS VOLTAGE DIVISION THEOREM (VDT) FOR RESISTORS

 Series circuit – the resistances are connected end to end. CONNECTED IN SERIES
+ E1 - + E2 -
Et R1
R1 R2 + E1 - + E2 - E1 
It
I1 I2 +
R1 R2 R1  R2
E E3

R3
-
I3 Et R2
E
E2 
R1  R2
Et  E1  E2  E3 Rt  R1  R2  R3 I t  I1  I  I 3
Note: If there are three or more resistances in series, reduce first the circuit
into two resistors in series before applying the VDT.

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DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

PARALLEL – CONNECTED RESISTORS CURRENT DIVISION THEOREM (CDT) FOR RESISTORS

It CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
+ + + It
E
E1 E2 E3
R1

R2

R3

- - -
I1 I2 I3 E
R1

R2
I1 I2
1
Rt  Et  E1  E2  E3 I t  I1  I 2  I 3
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3 I t R2 I t R1
I1  I2 
Note: Independent of the circuit connection either series, parallel or R1  R2 R1  R2
combination of both, the total power drawn by the circuit is equivalent to the
powers drawn by each load resistor.
Note: If there three or more resistances in parallel, reduce first the circuit into
Pt  P1  P 2  P3  ...  Pn two resistors in parallel before applying CDT
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DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

SERIES – PARALLEL CONNECTED RESISTORS PARALLEL – SERIES CONNECTED RESISTORS

 Series-parallel circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified  Parallel – series circuit – a combinational circuit which when simplified
will result into a series circuit. will result into a parallel circuit.

R1
R2
E
E
R2

R3

R1

R3

R2 R3
Rt  R1 
R2  R3 R1 R2  R3 
Rt 
R1  R2  R3 

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DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS DC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

DELTA & WYE - CONNECTED RESISTORS DELTA & WYE - CONNECTED RESISTORS

 Delta to wye transformations

X C
A
AC AB BC
Y X  Y Z 
Z

A B C A B C A B C
B

 Wye to delta transformations  If A = B = C = RΔ and X = Y = Z = Ry

XY  YZ  ZX XY  YZ  ZX XY  YZ  ZX
A B C R
Z X Y R  3RY RY 
3

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NETWORK LAWS & THEOREMS NETWORK LAWS & THEOREMS

KIRCHOFF’S LAW KIRCHOFF’S LAW

 Named after the German physicist, Gustav Robert Kirchoff (1824 –  Sign Conventions for Kirchoff’s Law:
1887)  Current towards the node, positive current.
 Current away from the node, negative current.
• Current Law (KCL) – the algebraic sum of the currents at any  In a voltage source, if loop enters on minus and goes out on plus,
junction or node of an electric circuit is zero. positive emf.
 In a voltage source, if loop enters on plus and goes out on minus,
• Voltage Law (KVL) – the algebraic sum of the emf’s and the negative plus.
resistance voltage drops in any closed loop of an electric circuit is  In a resistance, if the loop direction is the same as the current
zero. direction, negative resistance voltage drop.
 In a resistance, if the loop direction is opposite to the current
direction, positive resistance voltage drop.

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NETWORK LAWS & THEOREMS

KIRCHOFF’S LAW

 Example:
I1 I2
R1
a b R2 c

E1 E2
R3

I3
f e d
 By KCL: at junction b: I1 + I2 – I3 = 0
 By KVL: at loop fabef: E1 – I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
at loop dcbed: E2 – I2R2 – I3R3 = 0
at loop fabcdef: E1 – I1R1 + I2R2 – E2 = 0
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