Chapter 1

Heated Tool Welding

PROCESS
In hot tool or hot plate welding, a heated
platen is used to melt the joining surfaces of two
thermoplastic parts. After the interfaces of the
plastic parts have melted, the heated platen is
removed, and the parts are held together under low
pressure to form a molecular, permanent, and
hermetic seal. A hot plate is used for flat joining
surfaces; for curved or irregular joining surfaces,
complex tools that allow the hot surfaces to match
the contours of the joint interface are required.
For accurate mating and alignment,
holding fixtures (collets, gripping fingers,
mechanical devices, vacuum cups) must support
the parts to be joined. The joint surfaces should be
clean and relatively smooth to the surface of the
heated tool; weld quality is affected if the surfaces
are contaminated by mold release agent or grease.
Surfaces can be treated mechanically or
chemically. For a butt joint weld (Figure 1.1), the
two ends must be completely aligned before
welding begins. [513, 495, 502]
In hot plate welding, the parts to be joined
are pressed against the hot platen; platens can be
coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) to
inhibit melt sticking. Welding can be performed in
either of two ways, referred to as welding by
Figure 1.1 A butt joint used for hot tool welding, shown
before and after welding.
Figure 1.2 Pressure vs. time curve showing the four phases of
heated tool welding. Parts to be welded are pressed against the hot
tool in phase I, and heat is transferred to the parts by conduction.
Melting begins when the melt temperature of the plastic is reached.
In phase II, pressure is reduced in order to increase melt thickness.
In phase III, the hot tool is removed, and in phase IV, the parts are
brought together under pressure to cool and solidify.
pressure and welding by distance. Both processes
consist of four phases, shown in the pressure vs.
time diagram in Figure 1.2. [552, 521]
In welding by pressure, the parts are
brought in contact with the hot tool in phase I, and
a relatively high pressure is used to ensure
complete matching of the part and tool surfaces.
Heat is transferred from the hot tool to the parts by
conduction, resulting in a temperature increase in
the part over time. When the melting temperature
of the plastic is reached, molten material begins to
flow. This melting removes surface imperfections,
warps, and sinks at the joint interface and produces
a smooth edge. Some of the molten material is
squeezed out from the joint surface due to thermal
expansion of the material. In phase II, the melt
pressure is reduced, allowing the molten layer to
thicken; the rate at which the thickness increases is
determined by heat conduction through the molten

© Plastics Design Library Heated Tool Welding

2

layer. Thickness increases with heating time - the stops contact tooling stops in phase II, parts are
time that the part is in contact with the hot tool held in place for a preset time to allow the molten
(usually 1 to 6 seconds). film to thicken. The hot tool is removed in phase
When a sufficient film thickness has been III, and mechanical stops are used again in phase
achieved, the part and hot tool are separated. This IV to inhibit motion of the parts, allowing the
is phase III, the changeover phase, in which the molten film to solidify only by heat conduction
pressure and surface temperature drop as the tool and not by lateral flow. Cooling time is usually 3
is removed. Duration of this phase should be as to 6 seconds and ends when tooling stops on
short as possible (ideally, less than 3 seconds) to supporting fixtures come into contact. Total cycle
prevent premature cooling of the molten material. time for hot tool welding is usually 20 seconds or
A thin, solid “skin” may form on the joint interface less. Steps in welding by distance are shown in
if the changeover time is too long, affecting weld Figure 1.3. [495, 366, 511]
quality. In phase IV, parts are joined under
pressure, causing the molten material to flow
outward laterally while cooling and solidifying.
Intermolecular diffusion during this phase creates
polymeric chain entanglements that determine
joint strength. Because final molecular structure
and any residual stresses are formed during
cooling, it is important to maintain pressure
throughout the cooling phase in order to prevent
warping. For semicrystalline polymers,
recrystallization occurs during this phase;
recrystallization behavior is affected by cooling
rates. Joint microstructure, which affects the
chemical resistance and mechanical properties of
the joint, develops during phase IV. [513, 520,
521, 495]
Welding by pressure requires equipment in
which the applied pressure can be accurately
controlled. A drawback of this technique is that
the final part dimensions cannot be controlled
directly; variations in the melt thickness and
sensitivity of the melt viscosities of thermoplastics
to small temperature changes can result in Figure 1.3 The hot tool welding process, showing displacement
unacceptable variations in part dimensions. [366] stops used in welding by distance. In step 1, parts are aligned in
holding fixtures; tooling and melt stops are set at specified
In welding by distance, also called displacement distances on the holding fixture and heating platen, respectively.
controlled welding, the process described above is The platen is inserted between the parts in step 2, and parts are
modified by using rigid mechanical stops to pressed against it in step 3. Step 3 includes phases I and II of
control the welding process and the part Figure 1.2. Molten material melts and flows out of the joint
interface, decreasing part length until melt stops meet tooling stops.
dimensions. Parts are pressed against the hot tool Melt thickness then increases until the heating platen is removed in
under pressure, but the displacement of the parts as step 4, the changeover phase (phase III in Figure 1.1). Parts are
the molten material flows out during phase I is pressed together in step 5 (phase IV), forming a weld as the plastic
restricted to a predetermined distance using cools; tooling stops inhibit molten flow. The welded part is removed
mechanical stops on the hot tool (melt stops) and in step 6.
on the holding fixture (holding or tooling stops).
During melt flow, the part length decreases as
molten material flows out laterally; when melt

Heated Tool Welding © Plastics Design Library


PROCESSING PARAMETERS
Important processing parameters for hot
tool welding are the hot tool temperature during
phases I and II, the pressure during phase I
(matching or heating pressure), heating time,
displacement allowed during heating (heating
displacement), melt pressure during phase II,
changeover time, pressure during phase IV (weld,
joining, or consolidation pressure), duration of
phase IV (consolidation time or welding time), and
displacement allowed during phase IV (welding
displacement). In welding by distance, the
parameters should be set so that the displacement
(also called the penetration), the decrease in part
length caused by the outflow of molten material, is
large enough to control part dimensions. Initially
in the welding process, there is very little molten
flow, and the molten film thickens. The flow rate
increases with heating time, eventually reaching a
steady state at which the rate of outflow equals the
rate at which the material is melting; at this point in
welding by pressure, the penetration increases
linearly with time. When displacement stops are
used, however, the penetration ceases when the
melt displacement stops come into contact with the
hot tool displacement stops. Until the stops come
into contact, the melt will flow out laterally;
afterward, the thickness of the molten material
increases with time.
Molten layer thickness is an important
determinant of weld strength. If the thickness of
the molten layer is less than the melt stop
displacement, melt stops cannot contact holding
stops, part dimensions cannot be controlled, and
joint quality is poor due to limited intermolecular
diffusion. In addition to contributing to weld
strength, adequate displacement in phases I and II
compensates for part surface irregularities and
ensures that contaminated surface layers flow out
before the joining phase. [514]
Melt thickness increases with heating
time. For optimal molten layer thickness, heating
time should be long enough to ensure that melt
thickness is as large as the melt stop displacement.
High heating pressures result in larger amounts of
squeeze flow; displacement stops may not be
reached if too much material is lost by being
squeezed out of the joint, and the decreased molten
© Plastics Design Library
4
3
layer thickness produces a brittle weld. If the
molten layer thickness is greater than the melt stop
displacement, molten material will be squeezed
out, producing weld flash and an unfavorable
molecular orientation at the interface; this reduces
the quality of the joint. [512, 514, 510]
The effect of parameters on weld strength
has not been investigated extensively. In
experiments with polypropylene, tensile strength
increased slightly with heating time (at 260 oC, 500
o
F) up to about 30 seconds, then leveled off;
optimum molten layer thickness was reached, so
that further increases in heating time had no effect
on weld strength. At higher heating temperatures,
weld quality was sensitive to variations in heating
time. At 320oC, (608 oF) optimum heating time was
10 seconds; changes in either direction in heating
time significantly decreased weld strength. At
lower temperatures (200oC, 392 oF) weld strengths
were not significantly affected by 30 second
variations in heating time. Strength decreased with
increased heating pressures (over
0.9 MPa, 131 psi) and decreased with increasing
changeover times (0.5 to 3 seconds); the effect of
changeover time was greater at heating times of 30
seconds than at 40 seconds. At a 60 second heating
time, weld quality improved as changeover time
increased to 10 seconds. Lower strengths were
obtained when displacement stops were increased
from 0.2 mm (0.0075 in.) to 0.4 mm (0.015 in.).
Weld strengths increased slightly with increasing
weld times, then leveled off at about 25 seconds.
Highest weld strengths obtained were about 95% of
the neat material. Displacement (penetration)
generally increases with increasing temperature
and heating time and decreases with increases in
changeover time. [518, 510, 513]
High strength welds were obtained with
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). Weld
strengths with flash retained were higher than
those in which the weld flash was machined off;
highest strengths obtained were 95% of neat ABS.
Weld strength increased slightly as machine
heating temperatures increased from 232 oC (450
o
F) to 246oC (475 oF ) at heating times of 10
seconds; however, at 20 second heating times,
temperature increases from 204.5oC to 218.5oC
Heated Tool Welding
(400.1oF to 425.3 oF) did not affect weld strength.
[514]
Optimal parameter settings are dependent
on the materials to be welded. Computer-aided
parameter optimization is possible by monitoring
the viscosity of the melt zone. [517]
Quality control in production can be
implemented by monitoring parameters during the
welding process; if one parameter is not within a
specified tolerance range, the welding machine
either produces a signal or stops the welding
process. More sophisticated techniques include
statistical process control, in which parameters and
melt characteristics are monitored and compared
throughout the welding cycle, and continuous
process control (CPC), in which optimum
parameters are continuously calculated, with the
welding machine adjusting conditions as necessary
throughout the welding process. [508]
MATERIALS
Hot tool welding is suitable for almost any
thermoplastic but is most often used for softer,
semi-crystalline thermoplastics such as
polypropylene and polyethylene and for
thermoplastic polyimides. It is usually not suitable
for nylon or other materials with long molecular
chains. The temperature of the molten film can be
controlled by controlling the hot tool temperature,
so that plastics that undergo degradation at
temperatures only slightly above the melting
temperature can be welded.
Properties of the plastics to be welded
affect the strength of the weld. Within a polymer
family such as high density polyethylene (HDPE),
attainable weld strength may depend on the grade
of the polymer and can be related to the structural
parameters of melt index and density. Lower melt
index polymers produce higher melt viscosities
and can tolerate higher heating temperatures
without melt sticking to the hot tool. As a result,
the size of the heat affected zone (HAZ), the part
area affected by heat, can be larger; a larger HAZ
produces a higher strength joint. For a constant
melt index, increasing polymer density results in
joints with lower tensile strength. Higher density
polymers have a greater proportion of crystalline
regions, which melt in a narrower temperature
range than polymers of lower crystallinity. As a
Heated Tool Welding
result, a thinner HAZ and more brittle welds are
obtained. [522]
In hygroscopic materials such as
polycarbonate (PC), absorbed water may boil
during welding, trapping steam and lowering weld
strength. High weld strengths can be obtained by
predrying materials; alternatively, processing
parameters can be adjusted to compensate for
absorbed water. High strength welds can be
achieved in dried PC over a wider heating
temperature range (250 - 400 oC, 482 - 752 oF) than
in undried PC (230 - 250 oC, 446 - 482 oF). With
increasing part thickness, the optimum temperature
range shifts to higher temperatures. [521]
Dissimilar materials having different
melting temperatures can be welded in hot tool
welding; instead of a single platen with two
exposed surfaces, two platens are used, each
heated to the melting temperature of the part to be
welded. Different melt and tooling displacements
and different heating times for each part may be
necessary, and due to different melt temperatures
and viscosities, the displacement of each part will
be different. Optimum processing conditions for
each material must first be established, followed
by optimizing process conditions for welding the
two materials together. High strength welds equal
to the strength of the weaker material can be
achieved. [511]
WELD MICROSTRUCTURE
Weld quality is determined by the
microstructure of the heat affected zone of the
weld. The heat affected zone consists of three
zones in addition to the weld flash. The stressless
recrystallization zone consists of crystals with a
spherulitic shape, indicating that cyrstallization
occurred under no significant stress. This zone
results primarily from reheating and
recrystallization of the skin layer and the molten
layer near the joint interface. The columnar zone
consists of elongated crystals oriented in the flow
direction; lower temperatures in this zone lead to
an increase in melt viscosity, and crystals formed
during melt flow aligned with the flow direction.
In the slightly deformed zone, deformed
spherulites are present, resulting from
recrystallization under joining pressure. Higher
heating temperatures result in larger heat affected
© Plastics Design Library

Figure 1.4. Non-contact hot plate welding. Parts being welded are
placed near the hot plate, separated from it by a distance referred to
as the non-contact gap. The hot plate is removed during the change-
over phase, and pressure is applied to hold the parts in intimate
contact during weld coolingand solidification.
zones and greater bond strength; however, too high
a temperature or pressure results in void formation
at the joint interface. [513]
Morphological investigation of
polypropylene welds by differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) indicated that welds with
low tensile strength correlated with the lack of a
region of deformed spherulites between the weld
and the bulk material, a wide weld region, and a
reduction in the amount of melt flow in the weld
direction. Low strength welds had a lamellar
thickness distribution similar to that of the bulk
material, but a wider distribution of lamellar
thicknesses was present in high strength welds.
[614]
EFFECTS OF AGEING ON WELD STRENGTH
Chemical and physical changes may occur
in polymers during hot tool welding, affecting the
durability of the weld. After air oven ageing at
120oC (248oF) at times ranging from 3 to 14 days,
there was a significant reduction (>30%) in weld
cross-sectional area in ABS welds, and
degradation of the rubber segment of ABS resulted
in yellowing. Elongation and tensile strength were
reduced more than in the bulk material. After
immersion for 7 days in 80oC (176oF) water,
© Plastics Design Library
6
5
tensile properties and elongation deteriorated more
in the weld than in the bulk material. Whitening
occurred in the weld, possibly due to free radical
and hydroperoxide formation during welding
which subsequently initiate degradation reactions.
Unsaturation in ABS decreased, along with an
increase in carbonyl group concentration; both
were more significant in welds than in bulk
material. Ageing effects should be considered
when welds will be exposed to aggressive
environments. [516]
VARIANTS OF HOT TOOL WELDING
In direct contact hot tool welding,
described above, parts are pressed against the hot
tool. For high temperature polymers, the hot plate
temperature required for melting is too high for
non-stick surfaces to be used. In non-contact hot
plate welding, parts are brought very close to the
hot plate without actually coming into contact with
it (Figure 1.4). Heat is transferred by thermal
radiation and convection. The process is
otherwise identical to hot tool welding: the hot
plate is removed in the changeover phase, and
pressure is applied to achieve intimate contact as
the weld cools and solidifies.
Processing parameters that influence weld
strength include the size of the non-contact gap,
platen temperature, heating time, change-over
time, and weld pressure and duration. Effects of
change-over time and weld pressure and duration
are similar to those in direct contact hot tool
welding. In non-contact hot plate butt welding of
polypropylene plates, using a 1 mm (0.04 in.) non-
contact gap, weld strength approached or equaled
bulk strength at optimal heating times which
varied with hot plate temperature. Higher hot
plate temperatures (480oC, 896oF) produced
stronger joints at shorter heating times (40 s);
however, joint strength decreased at longer heating
times due to excessive squeeze flow of molten
material out of the joint interface and an adverse
molecular orientation.
Joint strengths increased with increasing duration
of weld pressure up to 60 seconds, then remained
constant or decreased slightly. Optimal weld
Heated Tool Welding
pressure was about 0.35 MPa (50 psi); lower
pressures allowed air entrapment in the joint,
while higher pressures produced excessive squeeze
flow out of the joint and an unfavorable molecular
orientation during weld formation. [613]
EQUIPMENT
A hot tool welding machine consists of the
hot tool assembly with two exposed surfaces, two
fixtures for holding parts to be welded, tooling for
bringing parts in contact with the hot tool and
bringing molten joint surfaces together to form the
weld, and displacement stops on the platen and
holding fixtures. Dual platen hot tool welding
machines are used for welding dissimilar
materials. Welders can accommodate a range of
varying part designs and sizes and can join parts in
either a vertical or horizontal plane. In vertical
heat platens, tooling can be lifted out of the top of
the machine, both part halves can be loaded at the
same time with a single cavity tool, and nests are
in view for part loading. Some welding equipment
can remove weld flash after the weld is formed.
[576, 492, 493]
Equipment ranges from manually loaded
and unloaded machines to semi-automated and
fully automated in-line systems. Statistical control
Figure 1.5 A typical vertical platen hot tool welder .
Heated Tool Welding
Figure 1.6 Tooling displacement stops in a hot tool welder, used
to control melt and part dimensions.
of weld cycles can be achieved through operator
control panels that display all machine parameters
and diagnostic functions, and pressure or
displacement can be programmed throughout the
welding cycle. Parts conveyors or drawer load
features are optional equipment. Equipment is
rugged and is designed to produce molecular,
hermetic seals with consistent joint strength. A
typical hot tool welder is shown in Figure 1.5.
Tooling provides accurate mating and alignment of
parts, and displacement stops control melt and
weld dimensions. Tooling with displacement
stops is shown in Figure 1.6. [514, 493, 492]
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Hot tool welding is a simple, economical
technique in which high strength joints and
hermetic seals can be achieved with both large and
small parts. Joints with flat, curved, or complex
geometries can be welded, and surface
irregularities can be smoothed out during the
heating phases (I and II). Dissimilar materials that
are compatible but that have different melting
temperatures can be welded using hot tools at
different temperatures. Expensive plastics can be
used for only critical part components; inexpensive
plastics can be welded on to comprise the
remainder of the part. Processing parameters can
be monitored, and the welding process can be
easily automated. Hot tool welding is used on
compatible materials and does not introduce
foreign materials to the part; as a result, plastic
© Plastics Design Library

parts are more easily recycled. [517, 495, 513,
477, 450]
In non-contact hot tool welding,
contamination of weld surfaces is minimized,
heating is uniform, and a small weld bead is
produced, providing good, consistent weld
strengths. [613]
The major disadvantage is the long cycle
time required, compared with vibration or
ultrasonic welding. Welding times range from 10
to 20 seconds for small parts to up to 30 minutes
for large pipes; typical cycle times are from 12 to
22 seconds. A second disadvantage is the high
temperatures required for melting. Heat is not as
localized as in vibration welding, and in some
cases can cause plastic degradation or sticking to
the hot platen. When hot melted surfaces are
pressed against each other in phase IV, weld flash
is produced. This must be hidden or removed for
cosmetic reasons. In welding by pressure, part
dimensions cannot always be controlled reliably
due to variations in the molten film thickness and
sensitivity of the melt viscosities of thermoplastics
to small temperature changes. [511, 576, 552]
In the appliance industry, the welding of
glass-filled polypropylene dishwasher pump
housings, initially welded using hot tool welding,
was converted to vibration welding due to reduced
labor costs and lower power requirements. This is
described in more detail under Vibration Welding,
Applications.
APPLICATIONS
Hot tool welding can be used to join parts
as small as a few centimeters to parts as large as
1.5 meters (4.9ft.) in diameter. It is commonly
used in load-bearing applications and for welding
large parts such as pipelines; special machines can
weld large diameter pipes on site. [477, 518]
Cost reduction is possible by welding
dissimilar materials. Automotive headlights, tail
lights, and blinker assemblies are made by welding
a clear polycarbonate or, more commonly,
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) lens to an
inexpensive plastic body made of ABS. Double
cavity holding tools are used for welding rear
© Plastics Design Library
7
Figure 1.7 An automobile headlight; parts were joined
using hot tool welding.
lights. For high temperature applications, a fascia
of a relatively expensive high temperature plastic
can be welded to a less expensive subcomponent.
An automobile headlight joined using hot tool
welding is shown in Figure 1.7. [511, 493, 508]
Stress cracking occurs in tail lights made
from welding ABS to PMMA and is the most
frequent cause of failure in tail lights. Welding
induces internal tensile stresses below the yield
point in PMMA which later cause cracks to form;
the time before crack formation occurs varies.
ABS is relatively insensitive to stress cracking due
to the soft butadiene component. Exposure to
surface active media such as methanol or
windshield washer fluid accelerate crack formation
by reducing the cohesive surface tension of the
plastic. The mechanical stresses necessary for
crack formation are then lowered to below the
yield point, and cracks occur at low strain. Figure
1.8 shows stress cracking in a tail light. Higher internal
stresses occur on the weld seams, which trigger
cracks after exposure to a surface active medium
and result in realignment of the break surface.
Several small cracks are present on the welded
lights, due to positioning constraints on the
welded-on ABS housing. Susceptibility to stress
cracking can be reduced by suitable processing
conditions. In stress cracking experiments,
Heated Tool Welding
8

susceptibility to stress cracking was significantly

lower when either low (230oC) or high (420oC) hot
tool temperatures were used. [616]
Other automobile parts, such as fluid
reservoirs, fuel tanks, and vent ducts, are hot tool
welded. Polypropylene air ducts and mounting
brackets are hot tool welded to the main part of the
instrument panel, made of glass mat reinforced
polypropylene, on the Mercedes-Benz S-class
automobile using mechanical stops to control part
dimensions. In plastic fuel tanks, function parts,
such as clips, vent lines, and filler necks, are hot
plate welded to the blow molded tank; 29 parts are
Figure 1.8 Stress cracking in tail lights. Welding induces internal
hot plate welded to the AUDI Quattro fuel tank. stresses which later cause cracks to form.
[508]
Plastic heat exchangers can be hot tool
welded using a hot plate with deep heatable
grooves that can be pressed against the bundles of
thin-walled thermoplastic pipes. High pressure
applied to the melted region results in molecular
entanglement and high weld strength. Heat
exchangers produced using this welding method
display superior thermal performance, and
production cost is competitive with traditional heat
exchangers. [509]
Hot tool welding is also used in appliance
tubs, agitators, and spray arms. Polyvinyl chloride
is hot tool welded in medical products, life
jackets, stationery products such as loose leaf
binders, and blister packages, and plastic window
frames are made by welding mitered, extruded
profiles of a commercial grade of acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS) developed especially for
window frame applications. [514, 552, 495]

Heated Tool Welding © Plastics Design Library

 Chapter 2

Hot Gas Welding

PROCESS
In hot gas or hot air welding, a heated gas is
used to heat thermoplastic parts and a filler rod to
the melting or glass transition temperature. Rod
and parts then soften and fuse, forming a high
strength bond upon cooling. Hot gas welding is
commonly used for fabrication and repair of
thermoplastic components and for lap welding of
thin sheets or membranes. High bond strengths,
up to 90% of the bulk material, can be achieved.
Hot gas welding is the earliest method of joining
thermoplastics and was first used in World War II
to repair bullet-riddled acrylic cockpit canopies.
[669, 671, 670, 652]
Hot gas welding methods can be manual or
automatic; manual methods are commonly used for
short seams. In manual methods, a gas flows
through a flexible tube to a hot gas gun containing
a sheathed ceramic heating element. Gases used
are usually nonflammable (air, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide), although flammable gases (hydrogen,
oxygen) can also be used; air is most common.
The gas is heated to the melting temperature of the
thermoplastic and is applied to the part and a
thermoplastic filler rod through a nozzle or tip.
The filler rod is composed of the same material as Figure 2.1 Manual hot gas welding. A heated gas flowing through
the welding tip is applied to the joint interface and to the filler rod
the part and is positioned at the joint. As the
positioned at the joint. As the operator moves the tip and the filler rod
operator moves the tip along the joint, the parts along the joint, the filler rod and joint surfaces soften and fuse.
and filler rod soften and merge together, forming a
weld after solidification (Figure 2.1). Tacking, Automatic welding machines are also
welding just enough to hold the parts together, is available and are used for overlap welding of
frequently performed to hold the parts in place seams or membranes. No filler rod is used in lap
while a permanent weld is made. A filler rod is welding, and no joint preparation is necessary. A
not used in tack welding. For high speed welding, diagram of an automatic hot gas welder used for
the rod is fed through a welding tip containing a sealing sheet seams is shown in Figure 2.2. The
feeding channel, making it unnecessary for the pressure and drive rollers apply pressure to the
operator to hold the rod during welding. Joint seam and move it along as welding proceeds. As
surfaces should be cleaned prior to welding, using
mild soap or chemical detergent and/or methyl heated gas is blown between the membranes
ethyl ketone (MEK) for grease removal. [671, through a nozzle, escaping gas preheats the
652] material to be sealed, and small particles (stones,
sand, dust) are blown away from the surface. Hot

© Plastics Design Library Hot Gas Welding

10
Figure 2.2 Diagram of an automatic hot gas welder used for sealing seams. Pressure and drive rollers apply pressure and move the seam along as
welding proceeds. Hot gas is blown between the sheets through a nozzle to the nozzle tip, where the thermoplastic sheet melts and flows together, forming a
seal.
gas emerges at the tip of the nozzle, causing the
thermoplastic sheet material to melt and flow. As
new material is fed through the pressure and drive
roller, the melted seam cools and solidifies.
Automatic hot gas welding produces a consistent,
reproducible, high quality weld. [652, 670]
PROCESSING PARAMETERS
Processing parameters in hot gas welding
include welding speed, welding pressure, and hot
gas temperature. Gas temperatures usually range
from 200 - 600ºC, (400-1100°F) depending on the
melting temperature of the plastic material; gas
flow rates range from 15 - 600 L/min. Welding
speeds vary greatly; typical speeds can range from
0.04 - 10 m/min (1.6 - 394 in./min.) or more.
Because hot gas welding is frequently a manual
process, parameters are adjusted continually by the
operator, according to the appearance of the weld.
Figure 2.3 depicts the appearance of good- and
poor-quality welds. No charring or discoloration
should be apparent along the weld, and the filler
rod should not be stretched during welding. A
good weld has a fine bead on both sides of the
weld (Figure 2.3). [671, 652, 673]
In welding high density polyethylene (HDPE)
geomembranes, temperatures of 450ºC, 500ºC, and
550ºC (840ºF, 900ºF and 1020ºF) and welding
Hot Gas Welding
speeds of 1.7 - 2.0 m/min (67 - 79 in./min.) were
used with a joint pressure of 1250 N. Highest
strength seals were obtained at a temperature of
500ºC (900ºF) and a welding speed of 1.8 m/min.
(71 in./min). [670]
MATERIALS
Hot gas welding can be used to join most
thermoplastics, including polypropylene,
polyethylene, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
(ABS), polyvinyl chloride, polyurethane, HDPE,
polyamide, polycarbonate, and polymethyl
methacrylate. The diameter of the filler rod
selected should be similar to the thickness of the
part; a 0.32 cm (0.13 in.) diameter rod should be
used for a part thickness of 0.32 cm (0.13 in.). For
part thicknesses greater than 0.64 cm (0.25 in.),
more than one rod may be necessary to reach the
required thickness. [671, 507, 670]
Hot gas welding used to repair automobile
bumpers composed of polycarbonate/polyester,
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), or ethylene
© Plastics Design Library
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Figure 2.3 Weld quality analysis by weld appearance.

Figure 2.4 Joint designs commonly used in hot gas welding.

© Plastics Design Library Hot Gas Welding

12 welds of low ductility and reduced strength from that of
the bulk material. Highest tensile strength was obtained
propylene diene monomer (EPDM) produced with PBT; strength was 97% of bulk material.
Tensile stengths of polycarbonate/polyester and
EPDM were 63% and 78%, respectively, of bulk
material. Impact strength of all repaired bumpers
was low, especially when impact occurred at the
weld face; damage occurred in single V welds after
impacts from a distance of >0.1 m (4 in.); double V
joint designs withstood impacts dropped from 1 m
(39 in.). All bumpers withstood crashes at speeds
up to 5 mph. Scanning electron microscopy
indicated that low joint strength was due to a lack
of complete fusion at the joint line; contractions
that occurrred as the weld cooled could not be
counterbalanced by pressure on the weld from
surrounding material, leading to cavities and crack
formation. [669]

JOINT DESIGN
Joints commonly used in hot gas welding are
shown in Figure 2.4. In repairing automotive
bumpers, a 60º V was used; a double V butt weld
generally produced higher strength welds than a
single V butt weld. [671, 669]

Figure 2.6 An automatic overlap welding machine, with a welding

seam width of 4 cm (1.6 in.) and welding speed up to 3 m/min. (118
in./min.).

Figure 2.5 A manual welder.
EQUIPMENT
Equipment for manual welders consists of a
welding barrel heating element, gas cylinder,
pressure regulator, welding tips, welding rods, and
various connectors. Many types of welding tips
are available, depending on the application, and
automatic feed tips can automatically feed filler
rods to the joint for high speed welding. Prices
vary widely, ranging from about $150 for small
welders to over $1000 (US dollars). Optional
equipment, such as cleaning brushes, gas filters,
and leak detectors is also available. A typical
manual welder is shown in Figure 2.5. [671]
Automatic welders are commonly used for
welding sheet material, bitumen, and roofing
membranes. Air flow rates, drive speeds, and
temperatures are adjustable, and temperatures and
drive speeds are electronically controlled.
Welding seam widths vary depending on the
machine and pressure roller. With automatic
welders, uniform pressure and precise tracking on
uneven surfaces can be achieved, and membranes

Hot Gas Welding © Plastics Design Library

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of various thicknesses
can be welded. Nozzles
are interchangeable on
tape welding machines
to accommodate
different widths of bar
cover strips on roofing
membranes. An
automatic overlap
welding machine is
shown in Figure 2.6.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Hot gas welding is
a fast, simple welding
process requiring
inexpensive equipment.
It can be used to weld
components together in
small, difficult-to-weld
places and can be used
on-site for fabrication of
large components or for
repairs. Manual welding
methods, however,
require a skilled operator
for optimum welds, and
weld quality is not as
reproducible as with
automatic welders.
Temperature control can
be difficult in ambient
air conditions. [652,
507]

APPLICATIONS
Hot gas welding is
used in a wide variety of
welding, sealing, and
repair applications. It is
used for fabrication and
repair of chemical tanks,
pipe fittings, plastic
glazing units, and large
injection molded
components. Other
applications include
sealing sheets and
membranes, such as
vinyl floor coverings,
HDPE geomembranes in
landfills, and ducting
and roofing membranes.
[669, 507]

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Hot Gas Welding