ENGLISH 1 Module

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 1:
What Is a Noun?
Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Concrete nouns name people, places, or things that you can touch, see, hear, smell, or taste.
Person Place Thing
man river dog
Mrs. Paris book

Jones
doctor mountain sports

s car
Maddie home Ferrari
Abstract nouns name ideas, concepts, or emotions. These nouns are intangible, which means you cannot touch, see, hear,
smell, or taste them using your five senses.
Idea Emotion
love happiness
intelligenc anger
e
justice excitemen
t
religion fear
time surprise
Hint:
Remember, pronouns are not nouns.

Common and Proper Nouns
Definition: Common nouns name any person, place, thing, or idea. They are not capitalized unless they come at the
beginning of a sentence. Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, things, or ideas. Proper nouns should
always be capitalized.
Common Proper
boy ⇒ James
river ⇒ Mississippi Rive
r
car ⇒ Ford
doctor ⇒ Doctor Jefferso
n
Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

town ⇒ Rockledge
candy ⇒ Baby Ruth
bar
Hint:
Don't forget to capitalize all parts of proper nouns. Many people forget to capitalize words like river and county in
proper nouns like Yellow River and Orange County.

Singular and Plural Nouns 1
Definition: Singular means only one. Plural means more than one.

In order to make a noun plural, it is usually only necessary to add s. However, there are many irregular nouns that add es.
The rules for spelling plural nouns are based on the letters at the end of the word. The chart below breaks up the rules into
categories so that they are easier to remember.
Rule Examples
Add s to form the plural. cat ⇒ cats

Most nouns truck ⇒ trucks
bug ⇒ bugs
Nouns that end in s, sh, x, ch, or z bus ⇒ buses
Add es to form the plural. For words that
brush ⇒ brushes
end in z, add an extra z before the es.
fox ⇒ foxes
Hint: beach ⇒ beaches
It is too hard to pronounce the quiz ⇒ quizzes
words without the e. Try it – buss,
brushs, foxs... You sound like a
snake!
Nouns ending in f or fe roof ⇒ roofs
Some nouns ending in f or fe just add s.
safe ⇒ safes
Sometimes it is necessary to change
shelf ⇒ shelves
the f to a v. In that case, always end the
wife ⇒ wives
word with es.
Hint:
Check a dictionary if you are
unsure which rule a noun follows.

Singular and Plural Nouns 2
In this lesson you will learn the rest of the rules for spelling plural nouns.
Rule Examples
Nouns that end in vowel + y Add s to form the plural. donkey ⇒ donkeys
highway ⇒ highways
Nouns that end in vowel + o Add s to form the plural. oreo ⇒ oreos
scenario ⇒ scenarios
Nouns that end in consonant + y Change the y to i and add es to form the family ⇒ families
plural. trophy ⇒ trophies
Nouns that end in consonant + o Easy rule: Regular examples:
Usually add es except for musical terms. potato ⇒ potatoes
dingo ⇒ dingoes
Complicated rule: piano ⇒ pianos
Some nouns that end in consonant soprano ⇒ sopranos
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+ o add es. Many can be spelled either
way. Look in the dictionary if you want to
be sure.
These nouns always add es: potato,

tomato, hero, echo, banjo, embargo,
veto, torpedo.
Here are the preferred spellings of some

plural nouns: buffaloes, dominoes,
mosquitoes, volcanoes, tornadoes,
ghettos, mangos, mottos, cargos, halos,
mementos.
The chart below explains some exceptions to the rules.
Exceptions Examples
Words from foreign languages, Simply add s. taco ⇒ tacos

including musical terms kimono ⇒ kimonos
aria ⇒ arias
Words that are proper nouns Simply add s. Eskimo ⇒ Eskimos
Picasso ⇒ Picassos
Words that are short forms of longer Simply add s. photo (photograph) ⇒ photos
words kilo (kilogram) ⇒ kilos
memo (memorandum) ⇒ memos
Hint: If a musical term or proper noun ends in s still add es. chorus ⇒ choruses
Jones ⇒ Joneses
Hint:
Are you confused yet? The easiest way to handle the plural nouns in this lesson is to remember a few shortcuts:
 Memorize the short list of words that must end in es.

 Add es to words that end in consonant + o.
 For words that end in consonant + y, change y to i and add es.
 Remember that foreign words usually end in s, not es.
In this lesson you will learn the rest of the rules for spelling plural nouns.
Rule Examples
Nouns that end in vowel + y Add s to form the plural. donkey ⇒ donkeys
highway ⇒ highways
Nouns that end in vowel + o Add s to form the plural. oreo ⇒ oreos
scenario ⇒ scenarios
Nouns that end in consonant + y Change the y to i and add es to form the family ⇒ families
plural. trophy ⇒ trophies
Nouns that end in consonant + o Easy rule: Regular examples:
Usually add es except for musical terms. potato ⇒ potatoes
dingo ⇒ dingoes
Complicated rule: piano ⇒ pianos
Some nouns that end in consonant soprano ⇒ sopranos
+ o add es. Many can be spelled either
way. Look in the dictionary if you want to
be sure.
These nouns always add es: potato,

tomato, hero, echo, banjo, embargo,
veto, torpedo.
Here are the preferred spellings of some

plural nouns: buffaloes, dominoes,
mosquitoes, volcanoes, tornadoes,
ghettos, mangos, mottos, cargos, halos,
mementos.
The chart below explains some exceptions to the rules.
Exceptions Examples
Words from foreign languages, Simply add s. taco ⇒ tacos

including musical terms kimono ⇒ kimonos
aria ⇒ arias
Words that are proper nouns Simply add s. Eskimo ⇒ Eskimos
Picasso ⇒ Picassos
Words that are short forms of longer Simply add s. photo (photograph) ⇒ photos
words kilo (kilogram) ⇒ kilos
memo (memorandum) ⇒ memos
Hint: If a musical term or proper noun ends in s still add es. chorus ⇒ choruses
Jones ⇒ Joneses
Hint:
Are you confused yet? The easiest way to handle the plural nouns in this lesson is to remember a few shortcuts:
 Memorize the short list of words that must end in es.

 Add es to words that end in consonant + o.
 For words that end in consonant + y, change y to i and add es.
 Remember that foreign words usually end in s, not es.

Irregular Plural Nouns
Irregular nouns form plurals in unusual ways. Dictionaries will give you the plural spelling if it is irregular.
one child ⇒ two
children
one foot ⇒ two feet
one tooth ⇒ two teeth
one man ⇒ two men
Some nouns are spelled the same way whether they are singular or plural.
one fish ⇒ two fish
one sheep ⇒ two
sheep
one deer ⇒ two deer
Nouns with Latin and Greek origins form plurals in strange ways. Because Latin and Greek plural endings are so unusual,
many people try to follow the English rules by adding s or es. Applying the English rules is acceptable for some nouns, but
using the original spelling is usually better. You will notice in the chart below that nouns with the same endings form plurals
in the same way every time. Impress your friends and family by knowing the correct forms.
-a ⇒ -ae -us ⇒ -i -is ⇒ -es -on ⇒ -a and -ie ⇒ -ce
amoeba ⇒ alumnus ⇒ analysis ⇒ analyses criterion ⇒ criteria

amoebae alumni
antenna ⇒ cactus ⇒ cacti axis ⇒ axes phenomenon ⇒

antennae phenomena
alumna ⇒ alumnae fungus ⇒ fungi diagnosis ⇒ diagnoses die ⇒ dice
nucleus ⇒ nuclei hypothesis ⇒ hypotheses
octopus ⇒ octopi parenthesis ⇒

parentheses
Note:
Amoebas, cactuses, and funguses are now acceptable spellings even though the Latin spellings are still preferred.
Also, octopuses is now the preferred plural spelling of octopus, but the Latin octopi is acceptable as well.
Some nouns exist only in the plural form.
binoculars pants
clothes pajamas
glasses scissors
goggles shorts
jitters tweezers
Note: This is not a complete list.
Depending on the style manual you use, there are different rules for making letters, numbers, and abbreviations plural. The
information in this lesson is based on the Chicago Manual of Style. Use the shortcuts in this lesson to help you remember
the rules.
 In order to make capital letters plural, add a lowercase s. Sometimes it is necessary to use an apostrophe if the
plural form could be confused with a word (such as the word As versus the plural A's or the word Is versus the plural I's), but
the apostrophe is only necessary if the letter is at the beginning of the sentence.
Shortcut: Capital letter + s
I earned straight As on my report card, but my sister received all Bs.
 To make lowercase letters plural, italicize the letter and add an apostrophe + s. It is important to add the apostrophe
because otherwise the letter might be mistaken for a word (for example, a's versus as). Remember that even though the
letter itself is italicized, the s is never italicized.
Shortcut: Lowercase italicized letter + apostrophe + s
Why does algebra use so many x's and y's?

 To make an abbreviation plural, simply add a lowercase s. It is not necessary to add an apostrophe before the s.
Shortcut: Abbreviation + s
I used to have a lot of CDs, but now I just listen to my mp3 player.
I've heard that M.D.s go to school for at least 7 years!
 One last area that we haven't covered is how to make numbers plural. You can do so by adding a
lowercase s without an apostrophe.
Shortcut: Number + s
2s, 3s, and 4s
Hint:
Many people think that you have to use an apostrophe + s when making years plural, but most style guides actually suggest
that you leave out the apostrophe.
The Industrial Revolution took place between the late 1700s and early 1800s.
I was born in the '90s.
(Notice how the apostrophe in '90s comes before the number. That's because the apostrophe is being used to replace
the 19 in 1990s. It has nothing to do with whether the number is plural or not.)
Note:
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Remember that the Chicago Manual of Style isn't the only guide out there, and different manuals follow different guidelines.
For example, some manuals prefer to use an apostrophe + s when making all letters and numbers plural. When writing,
consult your manual if you have one. Whether you have a manual or not, make sure to follow the same rule throughout your
essay, article, or story.
Also remember that people use specific guides for certain types of writing. Some popular guides are the Associated Press
Stylebook (also called the AP Stylebook), APA style (from the American Psychological Association), and the MLA style (from
the Modern Language Association). When you write essays or research papers, you use MLA or APA style, but when writing a
news article, you use the AP Stylebook. If you're not sure which guide to use, just ask your teacher.

Compound Nouns
Definition: A compound noun is a noun made up of two or more words. Each word makes up part of the meaning of the
noun.
Compound nouns can be written three ways:

A single word Two words Hyphenated
haircut rain self-esteem
forest
toothpast ice cream brother-in-
e law
Hint:
A compound noun is the sum of its two parts. However, there are some words that aren't compound nouns even
though they can be broken up into two words. One example is a compound adjective.
A half-eaten pie
(Half-eaten describes the pie, so it is an adjective, not a
noun.)
Two-word proper nouns can also be classified as compound nouns. Remember that proper nouns name specific people,
places, and things.
Angkor Wat
Atlantic Ocean
Eiffel Tower
Nelson
Mandela
Hint:
Single-word compounds and hyphenated compounds are easy to spot, but two-word compounds can be tricky. Ask yourself,
"Would I find both words together as a single entry in the dictionary?" For example, if you compare the phrase cold water with
the compound noun ice cream, you can see the difference. In the phrase cold water, cold is an adjective that describes the
noun water. However, ice cream is a compound noun because ice is not an adjective describing cream. The two words work
together to create a single noun. To check the spelling of a compound noun, look it up in the dictionary.
When a compound noun is a single word, make it plural by adding s to the end. If the compound noun is hyphenated or
composed of two separate words, remember to add s only to the word that is plural.
one mother-in-law ⇒ two mothers-in-law
(There are two mothers, not two laws.)
one director general ⇒ two directors general
(There are two directors, not two generals.)

Collective Nouns

Definition: Collective comes from the same root as collection. A collective noun names a group, which is like a collection of
people or things.
famil tea choi jur committe her po
y m r y e d d
Hint:
Put the word in this test sentence to see if it works: One ______ is a group.
One team is a
group.
One jury is a group.
One herd is a
group.
Beware of plurals! Students can be a group, but that doesn't make the word collective. It is plural. Remember to use the test
sentence One ____ is a group.
One student is not a
group.
Hint:
It is important to be able to identify collective nouns because of the way they agree with verbs. We will cover this
topic in Verbs: Agreement and Challenges, Lesson 3.

Possessive Nouns
Definition: Possessive nouns show ownership. Possessive comes from the same root as possession, something you own.
Singular Possessives
Add 's to singular words to show possession.
Dog's sister's car's
collar backpack engine
(dog + 's) (sister + 's) (car + 's)
If a singular word ends in s, it is still necessary to add 's.
Charles's Bess's bus's tires
sneakers dresses
(Charles + 's) (Bess + 's) (bus +
's)
Plural Possessives
If you have added an s to make a word plural (for example, cat ⇒ cats), adding 's will sound ridiculous (cats's). In that case,
add only the apostrophe to the end of the word.
Dogs' sisters' cars'

collars backpacks engines
(dogs + ') (sisters + ') (cars + ')
Just like singular possessives, plural possessives that don't end in s add 's.
Children's fish's octopi's
homework bowls tentacles
(children + 's) (fish + 's) (octopi + 's)
Hint:
Look at the ending in front of the apostrophe to see if the word is singular or plural.
One dog|'s tail (One dog has one tail.)

Two dogs|' (Two dogs have two tails.)
tails
If two people own something together, use an 's after the second person only.
Joe and Mary's car is (Both Joe and Mary own the car.)
new.
If two people own two separate things, add 's to each name.
Laurie's and Megan's nails are painted the same (Each girl has her own nails.)
color.
You may find that certain names ending in s add only an apostrophe. That rule is somewhat old-fashioned. However, some
names, such as Jesus, Moses, Achilles, and Charles Dickens (historical names that end in a z sound), can end with either
an apostrophe or 's.
Jesus' parables were instructional Jesus's parables were instructional
stories. stories.
Moses' first tablets were broken. Moses's first tablets were broken.
Some people prefer to use only the apostrophe, but because we usually pronounce the extra s, adding 's is correct as well.
Note:
Possessive nouns act as adjectives in sentences. These nouns modify the nouns that follow them. If you want more
information on this topic, you can look at Pronouns, Lesson 2 and Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs, Lesson 2.
Module 2, Pronouns, Lesson 1:

Personal Pronouns
What would you think if you heard something like this?
One day the doctor asked the doctor's assistant for the doctor's calendar. Then the doctor checked the doctor's calendar to see what
appointments the doctor had that day. Then the doctor returned the doctor's calendar to the doctor's assistant for the doctor's assistant
to use to schedule the doctor's patients' appointments.
It doesn't sound like we normally speak, does it? That's because this paragraph has no pronouns. We use pronouns to
replace nouns to avoid unnecessary repetition.
One day the doctor asked her assistant, James, to hand her the appointment calendar. Then she checked it to see how many
appointments she had that day. After that, she returned the calendar to James and asked him to use it to schedule her other patients'
appointments.
That sounds a lot better.
Definition: The prefix pro means for or in place of. Pronouns stand in for or replace nouns. This lesson is about personal
pronouns, which replace nouns that refer to people or things.
Personal pronouns have:
 Number: They are singular or plural.
 Person: 1st person is the person speaking, 2nd person is the person being spoken to, and 3rd person is the person
being spoken about. You can look at the chart below for examples.
 Case: Determines how a pronoun is being used in a sentence (subject, object, or possessive). We'll go over this
more in the next lesson.
Personal Pronouns
Subject Object Possessive
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st Person I we me us my, mine our, ours

2nd Person you you you you your, yours your, yours
3rd Person he, she, it they him, her, them his, her, hers, its their, theirs
it

Cases of Personal Pronouns
The cases of pronouns tell you how they are being used in a sentence.
Subject Object Possessive
I we me us my, mine our, ours
you you you you your, yours your, yours
he, she, they him, her, them his, her, hers, its their, theirs
it it
Definition: A subject pronoun (also called a nominative pronoun) is used as the subject of a sentence or as a subject

complement following a linking verb. (The subject of a sentence is the person doing the action in a sentence. A subject
complement is a word that renames or gives more information about the subject. A linking verb, such as is or seems,
connects the subject to the subject complement.)
Hint:
Subject Pronoun as the Subject of a Sentence
A subject pronoun that acts as the subject of a sentence will make sense in the following test sentence: bit the
monster. The subject pronoun will tell us who is doing the biting.
I bit the monster. He bit the monster. It bit the monster. They bit the
You bit the She bit the We bit the monster.
monster. monster. monster.
Hint: Subject Pronoun as a Subject Complement (Renaming the Subject)

Subject pronouns that are used as subject complements to tell us more information about the subject will fit in this
test sentence: The superhero was . In this test sentence, superhero is the subject, and the subject pronoun tells us
who the superhero is.
The superhero was I. The superhero was he. The superhero was it. The superheroes
The superhero The superhero The superheroes were they.
was you. was she. were we.
(Note that when a subject pronoun is followed by a linking verb, you can say the sentence backwards and it will still make
sense: The superhero was I ⇒ I was the superhero.)
Note: In informal speech, it is now acceptable to say things like "It's me" instead of "It is I," even though it is not technically
grammatically correct.
Definition: An object pronoun (also called an objective pronoun) is used as a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of
a preposition. Below are some examples of these concepts. To learn more, follow the links.
Direct object: Brandon sent it. (What did Brandon send? He sent it.)
Indirect object: Brandon sent her the package. (Who was the package for? Her.)
Object of a preposition: Brandon sent the package to her. (Her is the object of the preposition to.)
Hint:
Object pronouns will fit in this test sentence: The monster bit . The object pronoun in this sentence tells us who was bitten by
the monster.

The monster The monster The monster bit it. The monster
bit me. bit him. The monster bit them.
The monster The monster bit us.
bit you. bit her.
Notice how it doesn't make sense to use object pronouns in place of subject pronouns, or subject pronouns in place of object
pronouns. (The exceptions to this rule are the pronouns it and you, which can be used in either case).
Me bit the monster. The monster bit I.
Them bit the The monster
monster. bit they.
Definition: possessive pronouns show ownership.
There are two sets of possessive pronouns. My, your, his, her, its, our, your, and their are usually classified as possessive
pronouns, but they are more accurately described as possessive adjectives because they always modify nouns.
My pencil fell on the floor, and his pencil ended up on her desk.
The second set of possessive pronouns consists of the words mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs. These pronouns
are different from the others because they don't modify nouns. They completely replace the nouns they refer to.
Hey! That's mine, not yours!
Hint:
Note that there are no apostrophes in the possessive pronouns. They are born showing ownership, so it's not necessary to
add 's to show ownership. Remember that it's is the contraction for it is while its is the possessive pronoun.
It's a good idea to give your dog its dinner on time!
It's ⇒ It is a good idea ... (contraction)
its dinner ⇒ the dog's dinner (possessive)

Challenging Uses of Cases
There are several types of sentences that cause confusion about whether to use a subject or object pronoun: sentences
with a compound subject or object; sentences with a pronoun followed directly by a noun; and sentences that use pronouns
after than or as. After this lesson, you'll be much more confident about which pronouns to use in these tricky situations.
Pronouns in Compounds
In sentences that use two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun together, it's easy to become confused about which pronoun
to use. If you're not sure which one is correct, consider whether it's part of the subject (doing the action) or part of the object
(either receiving the action or after a preposition). Sometimes a pronoun may sound right to you, but you can't always trust
your ears. Be especially careful with I and me, which are two of the most common offenders.
Common Error #1: Using Object Pronouns in Place of Subject Pronouns
Error Correction
Jesse and me went to school. Jesse and I went to school.

Him and me bought a new puppy last He and I bought a new puppy last
week. week.
Me and them took the bus. We took the bus.
Notice how in the last example it would sound strange to say they and I, so the best solution is to combine the two pronouns into the
single pronoun we.
Common Error #2: Using Subject Pronouns in Place of Object Pronouns
Error Correction
He met Jeremy and I. He met Jeremy and me.

Nancy hit Will and I. Nancy hit Will and me.
Is that hot fudge sundae for Carlos Is that hot fudge sundae for Carlos
and I? and me?
10

My brother sat right between you and I. My brother sat right between you and me.
The last two examples use object pronouns because they come after prepositions (for and between).
Hint:
To decide whether you need to use a subject pronoun or an object pronoun, cross out the other pronoun or noun, and use the
pronoun that sounds correct when it stands alone.
Jesse and I went to school. (You would say I went, not me went.)
Nancy hit you and me. (You would say Nancy hit me, not Nancy hit I.)
Is that hot fudge sundae for Carlos and me? (You would say for me, not for I.)
Pronoun order can be another tricky topic when dealing with compounds. Writing convention suggests that, out of courtesy,
when using the first person pronouns I or me, we generally put these pronouns last, allowing the other names and pronouns
to go first.
Sam and I saw a movie on Saturday.
I wrote a story about my cat and me. (Not me and my cat.)
Pronouns Before Nouns

Sometimes for clarity or emphasis, writers use a pronoun and a noun together. People often use an object pronoun when
they mean to use a subject pronoun, and vice versa.
Error Correction
Us writers enjoy writing fiction. We writers enjoy writing fiction.

The teacher explained the lesson The teacher explained the lesson
to we students. to us students.
Hint:
To decide whether you are using the correct pronoun, ignore the noun and see whether the pronoun is correct on its own.
We writers enjoy writing fiction. (Not Us enjoy writing fiction.)
The teacher explained the lesson to us students. (Not explained the lesson to we.)
Pronouns After Than or As

When sentences use than or as to compare, it can be difficult to choose the correct pronoun.
Error Correction
Diana is a better speller than me. Diana is a better speller than I.

He knows a lot more than her. He knows a lot more than she.
She plays basketball just as well She plays basketball just as well
as me. as I.
We grew as much as them. We grew as much as they.
At this point you might be wondering why the left column of this chart sounds correct while thinking that the right side
sounds a little strange. That's because it's perfectly acceptable to talk that way in casual conversation. However, in formal
writing you must follow the examples in the right column. (There are cases in which it's okay to use an object pronoun
after than or as, but doing so completely changes the meaning of the sentence.)
Hint:
Ask yourself what is missing in the sentence. That will guide you in choosing the correct pronoun.
Diana is a better speller than I (am).
He knows a lot more than she (does).
She plays basketball just as well as I (do).
In sentences with than or as, different pronouns can create different meanings.
Imaginary monsters scare my little brothers more than (they scare) me.
(The monsters don't scare me as much as they scare my little brothers.)
Imaginary monsters scare my little brothers more than I (scare them).
(I don't scare my little brothers as much as the monsters do.)
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She likes him as much as (she likes) me.
(She likes both him and me equally.)
She likes him as much as I (do).
(Both she and I like him the same amount.)

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Definition: Reflexive sounds like reflection, the image in the mirror that bounces back at you. A reflexive pronoun tells us
that whoever performs the action in a sentence is also the one on the receiving end of that action. In other words, the
reflexive pronoun reflects back to the subject. A reflexive pronoun can be used as the direct object, indirect object, or object
of a preposition in a sentence.
Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself themselves
herself
itself
The puppy saw itself in the mirror.
Itself is the direct object in the sentence. The pronoun itself refers back to the subject. The puppy saw the puppy in the
mirror.
Hint:
If you're still not sure whom the pronoun is referring to, ask yourself questions to break down the sentence.
Find the subject (doer) and the verb (action): Who saw? The puppy saw.
(The puppy is doing the action.)
Find the object: What did the puppy see? Itself, the puppy.
(The puppy is also receiving the action.)
Know When not to Use Reflexive Pronouns ...

Do not use reflexive pronouns instead of subject or object pronouns.
Error Correction
Mark and myself went to the movies. Mark and I went to the movies.
Our teacher gave Sara and myself an award for the Our teacher gave Sara and me an award for the
best project. best project.
...And Recognize the Reflexives That Don't Actually Exist!
There are several nonexistent reflexive pronouns that people commonly use, such as hisself, ourself, theirself, themself,
and theirselves. If you use any of these pronouns, here is a simple chart to show you which pronouns to use instead.
Error Correction
hisself himself
ourself ourselves
theirself, theirselves, or themself themselves
Intensive vs. Reflexive Pronouns

Definition: Intensive is like intense. Something intense is very strong. An intensive pronoun emphasizes a preceding noun,
which is often (but not always) the noun immediately before the pronoun. Intensive pronouns look exactly the same as
reflexive pronouns, but they are only used for emphasis.
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The queen herself gave the knight the award.
The queen gave the knight the award herself.
Herself refers to the queen. Using an intensive pronoun tells the reader (or listener) that it's a big deal that the queen
gave the award. After all, she's not just anybody—she's the queen!
Because intensive pronouns are used only for emphasis, they can be removed from a sentence without affecting its
meaning. The same is not true of reflexive pronouns, which do cause a change in meaning when removed from a sentence.
Look at the following comparison to understand the difference.
Reflexive Intensive
The queen bought herself a dog. The queen bought the dog herself.
The queen bought something for herself. She is both The intensive pronoun herself merely emphasizes the fact
completing and receiving the action in the sentence. that the queen (not someone else) was the one who bought
the dog.
Notice how the meaning changes when we remove the If the intensive pronoun is removed, the meaning doesn't
reflexive pronoun: change:
The queen bought herself a dog. The queen bought the dog herself.
Did the queen buy the dog for herself, or did she buy it for The queen still bought the dog regardless of whether the
someone else? Without the reflexive pronoun, there's no intensive pronoun is in the sentence or not.
way to know for sure.
Interrogative Pronouns
Definition: To interrogate is to ask someone questions. Interrogative pronouns ask questions.

Interrogative Pronouns
Things Things or People People
What Which Who Whom Whose
What is used to ask about things. Do not use it to ask about people.
There's a really strange mixture in that pot. What did you put in there?
What is being used to ask about the ingredients in the pot.
Which is used to show a choice among two or more items.

Of all the items on the menu, which do you recommend?
In this scenario, the waiter is being asked to choose which menu item he likes best.
Note:
Which can also be used to indicate a choice or distinction among two or more people.
I see two girls making a sand castle. Which is your sister and which is your cousin?
Whose is a possessive pronoun used to find out whom something belongs to.
I see a stray flip flop on the floor. Whose is it?
Using whose is a shorter way to ask questions such as Who owns the flip flop? or Whom does the flip flop belong to?
Hint:
Do not confuse the possessive pronoun whose with the contraction who's, which is short for who is. Remember, if
you are trying to show possession, use whose, but if you want to say who is, use who's.
Who's going to the concert? ⇒ Who is going to the concert?
Use who's because you are not trying to indicate possession.
I found some concert tickets on the ground. Whose are they?
The tickets belong to someone, so use whose.
Each of these interrogative pronouns can be used as either singular or plural. Most of the examples in this lesson are
singular, but below are a few plural examples.
What are these bugs called?
Of all these brand names, which are the best quality?
There are five cars parked in front of this house. Whose could they be?
Note:
13

When what, which, and whose are used in front of a noun, they are no longer interrogative pronouns, but
interrogative adjectives. For example, in the question What time is it? the interrogative what is not a pronoun
because it is followed by the noun time.
Who vs. Whom

Who is a subject pronoun. You use it ask for information about what people are doing or who they are.
Who wants to go hiking this weekend?
Who is the man with the long beard?
Whom is an object pronoun. It is used to find out whom an action is being done to, not who is doing an action. It is also used
with prepositions.
Whom do you know in this class?
Whom is the object of the verb know.
Whom are you wrapping that gift for?
Whom is the object of the preposition for.
The preposition for tells us that someone is receiving the gift (not giving it), so it is necessary to use whom and not who.
(Traditionally it was never acceptable to use a preposition at the end of a sentence or question, but this rule has been
relaxed in recent years. For more information, see Prepositions, Lesson 9.)
Do the examples of whom sound a little odd to you? You're not alone! Using whom in casual conversation can sound formal
and stuffy, so when we talk to each other we often use who instead. It's all right to continue to use who during informal
conversation or even in informal writing, but with all formal writing you must use whom for the objective case and who for
the subjective case.
Hint:
Use who in a question when you would answer it with I, he, she, we, or they. Use whom when you would answer
the question with me, him, her, us, or them. In other words, use who in a question if you would answer it with a
subject pronoun, and use whom in a question if you would answer it with an object pronoun.
Who would like some ice cream? I would like some ice cream.
Who went to the fair? They went to the fair.
Who, I, and they are all subject pronouns. You wouldn't say me would like some ice cream or them went to the
fair.
Whom did you ask for cookies? You asked him for cookies.
To whom did you wave? You waved to me.
Whom, him, and me are all object pronouns. You wouldn't say you asked he for cookies or you waved to I.
Who Whom
Subject pronoun Direct or indirect object pronoun
Never use as the object of a preposition Must use with prepositions

Demonstrative Pronouns
Definition: To demonstrate is to show something. Demonstrative pronouns show or point to objects or people.

Demonstrative Pronouns
Close to Speaker Far from Speaker
Singular This That
Plural These Those
This and that refer to singular objects or people.
This is an expensive store.
That is a very tall building.
These and those refer to plural objects or people.
14

These are very expensive shoes.
Those are the tallest skyscrapers in the city.
In addition to providing information about whether something is singular or plural, demonstrative pronouns indicate whether
something is close to or far from the speaker. This and these refer to objects or people that are close to the
speaker. That and those refer to objects or people far from the speaker.
Comparison 1: This vs. That

Example Context
This is my best friend. The friend is close to the speaker. The speaker is likely introducing the friend
to another person.
That is my best friend.
The friend is far away from the speaker (across the room, for example). The
speaker is probably talking about the friend, not introducing him or her.
Comparison 2: These vs. Those
Example Context
These are amazing cookies! The speaker is holding or eating the cookies, or the cookies are close
by.
Those are amazing cookies! Someone other than the speaker is holding the cookies, or the
cookies are not near the speaker.
It is never correct to combine this with here or those with there. Here and there are understood in the pronouns.

This here is my favorite movie.
That there is the best movie ever.

Relative Pronouns
Definition: A relative is someone who has a relationship with you. Relative pronouns show a relationship between a noun
and a clause. The clause provides describing information about the noun. You can also use relative pronouns to combine
two sentences into one.
Relative Pronouns
Tha Which Who Whom Whose

t
Note:
Some relative pronouns may look like interrogative or demonstrative pronouns, but that doesn't mean all three types of
pronouns do the same job. You'll learn more about the differences among the three types later in this lesson.
Who, whom, and whose relate to people (or pets if you refer to them by name). Which is used with objects. That is
preferably used only with objects, but you will see it used with people. Try to get in the habit of using who with people
instead of that. It is more polite.
Examples of Relative Pronouns
I like roller coasters that have lots of loops.

(that = roller coasters)
Ice cream, which is my favorite dessert, tastes very refreshing on a hot summer day.
(which = ice cream)
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Teachers who have a sense of humor are easy to get along with.
(who = teachers)
My cousin, who is from Illinois, visits me every year.

(who = my cousin)
The friend whom you saw yesterday wants to go out again tonight.
(whom = friend)
The man whose shirt was stained rushed home for a change of clothes.
(whose = the man's)
In each of these sentences, you can see that the relative pronoun introduces additional information about the noun.
You can also use relative pronouns to combine two sentences. This feature makes relative pronouns an excellent tool for
improving your writing. Take a look at the following two sentences:
The team won the championship. The team went to Disneyland to celebrate.
They sound a little choppy and mechanical, don't they? You can fix that problem by using the relative pronoun that to
replace the noun team in the second sentence. Doing so will allow you to combine both sentences into one.
The team that won the championship went to Disneyland to celebrate.
Now you have a single concise sentence instead of two choppy sentences. Also notice how won the championship gives us
additional information about the team. We wouldn't know which team went to Disneyland without using a relative pronoun to
give us more information. (For more information, look here.)
Note:
Even though relative pronouns can be used to connect clauses, they are not the same as conjunctions. A relative pronoun
fulfills two roles: it serves as both a pronoun and a connector. On the other hand, a conjunction's one and only role is to
connect two clauses. Conjunctions can never be pronouns.
As you have probably already noticed, many interrogative, demonstrative, and relative pronouns look exactly the same. In
order to tell the difference, you must analyze how these pronouns are being used in a sentence. If they are being used to
ask a question, they are interrogative. When you use them to show or point to something, they are demonstrative. You will
know if a pronoun is relative if 1) the pronoun introduces describing information about a noun or 2) the pronoun is acting like
a conjunction. Below you'll see some examples to help you understand the differences.
Interrogative: Whom did you ask about the movie times?
(The pronoun whom is being used to ask a question.)
Relative: Dave is the person whom you asked about the movie times.
(The pronoun whom is being use to introduce additional information about Dave.)
Demonstrative: That is the book I found.
(The pronoun that shows which book I found. It may help you to imagine someone pointing to the book.)
Relative: I found the book that you lost. (book I found = book you lost)
(The pronoun that connects the two sentences You lost the book and I found the book. It also gives us some describing
information about the book.)

Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns*
Definition: If your plans for this weekend
are indefinite, or not definite, then you are
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
not sure. An indefinite pronoun is one that
doesn't refer to a specific person or thing.
anothe anybody, anyone, anything both all
r everybody, everyone, few any
each everything many more
either nobody, no one, nothing others most
16
much somebody, someone, several none
neither something Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled
someby Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd
one
other
*We'll cover the importance of the categories in the agreement lesson.
Here are some examples of indefinite pronouns:

Of these two sandwiches, neither looks like something I would eat.
Can no one tell me the answer to this math problem?
This solution is one of many.
Some are better than others.
Many indefinite pronouns can also be used as adjectives.

Pronoun: Either will be acceptable to my aunt.
Either stands alone as a pronoun.
Adjective: Either set of dishes will be acceptable to my aunt.
Either modifies the noun set.
Pronoun: There are 35 students in this class and several arrived late today.
Several stands alone as a pronoun.
Adjective: Several students arrived late today.
Several modifies the noun students.
There are a few indefinite pronouns that can be combined to form reciprocal pronouns. They are each other and one
another. The word reciprocal means that an action is moving in two directions. For example, if I brush your hair and you
brush mine, the action is reciprocal; we are brushing each other's hair. Reciprocal pronouns are used so that we don't have
to repeat people's names when talking about who did what.
To replace two nouns, use each other.
Jorge and Melanie help each other study for tests.
Stephanie and Laurie bumped into each other in the hall.
To replace three or more nouns, use one another.
The police, firefighters, and paramedics help one another respond to emergencies.
Students always bump into one another in our crowded hallways.
Pronoun Agreement
Definition: Ante (not anti) means before. The root cedere means to go. The antecedent goes before the pronoun. It is the
noun that the pronoun replaces. A pronoun must match, or agree, with its antecedent in number, person, and gender.
Hint:
You can be sure a noun is the antecedent if you can use that noun in place of the pronoun.
My mother gave me her bracelet.
My mother gave me my mother's bracelet.
Number Agreement
Singular nouns must match with singular pronouns. Plural nouns must match with plural pronouns.
Lisa didn't come to school because she was sick. (singular noun, singular pronoun)
After Sasha and Aaron climbed the Great Wall of China, they were totally exhausted. (two nouns, plural pronoun)
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The two dogs disappeared as they raced over the hill. (plural noun, plural pronoun)
If two nouns are joined with the conjunction and, use a plural pronoun. If they are joined by or or nor, use a singular
pronoun.
John and Randy brought their books to class.
John or Randy brought his book to class.
Neither John nor Randy brought his book to class.
Person Agreement
When writing about yourself, use I, me, we, or us. When writing directly to someone, use you. When writing about someone
(or something) else, use he, she, it, him, her, they, or them. Use it when you don't know the gender of the thing you're
talking about.
My name is Kitty and I am an English teacher.
The pronoun I replaces the noun Kitty. You would not say My name is Kitty and Kitty is an English teacher.
Carmen felt nervous when Melvin asked her to dance.
The little fish knew it was doomed when the shark came around the corner.
I'm going to the movies with Joey and Michael. Do you know them?
Keep in mind that when using the pronouns I, me, we, us, and you, it's not always necessary to have an antecedent.
Are you going to the dance on Saturday?
When we ask someone a question, we already know who "you" is, so it's not necessary to say the person's name
beforehand.
Our parents always threw wonderful birthday parties for us.
Can you give me a ride, please?
Gender Agreement
When writing about men, use he, him, and his. When writing about women, use she and her. If you don't know the gender,
use he or she, him or his, or his or her. Only use they and their if the antecedent is plural.
The blind man was about to walk into the street, but I ran over and helped him.
The woman arrived at the store, but she had forgotten her wallet and had to go back home.
Hint:
Using their instead of his or her is becoming acceptable in spoken English, but make sure to use his or her in written English.
If using his or her sounds awkward, an easy way to fix this problem is to make the subject plural.
Error Corrections
A new doctor must A new doctor must pass his or her certification exam before getting a license.

pass their certification exam before We don't know the gender of the doctor.
getting a license.
New doctors must pass their certification exams before getting licenses.
Notice how you also have to make the words exam and license plural in this
sentence. That's because each doctor takes his or her own exam and receives
his or her own license.

Challenges in Pronoun Agreement
Sometimes it can be difficult to ensure that you are using the correct pronoun. The challenge is making sure you know
which word is the antecedent.
Challenge 1: Interrupting Phrases

Try not to get distracted by phrases that come between the antecedent and the pronoun.
Jeremy, one of the waiters, dropped his tray.
Jeremy = his, but waiters = their. Don't use the plural pronoun their if Jeremy was the only waiter who dropped his tray.
Hint:
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Cross out the interrupting phrase to make sure you find the correct antecedent.
Jeremy, one of the waiters, dropped his tray.
Challenge 2: When the Reference Is Unclear

Usually the pronoun refers to the last noun mentioned or the last subject, but sometimes it's unclear which noun is the
antecedent. Some textbooks call this "ambiguous pronoun reference." If using a pronoun could cause a misunderstanding, it
is better to use the noun instead.
Unclear Pronouns Corrections
Joan and Marcie went to Which one was late? The pronoun she could refer to either Joan or Marcie, so it's
work. She was late. better to use the name instead of the pronoun.
Joan and Marcie went to work. Marcie was late.
Joan and Marcie went to work. Joan was late.
My father was just like his grandfather, Who was not as tall? He could refer to either father or grandfather.
but he was not as tall. My father was just like my grandfather, but my father was not as tall.
Hint:
Ambiguous pronoun reference occurs often when you write because in your imagination, you can clearly see whom you are
writing about. Have a friend read your essay for you, paying special attention to the pronouns.
Challenge 3: Pronoun Shifts

Make sure you don't change from first or third person to second person, or vice-versa. In other words, don't switch pronouns
midway through your sentence. If you start with the first person (I, we, etc.) or third person (she, they, etc.), stick with it.
One important cause of pronoun shifts is the use of the indefinite you, which is an informal way to talk about others.
You take a driving test when you want to get your license.
In this sentence, you is actually a stand-in for people. What you really mean is that, in general, people take a driving test
when they want to get their license.
When using the indefinite you, a pronoun shift is an easy mistake to make. Many people start their sentences in first or third
person and suddenly switch to the indefinite you. The reverse can also happen. The chart below will help you identify
pronoun shifts, and show you some easy ways to fix them.
Note:
When people talk to each other, it's easier and more personal to use the indefinite you than to use the word people. While
using the indefinite you is fine for informal speech, it's not appropriate in formal writing. When you write, don't use you unless
you mean the reader.
Pronoun Shift Correction
First ⇒ Second We went to the top of the Sears We went to the top of the Sears Tower where we could see the
Tower where you could see the entire city of Chicago.
entire city of Chicago.
Second ⇒ Third When you go to the When you go to the movies, you can buy your ticket in advance.
movies, people can buy their ticket OR
in advance. When people go to the movies, they can buy their tickets in
advance.
Third ⇒ Second A police officer has a dangerous A police officer has a dangerous job because he or she often
job because you often puts his or her life at risk.
put your life at risk. If you think this phrasing sounds awkward, you're not alone!
Although using he or she avoids gender-biased language, it often
results in strange-sounding sentences. The better option is to
make your sentence plural:
Police officers have a dangerous job because they often
put their lives at risk.
Hint:
When you talk to someone using the second person, it's called direct address. We often use direct address when we ask
questions (how are you?). When you use someone's name as the direct address in a sentence, that person's name is not the
antecedent; the unstated you is the real antecedent.
Maryanne, are these your glasses?
The antecedent is the unstated you, not Maryanne, so use your, not her.
Note:
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Another type of pronoun shift occurs when someone starts a sentence with a singular pronoun and later uses a plural
pronoun. This information is covered in Lesson 9.
Challenge 4: Collective Nouns
Collective nouns appear to be plural nouns because they really refer to a group, but they are often singular. You need to
understand how the group is acting in order to choose the correct pronoun. Sometimes the group acts as a whole. Other
times the members of the group act as individuals.
The team won its last game.

In this sentence, the collective noun is singular. The team was working as a whole to win.
The team took their uniforms home and washed them.

In this sentence, the collective noun is plural because the team members individually took their uniforms home to wash
them.
Indefinite Pronoun Agreement

Indefinite Pronouns
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
anothe anybody, anyone, anything both all
r everybody, everyone, few any
each everything many more
either nobody, no one, nothing others most
much somebody, someone, several none
neither something some
one
other
You learned in an earlier lesson that indefinite pronouns fall into three categories: some are singular, some plural, and
others fall into either category depending on the context of the sentence. When using an indefinite pronoun and a
possessive pronoun in the same sentence, people often choose the plural possessive pronoun their, but that's not always
the correct choice. Singular indefinite pronouns take singular possessives, and plural indefinite pronouns take plural
possessives.
Everybody needs his or her pencil.
(singular indefinite pronoun + singular possessive pronoun)
Many will need their tablets.
(plural indefinite pronoun + plural possessive pronoun)
Sometimes an indefinite pronoun is followed by a prepositional phrase like this: of the + noun. Beware of this type of phrase.
The indefinite and possessive pronouns still need to agree in number. It doesn't matter whether the noun in of the + noun is
singular or plural. Look at the examples below to get a better understanding of how to handle this type of phrase.
Each of the students is missing his or her homework.
Even though the noun students is plural, the indefinite pronoun each is singular, so you cannot use the plural
possessive their. Use the singular, gender-neutral possessive his or her.
Many of the students are missing their homework.
In this sentence, it's necessary to use the plural possessive pronoun their because of the plural indefinite
pronoun many (not because of the noun students).
With pronouns that can be either singular or plural, you need to look closely at the prepositional phrase of the + noun in
order to determine whether the meaning is singular or plural.
All of the cake is missing its frosting.
All of the cake is a singular quantity. You have only one cake.
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All of the cake slices are missing their frosting.
All of the slices is a plural quantity. You can count how many slices of cake there are.
All of the students are missing their notebooks.
All of the students is a plural quantity. You can count the students.
Also remember that singular indefinite pronouns take singular verb forms while plural indefinite pronouns take plural verb
forms. Note the difference between the singular everyone needs and the plural many need.
Module 3, Verbs: Types, Tenses, and Moods, Lesson 1:

Action Verbs
What Is a Verb?
In Module 1 you learned about nouns, but as you've probably guessed, a sentence needs a lot more to make it interesting.
It needs some "pep," something to get it moving—and that's where the verb comes in. You can think of the noun as the
driver (called the subject), the verb as the engine (the predicate), and the entire sentence as the car. You need both a driver
and an engine in order for the car to go anywhere.
Definition: When most people think about verbs, they think about the first type: action verbs, also called dynamic verbs. This
kind of verb tells you what's happening or what someone is doing. Some action verbs describe physical actions, and they
are easy to spot because you can observe them with at least one of your five senses. These are words such as jump, sing,
and eat. On the other hand, some action verbs are more abstract, and they're easy to miss sometimes because you can't
always observe them with your five senses. These are words such as think, learn, and decide. Take a look at the examples
below to see how action verbs are used in a sentence.
Physical Actions
The neighbor's cats meow loudly.
You hear the meow and you may see the cat open its mouth to meow.
Trucks speed down the highway.
You can see the truck speeding and probably hear the motor too.
Waves crash on the shore.
You can see and hear the wave and even feel it crash if you're standing close enough.
Abstract Actions
Students learn new material every day.
You can't actually look into someone's brain and see the learning process, but learning is still an action.
I think my shoes are under the bed.
You can't really see the thoughts going through the person's mind, but thinking is still an action. It's what you're doing.

Linking Verbs
Definition: Unlike action verbs, linking verbs show a relationship between the main noun (also called the subject) and
another word that describes that noun. The describing word can be an adjective or another noun. The most common linking
verb is to be and its forms am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been.
My cat is furry.
The verb is links the main noun, cat, with a describing word, furry. Furry is an example of an adjective.
My childhood dog was an Akita.
In this sentence, the verb was links the noun dog to another noun, Akita. The second noun tells us the breed of the dog.
Other common linking verbs include appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn.
If left too long, the milk may turn sour.
I feel refreshed after that nap.
Hint:
Sometimes you may not be sure whether a verb is a linking verb, but there is an easy way to tell: you can replace any linking
verb with a form of to be. If the sentence makes sense and has almost the same meaning, you have a linking verb.
21

The milk may turn be sour.
I feel am refreshed.
Laurie appears is tired.

Action vs. Linking Verbs
Can You Tell the Difference Between an Action Verb and a Linking Verb?
The verbs appear, become, feel, get, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn can act either
as action verbs or linking verbs. In order to tell the difference, you have to pay attention to how each type of verb is used in
a sentence—linking verbs are used for descriptions, whereas action verbs tell you what someone (or something) is doing.
Linking
Kelly grows tired after hours of gardening.
The adjective tired describes Kelly. Kelly is tired after she gardens.
Action
Kelly grows sunflowers in her yard.
This sentence tells us what Kelly is doing—she plants sunflowers and grows them.
Hint:
Remember, you can replace linking verbs with a form of to be (am, is, are, was, were, etc.) but you can't do the same thing
with action verbs.
Kelly grows tired. = Kelly is tired.
Kelly grows sunflowers. ≠ Kelly is sunflowers.
In the second example, replacing grows with is creates a nonsense sentence. The noun sunflowers does not describe Kelly;
she's not a sunflower.
Helping Verbs
Definition: All sentences need at least one main verb; however, certain tenses, sentence structures, and ideas require
a helping verb (also called an auxiliary verb), which assists the main verb to form a complete thought. Without helping
verbs, certain ideas would be impossible to express, and our speech and writing would be dull and incomplete. Remove the
helping verb, and you might end up sounding like a caveman (or woman)! Try removing the helping verb from any of the
examples in this lesson and you'll get the idea.
Verb Phrases
Helping verbs and main verbs combine to form verb phrases. The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase.
Helping Verb + Main Verb = Verb Phrase
Common Helping Verbs

Below you will learn about the most common helping verbs and how they're used. You'll notice that many helping verbs are
used in specific verb tenses. The tense of a verb tells us the time period when an action occurs, such as in the present,
past, or future. You'll learn more about this concept in Lesson 8.
To be: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been
 Progressive Tenses
Earlier, you learned that to be is a linking verb, but in many situations, it's a helping verb. For example, it's used in
the progressive tenses, which combine the forms of to be with verbs ending in -ing.
Present Progressive:
I am writing this sentence.
am + writing = verb phrase
Past Progressive:
It was raining, so we couldn't play outside.
was + raining = verb phrase
22

 Passive Voice
The verb to be is also used in the passive voice, which combines the forms of to be with verbs ending in -ed or -en. These
verbs are called participles.
Make sure all your assignments are completed by Thursday.
are + completed = verb phrase
This sentence was written.
was + written = verb phrase
Note:
Sometimes the participle will have a different ending instead of -ed or -en, but you will learn about this concept in a later
lesson.
To have: have, has, had, having

 Perfect Tenses
The verb to have combines with verbs ending in -ed and -en to form the perfect tenses. (They're not really "perfect" tenses;
that's just their name.)
Present Perfect:
It has rained so many days in a row that I can't remember the last time the sun was out!
has + rained = verb phrase
Past Perfect:
We didn't realize the pickpocket had stolen our wallets until she was already long gone.
had + stolen = verb phrase
To do: do, does, did

 Questions
Unlike to be and to have, to do isn't used as part of any particular verb tense—but it still has several important jobs. One of
them is to form questions. You'll notice that in questions, a noun or pronoun splits the verb phrase.
Do you know what time it is?
do + know = verb phrase
you = pronoun
 Negative Statements
To do also helps to form not statements, which are called negative statements. In this type of sentence, the word not splits
the verb phrase.
I do not know what time it is because I lost my cell phone.
do + know = verb phrase
not = adverb
Hint:
Remember that don't, doesn't, and didn't are contractions for do not, does not, and did not. The word not, which is an adverb,
is not part of the helping verb.
 Emphasis
Finally, you can use to do as an emphatic verb to help clarify or add intensity to the main verb.
Yes, I do know your Uncle Joe.

There may have been confusion about whether you know Uncle Joe or not. The helping verb do is used to make it crystal
clear that you know him.
I did buy milk yesterday.
Here, to do is in the past tense. The person making the statement is clarifying that he or she already bought milk.
Note:
There is no future emphatic because you can't emphasize something that hasn't happened yet.
Modals (also called modal auxiliaries): can, could, may, might, shall, will, would, should, must
These verbs express ability, possibility, permission, intention, obligation, and necessity.
23

I can play basketball.
I am able to do it.
I could play basketball.
It is a possibility that I will be able to.
I may play basketball.
This can mean two things: either I have permission to play, or it is a possibility that I will play.
I might play basketball.
It is a possibility. You can use might instead of may to suggest that the possibility is more remote or uncertain.
I shall play basketball.
Shall is more common in British English and is used instead of will for the first person (I shall, you will). It is used to express
future actions.
I will play basketall.
It is my intention in the future.
I would play basketball.
It is possible that I'll play under certain conditions.
I should play basketball.
I have an obligation to do it.
I must play basketball.
It is a necessity.
Common Challenges with Helping Verbs
Challenge 1: Questions
Watch out for questions. Often, the subject of the question is located between the helping verb and the main verb.
Are you coming to my party?
are + coming = verb phrase
you = pronoun
Do you prefer chocolate cake or white cake?
do + prefer = verb phrase
you = pronoun
Hint:
Often, if you rearrange all the words in a question to form a declarative sentence, it is easier to find the verb
phrase.
Are you coming to my party?
You are coming to my party.
Challenge 2: Adverbs
Sometimes the verb phrase can be interrupted by an adverb. Be careful not to include the adverb in the verb phrase. Only
words on the "Approved List of Helping Verbs" can be helping verbs.
You are not coming to my party.
are + coming = verb phrase
not = adverb
I can definitely go to your party.
can + go = verb phrase
definitely = adverb
Approved List of Helping Verbs
to be to have to do Modals
am have do can
are has does could
is had did may
was having might
were shall
be will
bein would
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g should
been must
Principal Parts of Verbs
Definition: In English there are four principal parts (also called forms) of a verb. These parts are used to form tenses, which
tell us when an action occurred. In this lesson you'll learn the fundamentals about the base verb form, the present and past
tenses, and present and past participles. For more in depth information on how to use tenses, visit Lesson 8 and Lesson 10.
Principal Parts
Base/Present Present Participle Past Past Participle
walk walking walked walked
dance dancing dance danced
d
play playing played played
Introduction to the Present and Past Tenses
The base is the most basic (or root) form of a verb, and it plays a very important role in forming the present and past tenses.
Present Tense
The base alone is used for most forms of the present tense, including the first person (I and we), second person (you), and
third person plural (they). The only time the base changes is in the third person singular (he, she, it). To form the third
person singular, just add the letter -s to the end of the base.
Present Tense
Person and Number Example
First Person I practice piano once a week.
Singular & Plural We practice piano every day.
(I and we)
Second Person You practice piano every other day.
Singular & Plural Do you girls practice piano every day?
(You can refer to one person or a group of
people.)
Third Person They practice piano on the weekends.
Plural
(they)
Third Person She/He practices piano for two hours each day.
Singular
(he, she, it)
Past Tense
To form the past tense, take the base form and add -ed. If the base ends in a silent e, just add -d, not -ed. Unlike the
present tense, the past tense always uses the same form regardless of person or number.
Past Tense
Base Example
walk I/we/you/she/he/they walked 10 miles to the gas station yesterday.
bake I/we/you/he/she/they baked fifteen dozen cookies last holiday season.
(silent -
e)
Introduction to Participles
When used as verbs, participles function as part of a verb phrase and must be accompanied by a helping verb. (There are
some other ways to use participles, but you will learn about those in a different lesson.)
Participles
Base Present Participle Past Participle
walk walking walked
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bake baking baked
(silent -
e)
Present Participles
To form a present participle, take the base form of the verb and add -ing. If the verb ends in a silent -e, drop the -e and
add -ing. Present participles are used in the progressive tenses, which combine a form of to be (am, is, was, etc.) with a
present participle.
My sister is walking to school today.
My brother was watching television when I came home.
Past Participles
Past participles are formed the same way as the past tense—by adding -ed to the base (or just -d if the base ends in a
silent -e). Past participles are used in the perfect tenses, which combine a form of to have (have, has, had) with a past
participle.
They have hiked this trail many times before.
Before leaving, we made sure we had walked the dog.
Principal Parts: Spelling Changes
Spelling Changes with the Four Principal Parts

When adding an ending to a verb, you sometimes have to change the spelling.
Do change the spelling in the following situations:
Base Verb Spelling Spelling Change
Single syllable1 verb ending in a consonant2 Double the consonant when adding an -ing or -
ed ending.
shop + -ing = shopping
shop + -ed = shopped
Ends in a single vowel plus a consonant and carries the stress on the Double the consonant when adding an -ing or -
3
last syllable ed ending.

refer + -ing = referring
refer + -ed = referred
Ends in a consonant + y Change y to ie when adding -s.
clarify + -s = clarifies
Change y to i when adding -ed.
clarify + -ed = clarified
Ends in a silent -e Drop the silent -e before adding -ing.
amaze + -ing = amazing
Just add a -d instead of -ed.
amaze + -ed = amazed
Ends in a -c Add a k before an -ing or -ed ending.
frolic + -ing = frolicking
frolic + -ed = frolicked
Don't change the spelling in these situations:

Base Verb Spelling Spelling
Most base forms, except Most of the time, spelling changes are not necessary when adding the -s ending to the base
those ending in consonant form of the verb (i.e. in the third person singular form of the present tense). This is true even
+ y for verbs that do require a spelling change for the -ing or -ed ending.
shop + -s = shops (vs. shopping and shopped)
refer + -s = refers (vs. referring and referred)
amaze + -s = amazes (vs. amazing)
frolic + -s = frolics (vs. frolicking and frolicked)
Verbs ending in a consonant + y, which you already learned about in the above table, are the
only exception.
Ends in a consonant + y Don't make any spelling changes when adding the -ing ending.
clarify + -ing = clarifying (vs. clarifies and clarified)
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Ends with a single vowel Don't double the consonant. An example is the verb wander, which has the stress on the a,
before a consonant, but the not the e. (Contrast wander with the verb refer in the previous table.)
stress is not on the last wander + -s = wanders
syllable wander + -ing = wandering
wander + -ed = wandered
Ends with a double vowel Do not double the consonant. (Contrast the verbs cheat and retreat with shop and refer in the
before a consonant previous table.)
cheat + -s = cheats
cheat + -ing = cheating
cheat + -ed = cheated
retreat + -s = retreats
retreat + -ing = retreating
retreat + -ed = retreated
Ends in a vowel + y Don't change y to ie. (Contrast enjoy with the verb clarify in the previous table.)
enjoy + -s = enjoys
enjoy + -ing = enjoying
enjoy + -ed = enjoyed
Ends in a vowel + l In American English, do not double the l even though l is a consonant.
travel + -s = travels
travel + -ing = traveling
travel + -ed = traveled
Note: In British English, you do double the l before the -ing and -ed endings
(travelling, travelled).
1. When we pronounce words aloud, we break them up into smaller sound units called syllables. For example, the
word syl*la*ble itself can be broken up into three syllables. There are also many single syllable words, such
as shop and book.
2. Any letter of the alphabet that is not a, e, i, o, or u is considered a consonant.
3. When we say words aloud, we pronounce certain syllables more loudly than others. The syllable that is pronounced
the loudest is the stressed syllable. (Emphasis is another word that is commonly used for stress.)

Irregular Verbs
Definition: In Lesson 5 you learned about the regular past forms, which always end in -ed. Irregular verbs don't follow this
pattern. Most of the time, verbs are irregular only in their past tense and past participle forms, but there are a handful of
verbs that have one or more irregular present tense forms. This lesson is going to cover the irregular past forms only.
Note:
Even if a verb is irregular, the present participle is still formed by adding -ing to the end of the base—no exceptions. Yes, you
read that correctly: there are no irregular present participles in the English language. Sometimes you may have to tweak
the spelling a little, but the ending will always be -ing.
Irregular Past Tense and Past Participles

Here are a few basics you'll want to remember about the irregular past tense and past participle forms.
 They all have one important characteristic in common: they never end in -ed. Some examples
are ate, fought, swam, and given.
 It's very common for a vowel (or pair of vowels) to be different from the base form. Began (base form, begin)
and froze (base form, freeze) are a two good examples.
 Most irregular verbs follow a specific pattern. You'll learn more about this concept later in this lesson.
Let's take a closer look at how the irregular past tense and past participles are formed.
Past Tense
With the irregular past tense, it is common for a vowel in the middle of the verb to change instead of the verb's ending. The
verb drive, for example, changes to drove in the past tense.
Other verbs require you to change a vowel and add a new ending. Eat, for example, turns into ate in the past tense.
27

One of the most common irregular past tense endings is -t (sweep → swept). Sometimes you'll add -d (sell → sold) or -
ght (catch → caught) instead.
Often, when the base ends in -ck, -e, -g, -ght, or -n, the past tense will keep that final letter or set of letters.
stick → stuck
drive → drove
ring → rang
fight → fought
run → ran
Past Participles
Just like the irregular past tense, irregular past participles can be formed by changing a vowel, adding a new ending, or
doing both. However, the vowel or ending is often (but not always) different from the past tense form. For example, many
irregular past participles require you to add an -en, -n, or -ne ending (drive → driven).
Many irregular past participles end in -en, but, similarly to the past tense, they can also end in -t, -ck, -d, -e, -g, or -ght.
In the table below you'll find several examples of how the irregular past tense and past participles are formed. Pay special
attention to the vowel changes and different endings.
Base Regular Irregular Irregular

Present Participle Past Past Participle
drive driving drove driven
begin beginning began begun
sleep* sleeping slept slept
run running ran run
freeze freezing froze frozen
*
eat* eating ate eaten
*For some verbs, such as sleep, freeze, and eat, a pair of vowels changes instead of just a single vowel.
Irregular Verb Patterns

Now that you have an idea of how to form the irregular past tense and irregular past participles, let's take a look at some
patterns that an irregular verb may follow.
Common Patterns
 Sometimes the past tense and past participle are the same. All the verbs in this category have at least one of the
following characteristics:
o The most common past tense and past participle endings you will add to these verbs are -t, -ght, and -
d (sweep/swept/swept; catch/caught/caught; sell/sold/sold).
o You will never add an -en, -n, or -ne ending to these verbs. The only time the past forms end in -n or -ne is
when that ending is already part of the base form (shine/shone/shone).
o Sometimes the base, past, and past participle endings are all the same. This happens most often when the
base ends in -ck, -g, -ght, or -ne.
You'll want to keep these characteristics in mind as you study irregular verbs, but don't worry about memorizing them all.
Use the table below to help you start recognizing all the patterns.
Base Past Past Participle

swee swept swept
p
catch caught caught
sell sold sold
shine shone shone
swing swung swung
fight fought fought
stick stuck stuck
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 It is common to form the past participle by adding -en, -n, or -ne to the end of the base or past tense form.
eat ate eaten
give gave given
do did done
freez froze frozen
e
 For some verbs, the base, past tense, and past participle are all the same. The base form of these verbs almost
always ends in -t (a couple of them end in -d, but that's very unusual).
put put put
set set set
 Keep in mind that this pattern does not apply to all verbs ending in the letter -t—there are quite a few, such
as connect, visit, and lift, that are regular verbs. Also, verbs with a base form ending in -ght never follow this pattern.
 Sometimes, the final vowel changes from i in the base to a in the past, and then to u in the past participle.
begi bega begun
n n
ring rang rung
Rare Patterns and Stand-Alone Irregulars
 With the verbs run, come, become, and overcome, the base and past participle are the same. These are the only
four verbs that follow this pattern, so keep an eye out for them—people often make the mistake of thinking that the past
tense and past participle forms are the same.
run ran run
come cam come
e
 The base, past tense, and past participle are all completely different. This doesn't happen very often. The verb fly is
a good a example.
fly flew flown
 With the verb beat - and only the verb beat - the base and the past tense are the same, but the past participle is
different.
beat beat beaten
 Keep in mind that any other verb that has the same base and past tense will also have the same exact past
participle (for example, put/put/put).
Note:
Knowing these patterns will help you recognize the different verb forms, but it's not the best way to memorize them. Most
people learn the irregular verb forms by hearing, reading, and practicing them or by being corrected at home or in school.
Hint:
If you aren't sure whether a verb is irregular or not, the easiest solution is to look it up in the dictionary. If the verb is irregular,
the dictionary will give you all of the irregular forms.
Present Tense: Irregular Third Person Singular

Verbs that are irregular in the present tense are almost always irregular only in the third person singular form (he, she, it).
There are very few verbs that fall into this category; they are to have, to do, and to go. These verbs also have an irregular
past tense and past participle.
Regular Present Irregular Present Regular Present Participle Irregular Past Irregular Past Participle
(third person singular only) (all forms) (all forms)
I/you/we/they hav he/she/it has (not haves) having had had
29

e
I/you/we/they do he/she/it does (not dos) doing did done
I/you/we/they go he/she/it goes (not gos) going went gone
Hint:
There are certain verbs that have do, go, or have as their root.1 These verbs will have the same irregular forms as the root
verb.
The verb forgo, which has the root go, has an irregular past tense form and past participle (forwent, forgone).
The verb undo, which has the root do, is irregular in the third person singular form of the present tense and has an irregular
past tense and past participle (undoes, undid, undone).
The Verb To Be
The verb to be is the most irregular verb in the English language. It is irregular in all forms of the present and past tenses,
and it has an irregular past participle.
Present Tense Present Participle Past Tense Past Participle

I am being I/he/she/it was been
you/we/they ar you/we/they wer
e e
he/she/it is
Try it out:
Fill in each column with the correct form of the given verb. Then check your work. Practice the ones you miss.
Base Regular Irregular Irregular
Present Past Past
Participle Tense Participle
? seek
? swing
? choose
? get
? drink
? swim
? bring
? ride
? begin
? drive
? know
? write
? sink
? burst
? cost
? become
1. A root is the most basic part of a word. Sometimes a root is a stand-alone word, and sometimes it's just part of a
word. You can combine the root with other elements to make new words. Elements you add to the beginning of a
word are called prefixes, and elements you add to the end of a word are called suffixes.
for + go = forgo
under + go = undergo
re + do = redo
un + do = undo
The roots in the examples above are go and do. The other elements are all prefixes.
30

Tenses of Verbs
Definition: Earlier in this module you learned that verbs are action words. Verbs have multiple forms called tenses that tell
us when an action occurs. In this lesson you'll learn about the simple, progressive, and perfect tenses.
Simple Tenses
The present, past, and future tenses are called simple tenses.
Simple Tenses
Present Past Future
walk(s) walke will walk

d
Simple Present Tense

The term present tense is a little deceiving. You're probably thinking to yourself, "It's a no-brainer, isn't it? The present tense
is used for actions that are happening now, right?"—not exactly. Although it's true that the present tense does have to do
with current events, there are several specific ways in which it's used, including:
 Talking about actions that occur repeatedly
These are actions that happen on a regular basis, such as habits or routines. They can have a specific or general time
frame.
I brush my teeth every morning and every night.

Bret runs five miles every day.
We visit my grandparents twice a year.
Sometimes Sean and Jaimie go to the pool.
Mom never lets us eat chocolate cake for breakfast.
 Discussing current facts, basic truths, or widely accepted beliefs
The sky is blue, and the grass is green.

Cats catch mice.
Stealing is unethical.
 Describing people or things
Use the present tense to describe physical characteristics, personality traits, feelings, abilities, and likes and dislikes that
are true in the present.
Her brothers are both over six feet tall.

He is the nicest person I know.
I feel sick today.
My best friend plays minor league baseball.
Many people love dogs, but many also love cats.
This milk smells funny.
Your new rose bush looks beautiful!
Note:
When you want to talk about an action that is occurring at this very moment, you typically use the present progressive tense,
which you'll learn about later in this lesson.
You already learned how to form the present tense in Lesson 5, but let's review. The base alone is used for most forms of
the present tense, including the first person (I and we), second person (you), and third person plural (they). The only time
the base changes is in the third person singular (he, she, it). To form the third person singular, just add the letter -s to the
end of the base.
31

Simple Past Tense
The past tense is more straightforward than the present tense—you only use it to talk about actions, events, or feelings that
happened at an earlier point in time.
Olivia closed the door behind her.
We pushed through the crowd to get a better view of the stage.
Let's also review how to form the past tense. Simply take the base form and add -ed. If the base ends in a silent e, just
add -d, not -ed. Unlike the present tense, the past tense always uses the same form regardless of person or number. If you
would like to see more examples, you can go back to Lesson 5.
Note:
The English language has quite a few irregular past tense forms that don't end in -ed. You can learn about them here.
Future Tense
The future tense is one of the easiest tenses to learn because it has no irregular forms. Just as its name suggests, it's used
to describe actions that will happen in the future. It is formed by combining the helping verb will with the base form of the
main verb.
Tomorrow I will walk home from school.
Progressive Tenses (A.K.A. the Continuous Tenses)

Progressive tenses are used to discuss ongoing or continuing actions. They can also be used to talk about an action that is,
was, or will be occurring at the same time as another action. The progressive tenses use a form of the verb to be plus the
present participle of the verb.
Progressive Tenses
Present Progressive Past Progressive Future Progressive
am walking was walking will be walking
am eating was eating will be eating
Present Progressive
The present progressive tense is typically used to talk about something that is happening right now. It can also be used to
talk about a future action or an action that is occurring at the same time as another one. It is formed by using a present
tense form of the verb to be plus the present participle of the main verb.
I am walking to school right now. (current action)
He is walking to school tomorrow. (future action)
Most days we are walking to school when you see us. (simultaneous actions: are walking and see)
Hint:
The word simultaneous means happening at the same time.
Past Progressive
The past progressive is used to describe an action that was occurring at the same time as another past action.
Yesterday I was walking to school when you saw me.
(simultaneous actions: was walking and saw)
Future Progressive
The future progressive is usually used to describe an action that will occur at the same time as another future action. To
form the future progressive tense, use this formula: will be + present participle.
Tomorrow I will be walking to school when you see me.
(simultaneous actions: will be walking and see)
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Notice how the verb see is in the present tense, not the future tense. When people talk about future simultaneous actions,
usually one verb is in the future progressive and the other is in the simple present.
Perfect Tenses
Perfect tenses show when an action happened in relation to another action. To form the perfect tenses, use a form of
the helping verb have (have, has, had, will have) plus the past participle of the main verb. The verb have changes to show
the tense.
Hint:
To review irregular past participles, visit Lesson 7.
Perfect Tenses
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
have walked had walked will have walked
have finished had finished will have finished
Present Perfect
An action in the present perfect began in the past and continues in the present or has ended by the present. It can also be
used to talk about past actions that happened multiple times. To form the present perfect, use the present tense of the
verb to have plus the past participle of the main verb.
Most days I take the bus to school, but for the last two weeks I have walked to school.
I have finished my homework already.
Past Perfect
An action in the past perfect began and ended before another past event. To form the past perfect, use the past tense of the
verb to have plus the past participle of the main verb.
Yesterday I rode the bus to school, but the day before I had walked to school.
I was watching TV because I had finished my homework already.
Future Perfect
An action in the future perfect tense will be finished by a particular time in the future. To form this tense, use this
formula: will + have + past participle.
By the time I arrive at school tomorrow, I will have walked to school 100 days in a row.
By 8 p.m. I will have finished my homework.
Perfect Progressive Tenses

Perfect progressive tenses are a combination of perfect (completed before) and progressive (ongoing) tenses, which show
that something began, continued, and ended before another action. The perfect progressive tenses combine the perfect
(have, has, had, will have), the progressive (been) and the present participle of the main verb.
Perfect Progressive Tenses
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect

Progressive Progressive Progressive
have been walking had been walking will have been walking
have been finishing had been finishing will have been finishing
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Present Perfect Progressive
This tense is used for recent past actions that happened repeatedly.
I have been walking to school on sunny days.
He has been finishing his homework by 7 p.m. every day this week.
It is also used for continuous past actions that are affecting the present in some way.
I have been walking to school a lot, so I'm in much better shape than I was before.
He has been finishing all his homework, and his grades have improved a lot.
Past Perfect Progressive

Use the past perfect tense to express actions that happened in the more distant past that happened repeatedly. This tense
is frequently used in relation to another past action that occurred at a later time.
I had been walking to school every day, but then the weather turned cold.
Isabella had been finishing her homework on time all month, but then she caught a cold and missed school.
Future Perfect Progressive

This tense is used when you are anticipating a time in the future when a continuous action will be finished.
By tomorrow I will have been walking to school for six weeks straight.
Hint:
Choosing the correct tense to use in a sentence requires you to pay close attention to the clues in the sentence.
Emphatic Forms
Not a tense, but logically included in this section is the emphatic form. The emphatic form emphasizes that an action
happened. It is also used in questions and in negative statements. The emphatic form uses the verb do with the present
form of the verb.
Emphatic Form
Present Emphatic Past Emphatic There is no future emphatic because you can't emphasize
something that hasn't happened yet.
do/does walk did walk
do/does finish did finish

Negative Statements
Definition: In the last lesson you learned how to use different tenses to make affirmative statements, which tell us that
something is true.
Karen swims every morning before school.
I ate ten donuts yesterday.
Definition: Negative statements tell us that something is not true.
She does not like broccoli.
He did not come to school today.
Present and Past Tense Negative Statements

In negative present and past statements, you use different forms of the helping verb to do to indicate tense instead of
changing the main verb. Just add do, does, or did plus not before the base of the main verb.
Present Past
(do/does + not + base) (did + not + base)
34

My brothers do not fight much. My brothers did not fight at all yesterday.
Elizabeth does not sleep well. Elizabeth did not sleep well last night.
You can combine to do with not to form the contractions don't, doesn't, and didn't.
My brothers don't fight much.
Elizabeth doesn't sleep well.
My brothers didn't fight at all yesterday.
Hint:
It's easy to make mistakes when forming negative statements. A common error is to change both the helping verb to do and
the main verb. Always remember that you only need to change the helping verb to indicate tense.
Error Correction
Present She doesn't drives very far for work. She doesn't drive very far for work.
Past They didn't came to the baseball They didn't come to the baseball game.

game.
The Exception: Negative Present and Past Tense Statements with To Be

With the verb to be, you don't use the helping verb to do. Just use the same present and past tense forms you normally do,
and add the word not.
I am not at school today.
Alyssa is not in school today.
The twins are not in school today.
Alyssa was not in school today.
The twins were not in school yesterday.
You can also use the contractions isn't, aren't, wasn't, and weren't. For the first person present, use I'm not.
Negative Statements in Tenses with Helping Verbs

In tenses with helping verbs, add the word not after the helping verb. If there are two helping verbs, place not after the first
one. You can also use any of the contractions you learned earlier, plus several others you'll see in the chart below.
Present Past Future
Simple – – Without Contraction

My little brother will not eat fish.
– – With Contraction (won't)
My little brother won't eat fish.
Progressive Without Contraction Without Contraction Without Contraction
Jesse is not sleeping well. Jesse was not sleeping well last Jesse will not be sleeping well
week. tonight.
With Contraction (isn't or aren't) With Contraction (wasn't or With Contraction (won't)
weren't)
Jesse isn't sleeping well. Jesse won't be sleeping well
Jesse wasn't sleeping well last tonight.
week.
Perfect Without Contraction Without Contraction Without Contraction
They have not completed the They had not completed the They will not have
assignment yet. assignment yet. completed the assignment yet.
With Contraction (hasn't or haven't) With Contraction (hadn't) With Contraction (won't)
They haven't completed the They hadn't completed the They won't have completed the
assignment yet. assignment yet. assignment yet.
35

Hint:
Negative statements in the simple future tense don't always refer to the future. Often, they mean that someone refuses to do
something. Let's revisit one of the examples above.
My little brother will not eat fish.
This statement doesn't mean that my little brother won't eat fish tomorrow, next week, or next month; it really means he
refuses to eat fish anytime. Using the future tense is a stronger way to say that someone doesn't do something.

Shifts in Verb Tense
Can You Identify a Tense Shift?

Take a look at this short story and see if you notice a problem with the verbs:
One day a princess went into the forest to play. She threw her golden ball into the air and almost caught it. It falls into the
pond, and she starts to cry. A frog hops onto a lilypad and asks her what is wrong. The princess told him that she had
dropped her ball, and he offered to get it for her.
Were you able to figure it out? If you noticed that the verb tenses changed back and forth between present and past tense,
you're exactly right. If you didn't notice this time, don't worry—by the end of this lesson you'll be able to pick out this error,
which is called a tense shift.
Definition: Tense shifts happen when writers accidentally switch from one tense to another in the same sentence,
paragraph, story, or essay. Sometimes a shift is necessary, but accidental shifts happens when writers become distracted.
Writers may begin their story in the past, as if they are watching it from the outside—but then, as they become absorbed in
the story, they may switch to the present tense. Some writers continue shifting back and forth throughout their pieces.
It's important to choose a tense and stick to it. When you begin a piece, decide whether you want to use past or present
tense. Most narratives or stories about events that have already happened are written in the past tense. Some authors use
the present tense to pull the reader into the story. This can be very effective, but only if done carefully.
Note:
Even if a story is told in the past tense, dialogue and quotations can be in a different tense (usually the present). This is
because dialogue and quotations repeat exactly what people say from their time frame and their perspective.
Here is the same story with all the verbs in the past:
One day a princess went into the forest to play. She threw her golden ball into the air and almost caught it. It fell into the
pond. She started to cry. A frog hopped onto a lilypad and asked her what was wrong. The princess told him that
she had dropped her ball, and he offered to get it for her.
Module 3, Verbs: Types, Tenses, andMoods, Lesson 11:

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs
Before You Start: Direct Objects

In this lesson you'll be learning about transitive and intransitive verbs. Before we get started, though, you'll need to learn
about direct objects.
Definition: A direct object is a noun or pronoun that directly receives the action of a verb.
Dante threw the ball.
In this sentence, the verb is threw and the direct object is ball. The ball is the thing Dante threw, so we say that the ball is
receiving the action of the verb.
The direct object often (but not always) answers the question what? What did Dante throw? He threw the ball.
Sometimes the direct object answers the question whom?
Dante hit me with the ball.
Whom did Dante hit? He hit me.
Note:
36

Often the indirect object, not the direct object, answers the question whom? You won't be learning about indirect objects in
this lesson, but if you'd like more information, visit Module 4, Lesson 8.
Transitive Verbs
Definition: All transitive verbs require a direct object. You've already seen a couple of examples in the section above, but
here are a few more.
The comedian entertained the audience.
Whom did the comedian entertain? The audience. The audience is receiving the action of the verb.
The mail carrier delivered a package yesterday.
What did the mail carrier deliver? A package. The package is receiving the action of the verb.
Without a direct object, a transitive verb's meaning is incomplete.
Dante threw.
Did Dante throw a ball? A frisbee? A pencil? This sentence leaves you hanging because there is no direct object after the
transitive verb threw.
Intransitive Verbs
Definition: Intransitive verbs do not require a direct object. Their meaning is complete without one.
Kelly hikes.
Although this sentence looks short, it's still complete. The verb hikes doesn't need a direct object.
Hint:
Often, an intransitive verb is followed by a word or phrase that looks like a direct object, and this can trick you into thinking the
verb is transitive. However, remember that direct objects can only answer the questions what and whom. If what follows the
verb answers questions like where, when, or how, the verb is intransitive.
Christopher Columbus sailed the Atlantic.
Columbus sailed a ship across the Atlantic. The Atlantic is where he sailed, not what he sailed.
We hiked five miles along the mountain ridge.
We hiked the trail for five miles. Five miles is how long we hiked, not what we hiked.
Some Verbs Can Be Transitive or Intransitive

Certain verbs can be either transitive or intransitive depending on how they're used.
We ate pizza for dinner.
In this sentence, ate is transitive because it is followed by a direct object. What did we eat for dinner? We ate pizza.
We already ate.
Ate is intransitive in this sentence because it has no direct object. There's no mention of what we ate.

Phrasal Verbs
Before You Start: Prepositions

In this lesson you'll be learning about phrasal verbs, but before we get started, it's important to learn a little bit about
prepositions.
Definition: A preposition shows a relationship of some kind. You use prepositions all the time even though you may not
realize it. They typically answer questions such as which one, what kind, how much, how many, where, when, how, and to
what extent.
The cow jumped over the moon.
Where did the cow jump? Over the moon.
We went to the movies after school.
When did we go to the movies? After school.
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Don't worry if you don't quite have a handle on prepositions yet. You'll learn more about them in Module 6. For this lesson,
you just need to be able to recognize them. Here are a few prepositions that are commonly used in phrasal verbs.
at b for awa fro after aroun across
y y m d
o to ou over with alon behin throug

n t g d h
in u off dow into abou

p n t
Phrasal Verbs
Definition: Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb and one or more prepositions. They are called phrasal verbs because it
takes two words or more (a phrase) to complete their meaning. The verb and preposition work together to form a new verb
whose meaning is different from those of the individual words.
Please fill out these forms so I can find out more about you.

If you fall behind in your homework, your parents will hear from your teacher.
If you blow up at your friends, it makes it harder to get along with them.
Many phrasal verbs are idiomatic, which means that you can't interpret them literally. The original meanings of the verb and
preposition are often altered. For example, if you tell someone to shut up (which we know is rude), what up are they
supposed to shut? Native speakers of any language understand phrasal verbs because they use them all the time, but it
can be challenging for non-native speakers to understand and learn these verbs.
Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs

With some phrasal verbs, it's possible to separate the verb and the preposition without affecting the meaning of the
sentence, but with others, separation is not possible.
Separable Phrasal Verbs: Transitive

Separable phrasal verbs are always transitive, which means they always have a direct object. If the direct object is
a noun or a noun phrase,1 you can choose to put it after the preposition or between the verb and the preposition. However,
if the object is a pronoun, it must go between the verb and the preposition.
Correct: You will need to work out the problem on your own.
Correct: You have worked the problem out.
Correct: You have worked it out.
Incorrect: You have worked out it.
Because it is a pronoun, you have to put it between the verb and the preposition, not after the preposition.
Hint:
Just because all separable phrasal verbs are transitive does not mean that all transitive phrasal verbs are separable.
Correct: Make sure you look after your little brother.
Incorrect: Make sure you look your little brother after.
Look after is transitive, but it is not separable. You can't put the direct object, your little brother, between the verb
and the preposition.
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: Transitive or Intransitive

Inseparable phrasal verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. With transitive inseparable phrasal verbs, the direct object
must always follow the preposition.
Correct: We went over the answers.
Incorrect: We went the answers over.
With intransitive phrasal verbs, it's common to try to separate the verb and the preposition, but this is not correct. Because
intransitive verbs don't have direct objects, there's nothing you can put between the verb and the preposition.
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Correct: You will have to catch up on your homework.
Incorrect: You will have to catch your homework up.
Your homework is not the direct object of the verb catch up, so it can't go between the verb and the preposition.
Note:
The preposition on in the example above isn't part of the phrasal verb catch up. When you're unsure of whether or not a
preposition is part of a phrasal verb, you can always look up the phrasal verb in the dictionary.
1. A noun phrase includes the noun plus other elements such as articles (the, a, an), possessive pronouns
(my, your, his, etc.), or demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those). Noun phrases can also include adjectives
(describing words).
Noun Noun Phrases
dog my dog, a dog, the dog, this dog, those dogs, the little spotted dog

Active vs. Passive Voice
Definition: If you are active, you are doing something. In active voice sentences, the subject of the sentence is doing the
verb. You've already studied this type of sentence without knowing it—most of the lessons in this module use active voice
sentences.
The lady plays the piano.
The driver drove the car.
Hint:
You're using active voice whenever you use any of the tenses you learned about in this module.
Present We take a trip to Disney World every summer.
Past They took a trip to Disney World last year.
Future Noah will take a trip to Disney World once he saves enough money.
Present Progressive Sylvia is taking a trip to Disney World with her family.
Past Progressive Angel was taking a trip to Disney World even though he liked Disneyland better.
Future Progressive Sarah will be taking a trip to Disney World with her family next fall.
Present Perfect We have taken several trips to Disney World.
Past Perfect Before she visited Disneyland, Abby had taken several trips to Disney World.
Future Perfect By the end of this year, Nancy and Jaimie will have taken five trips to Disney World!
Definition: If you are passive, something is done to you. In passive voice sentences, the subject is having the action done to
it by something else. To form the passive voice, use a form of the helping verb to be plus the past participle of the main
verb. The verb to be can be in just about any tense.
The piano is played by the lady. (is + played)
The car was driven by the driver. (was + driven)
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Choose Active Voice Wherever You Can
When you write sentences in active voice, your writing is more engaging and moves more quickly.
The children climbed all over the jungle gym. Then they threw several balls in the air and dodged them.
Notice how your attention is on the actions of the children.
Take a look at the same sentences in passive voice:
The jungle gym was climbed by the children. Then several balls were thrown in the air and were dodged by the children.
Now your attention is on the objects, not the children. Notice how the structure of these sentences is awkward and clunky.
When one of your sentences sounds awkward, check to see if you're using passive voice. If you are, an easy fix is to use
active voice instead.
Common Misconceptions About the Passive Voice
Misconception #1: It's Never OK to Use Passive Voice

Many teachers discourage their students from ever using the passive voice, but sometimes it's actually the better choice. It
can be useful when you're not sure who did the action or when you want to emphasize the object instead of the subject. It
can also be effective if you want to slow down the action of your writing and focus on a scene. Occasionally you can use the
passive voice to vary sentence structure in your writing, but don't rely too heavily on this technique.
President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald.
In this sentence, the emphasis is on the president's assassination instead of the person who assassinated him.
Misconception #2: Using To Be Always Means You Are Using Passive Voice
Please don't make the mistake of confusing the passive voice with other uses of the verb to be. As you learned earlier, to
be can also be a helping verb in the progressive tenses or a linking verb.
Misconception #3: The Perfect Tenses Are Passive Voice

Another common misconception is that the present perfect and past perfect tenses are forms of passive voice because they
use past participles. Similarly to the passive voice, overusing these two tenses can weaken your writing. However, when
used correctly, these tenses can actually strengthen your writing. There are also times when the perfect tenses are the only
correct choice.

The Verb To Be
In this lesson you'll learn that to be is used as either a linking or helping verb. Since to be is an irregular verb, let's do a
quick review of its forms before diving into the material.
To Be: Present and Past Tenses
Person and Number Present Past
First person singular (I) am was
First person plural (we) are were
Second person singular or plural are were

(you)
Third person singular (he, she, it) is was
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Third person plural (they) are were
To Be: Present and Past Participles
Present Past
being been
To Be As a Linking Verb

To be is considered a linking verb when it's used to describe traits, characteristics, emotions, and states of being. It
connects the main noun (or subject) to a describing word, such as an adjective or another noun.
Traits and Characteristics

Daphne is very kind.
Is links the noun Daphne and the adjective kind.
My grandfather was a doctor.
Was links the noun grandfather and the describing noun doctor.
Emotions
Lucy and Olivia are excited because their parents bought them a puppy for Christmas.
Are links Lucy and Olivia to the adjective excited.
States of Being
If the word that follows to be answers the questions when or where, it's describing a state of being.
Wendell is here today.
Is links Wendell to a state of being (here).
The party was at 7 o'clock.
In this example, was links party to the time.
Hint:
When you ask a question, to be comes at the beginning of the sentence and is separated from the describing word.
Is Wendell here today?
Hint:
Normally, words and phrases that answer questions like when and where are considered adverbs, but when used
with linking verbs, they act like adjectives. These words and phrases are often referred to as locatives or adverbial
complements.
To Be As a Helping Verb

In Lesson 4, you learned that helping verbs are used with main verbs to help complete the main verb's meaning. To be is a
helping verb when used in the progressive tenses or the passive voice.
To Be and the Progressive Tenses

The verb to be is often used together with a present participle (verb ending in -ing) to express an ongoing action.
(Visit Lesson 8 to review.)
Irena is listening to the teacher.
Is helps show that listening is an ongoing action happening in the present.
The squirrels were scampering across the lawn.
Were helps show that scampering was an ongoing action that occurred in the past.
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My older brother has been writing a novel for the past five years.
Been helps to show that writing is an ongoing action. (Has is also a helping verb in this sentence, but it's helping the verb to
be.)
To Be and the Passive Voice

The passive voice is formed with the verb to be plus a past participle. People use passive voice when they want to put
emphasis on the action instead of the subject, or when they're not sure who's doing the action.
President Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth.
The focus of this sentence is on the president's assassination, not on the person who assassinated him.
My wallet and phone were stolen at the beach.
We don't know who stole the wallet and phone, and we want to emphasize the action of stealing instead of the person who
did the stealing.
Participles vs. Participial Adjectives

You already know that to be often acts as a helping verb before a present or past participle. However, some participles can
also be used as adjectives (describing words). When to be is used with these adjectives, it is a linking verb, not a helping
verb. If you're not sure if to be is a linking or helping verb in a particular sentence, just think about whether the participle is a
description or an action. Let's take a look at some examples, starting with present participial adjectives versus present
participles in the progressive tenses.
Present Participial Adjectives vs. Progressive Tenses
Linking Helping
(Adjective ending in -ing) (Main action verb ending in -ing)
The teacher's voice was soothing. Irena is listening to the teacher.
(Soothing describes the teacher's (Listening is an action, not a description.)

voice.)
My brother's new novel is fascinating. My brother has been writing a novel.
(Fascinating describes the novel.) (Writing is an action, not a description.)
Now let's look at the difference between past participial adjectives and past participles in the passive voice.
Past Participial Adjectives vs. Passive Voice
Linking Helping
(Adjective ending in -ed, -en, -t, etc.) (Action verb ending in -ed, -en, -t, etc.)
Lucy and Olivia are excited to have a new Lucy and Olivia's shoes were destroyed by their new puppy.
puppy
(Destroyed is an action. It tells us what the puppy did.)
(Excited describes how the girls feel.)
I am interested in remodeling the kitchen. I was startled by a loud noise in the kitchen.
(Interested describes my state of mind.) (Startled is an action. It tells us what the loud noise did to me.)
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Moods of Verbs
Definition: You learned earlier in this module that the tense of a verb indicates when an action occurred, but each verb also
has a mood that tells us how the action is viewed or perceived by the speaker. It indicates whether something is a fact,
opinion, command, suggestion, request, wish, hypothetical (imaginary) situation, or uncertainty. Moods are as important in
writing as they are in our lives because they provide perspective. In English the three primary moods are indicative,
imperative, and subjunctive.
Indicative Mood
Indicative mood is fact mood, and it's the one we use most often. It states, asks, or denies a fact. However, it can also
express an opinion because opinions are often stated as facts; when you have an opinion about something, you usually
view it as a fact. Almost all the verbs you've studied so far have been in the indicative mood, so you're already familiar with
it. The simple, progressive, and perfect tenses all express indicative mood.
Facts
Rain falls quite heavily during the month of April.
Lots of rain fell yesterday.
Rain is falling.
Rain is not falling.
Is rain falling?
Opinions
Lots of rain will fall tomorrow.
That is a beautiful painting.
These chocolate cookies taste delicious.
Jenna thinks that Norah will win the competition.
We believe he should go alone.
My little sister likes that we visit Florida every summer.
Note:
Interrogative mood, which is used to ask questions, is sometimes separated from the indicative.
Imperative Mood
Imperative mood is "bossy" mood—it's used to give commands or to advise or beg someone to do something. Commands
can be affirmative (tell someone what to do) or negative (tell someone what not to do). Affirmative commands use
the base form of the verb. Negative commands follow this formula: do + not + base. The subject of all imperative sentences
is the unstated you.
(you) Open the door, please.
(you) Do not forget your homework.
or: Don't forget your homework.
Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood is used to express suggestions, recommendations, advice, demands, wishes, and doubts. It is also
used to talk about hypothetical (imaginary) situations or something that is contrary to fact.
Present Subjunctive (Mandative Subjunctive)

The present form of the subjunctive is most often used to talk about recommendations, suggestions, advice, requests, and
demands, and it often (but not always) follows the word that. This is called the mandative subjunctive.
Jonathan's academic advisor recommended that he study abroad next year.
Subjunctive or Indicative?
Let's explore the present form of the subjunctive mood, which is simply the base form of any verb. This makes the
subjunctive look almost identical to the present indicative—in fact, you'll only be able to tell the difference between the two
moods in the third person singular form.
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Person and Number Subjunctive Indicative
Third person singular I recommend that he arrive at school on time It's wonderful that he arrives at school on
(he, she, it) every day. time every day.
First person singular (I) They recommend that I arrive at school on It's wonderful that I arrive at school on time
time every day. every day.
First person plural (we) They recommend that we arrive at school on It's wonderful that we arrive at school on
time every day. time every day.
Second person singular or I recommend that you arrive at school on It's wonderful that you arrive at school on
plural (you) time every day. time every day.
Third person plural (they) I recommend that they arrive at school on It's wonderful that they arrive at school on
time every day. time every day.
More on the Mandative Subjunctive

As you learned above, the mandative subjunctive is used for recommendations, demands, suggestions, requests, and
advice. This type of sentence always has at least two verbs, but only the one after the word that is subjunctive; the first verb
is always indicative.
We demanded that he stop setting off the fire alarm at school.
demanded = indicative
stop = subjunctive
It is imperative that she leave right away.
is = indicative
leave = subjunctive
Hint:
It is usually acceptable to omit the word that in both spoken and written English.
We demanded ____ he stop setting off the fire alarm at school.
Note:
In British English the modal should is used to express the mandative subjunctive.
They recommend that he should arrive on time every day.
Knowing When to Use the Mandative Subjunctive

Any sentence that starts with one of the verbs on the list below requires the subjunctive after that. Just remember that the
verbs listed here will be in the indicative; only verbs following that will be in the subjunctive.
ask insis advise prefer propos recommen
t e d
pra urge deman reques sugges
y d t t
Here are a few examples:
I prefer that she bring cupcakes instead of muffins.
prefer = indicative
bring = subjunctive
They suggested that Leslie start training for the marathon way ahead of time.
suggested = indicative
start = subjunctive
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The committee proposed that the new regulation take effect on January 1.
proposed = indicative
take = subjunctive
The DMV is insisting that Louis repeat the driving exam.
is insisting = indicative
repeat = subjunctive
Hint:
The first verb in a mandative subjunctive sentence can take any form of the indicative. This means that you can use any of
the tenses you learned about earlier in this module. Notice the variety of tenses used in the examples above:
prefer = present indicative
suggested = past indicative
proposed = past indicative
is insisting = present progressive indicative
Some sentences that follow the formula It is + adjective + that require the subjunctive, but this rule only applies for certain
adjectives:
bes better essential important
t
vital crucia imperativ necessar
l e y
Here are a few examples:
It is best that she stay here tonight instead of driving home in the snow storm.
It's important that Norah win the competition.
It's better that he do it on his own.
Hint:
In sentences following the above structure, it is common to use the word for plus the infinitive instead of the subjunctive
mood. (The infinitive just adds the word to in front of the base, for example, to eat or to sleep.)
It is best for her to stay here tonight.
It's important for Norah to win the competition.
It's better for him to do it on his own.
Present Subjunctive of the Verb To Be

For the verb to be, you will use the base to form the subjunctive, just as you would with any other verb. However, unlike
other verbs, to be will look completely different in the present indicative and present subjunctive. (This is because the
base, be, is never used in the present indicative.)
Person and Number Subjunctive Indicative
First person singular (I) They suggest that I be here on time. It's great that I am here on time.
First person plural (we) They suggest that we be here on time. It's great that we are here on time.
Second person singular or plural They suggest that you be here on It's great that you are here on
(you) time. time.
Third person singular (he, she, it) They suggest that she be here on It's great that she is here on time.
time.
Third person plural (they) They suggest that they be here on It's great that they are here on
time. time.
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Mandative Subjunctive with the Verb To Be
Just like other verbs, to be can be used to express recommendations, demands, requests, suggestions, and advice.
The lawyer requested that the comment be stricken from the record.
requested = indicative
be = subjunctive
I demand that you be quiet during the movie.
demand = indicative
be = subjunctive
It is essential that they be on their guard tonight.
is = indicative
be = subjunctive
Using Were for Wishes, Desires, Hypotheticals, and Nonfactual Statements

When talking about wishes, desires, and hypothetical (imaginary) situations, you'll often use the subjunctive were. Up until
now, you've been using the indicative were to talk about the past.
We were at the park all day yesterday.
However, subjunctive statements that use were do not refer to the past. Instead, they are statements you would make while
daydreaming or imagining something. Were is the only form of to be that you can use for hypotheticals and nonfactual
statements—it's used for the first, second, and third person, singular or plural. In the chart below, you'll notice that you can
only tell the difference between the subjunctive were and the indicative were in the first and third person singular forms.
Hint:
Hypothetical subjunctive statements often start with if or I wish.
Person and Number Subjunctive (Hypothetical) Indicative (Past)
First person singular (I) If I were at the baseball game right now, I'd be eating I was at the baseball game
a hotdog. yesterday.
Third person singular If he were at the baseball game right now, he'd be He was at the baseball game
(he, she, it) eating a hotdog. yesterday.
First person plural (we) If we were at the baseball game right now, we'd be We were at the baseball game
eating hotdogs. yesterday.
Second person singular or If you You were at the baseball game

plural (you) yesterday.
were
at the baseball game right now, you'd be eating a

hotdog.
Third person plural (they) If they were at the baseball game right now, they'd They were at the baseball game
be eating hotdogs. yesterday.
If today were Saturday, I would sleep in.
This is an example of a hypothetical or nonfactual situation. It's not Saturday; the speaker is just imagining something she
might do on a Saturday.
I wish today were Saturday so that I could sleep in.
Here, the speaker is using the subjunctive were to express a wish or desire. This statement can also be considered
hypothetical or nonfactual because it's not actually Saturday.
I wouldn't go any closer to that tiger cage if I were you.
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This is an example of a nonfactual statement. I am not you, but I'm imagining what I would—or wouldn't—do if I were in your
place.
Hint:
In the examples above, would represents the conditional mood, which you'll learn about later in this lesson.
Note:
In British English the indicative is preferred for hypotheticals.
If today was Saturday, I would sleep in.
Sometimes the Subjunctive Just Doesn't Sound Right

The subjunctive mood often sounds funny because it isn't used very often in informal English and is being used less and
less in formal English. We tend to use the conditional mood with the helping verbs could and would instead. As you saw
above, it's also common to use for + infinitive instead of the subjunctive. If you study foreign languages, though, you will
encounter the subjunctive much more frequently.
Indicative Example Subjunctive Example
is Jason is our nominee for be I suggest Jason be our nominee

president. for president.
was I was rich, but now I am poor. were I wish I were rich.
Present third person verbs He always buys his books well Third person without I suggest that he buy his books
ending in s in advance. the s well in advance.
Conditional Mood
Conditional mood shows under what conditions something could happen. It uses modal verbs such as might, could,
and would and is often set off by the words if or when.
I might be able to reach him if I call his cell phone.
We could see a different movie if you'd like.
What's the first thing you would buy if you won the lottery?
We will leave when Dad gets home.
Infinitive Mood
Infinitive mood uses infinitives to express action. An infinitive is simply the word to plus the base form of the verb.
to to to to
eat sleep run think
Although they express action, infinitives don't act like verbs; they actually mimic other parts of speech, such
as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Be careful when using infinitives—they often lead to sentence fragments.
To receive a compliment graciously, just say "thank you."
Wendall loves to read mystery novels.
Note:
Infinitives are considered verbals, not verbs. You'll learn more about them in Module 8, Lesson 6.
Module 4, Verbs: Agreement and Challenges, Lesson 1:

Agreement of Verbs
Before You Begin: What Is a Subject?

Before you get started with this lesson, you'll need to understand what a subject is. Every complete sentence has a subject
(person or thing) and a verb (action). The subject is the person or thing that does the action in a sentence.
Sandra raced across the finish line.
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Sandra is the subject. She is the person who raced.
Kelly is getting his driver's license next week.
Kelly is the subject. He's the one getting a driver's license.
That's all you need to know for this lesson, but if you want to learn more, you can visit Lesson 1 of Module 5.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Whether you're writing or speaking, it's important to use the verb form that matches with a sentence's subject. This is
called subject-verb agreement. In the present tense for example, singular nouns and plural nouns each require a different
verb form.
One bird flies across the sky.
Two birds fly across the sky.
Hint:
Be careful! To make a noun plural, we usually add s, but adding s to a verb makes it third-person singular. Notice
how in the examples above we used flies for one bird and fly for two birds.
Keep in mind that subject-verb agreement usually only matters in tenses that use the present, such as the simple present,
present perfect, and present progressive. That's because the present has two forms while most other tenses only have one.
Let's compare the simple present and simple past tenses.
To Run
Subject Present Past
I, you, we, run ran

and they
he, she, and it runs ran
You can see that to run has two present tense forms but only one past tense form. The same is true for most other verbs.
The Exception: To Be
You've probably noticed by now that the verb to be is often the exception to the rule, and this case is no different. It's the
only verb that has two past tense forms, so you'll have to pay extra attention to it.
He was in the wrong place at the wrong time.
They were in the wrong place at the wrong time.
Beware of Contractions
Contractions can throw people off when it comes to subject-verb agreement, so let's break one of them down.
Does + not = doesn't
Do + not = don't
Subject Verb
I, you, we, don't
and they
he, she, and it doesn't

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Agreement: Subjects with And, Or, or Nor
As you saw in Module 3, Lesson 1, a sentence is like a car, with a noun or pronoun as the driver (the subject) and a verb as
the engine.
Subjects and verbs must agree with each other in number—if the subject is singular, the verb will be singular, and if the
subject is plural, the verb will be plural.
Sounds easy, right? But sometimes it's hard to decide which type of verb to use.
One challenge you'll encounter is when two nouns or pronouns are connected by the word and. Sometimes you'll need a
plural verb, but other times you'll need a singular verb.
Hint:
If you need more help with subjects, complete Lesson 1 in Sentence Parts before continuing with this lesson.
Use Plural Verbs for Compound Subjects

Some sentences have two or more subjects joined by the word and. This is called a compound subject, and it always
requires a plural verb.
My mother and father both come home from work at the same time.
Red, orange, and blue are my favorite colors.
Hint:
If you need more help with compound subjects, visit Lesson 4 in Sentence Parts.
Use a Singular Verb When And Joins Two Nouns That Make One Object
When and joins two nouns to make a single object, use a singular verb.
Macaroni and cheese is my favorite food.
It's not that macaroni is one of my favorites and cheese is my other. Macaroni and cheese is the name of a single dish.
Subjects Joined by Or or Nor

If two subjects are joined by or or nor, you match the verb to the last subject in the list.
My parents or my sister is in the kitchen.
My sister or my parents are in the kitchen.
Neither my parents nor my sister is in the kitchen.

Agreement: Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name a group, so it can be difficult to tell whether to use a singular or plural verb. In American English,
these nouns are typically singular, but sometimes they can be plural if you're referring to the individuals in the group rather
than the group as a whole.
When the group acts as a whole, use a singular verb.
My family is going to Germany for Christmas.
The whole family is acting as one group. They're all going to Germany together at the same time.
When the members of the group act as individuals, use a plural verb.
My family usually buy their clothes at Jerry's Fine Fashions.
The individual family members are acting separately. They all buy their own clothes at different times.
Hint:
Pay attention to your pronouns, too. If you use a singular verb, use a singular pronoun; if you use a plural verb, use a plural
pronoun. Let's take another look at our second example above.
My family usually buy their clothes at Jerry's Fine Fashions.
Notice how both buy and their are plural. It would be incorrect to say My family buy its clothes or My family buys their clothes.
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Agreement: Nouns that End in s
Some nouns end in s even though they are considered singular. These include words such
as mathematics, civics, measles, news, physics, mumps, and molasses.
Physics is my favorite class.

The mumps is a very painful illness.
Other nouns that end in s, such as scissors, acoustics, pants, trousers, and shorts, are plural and always take a plural verb.
These scissors are mine.
Josh's pants are getting too short.
Note:
If the phrase pair of comes before a noun ending in s, always use a singular verb, even if the noun is usually plural.
This pair of pants fits perfectly.
There are some nouns ending in s that can be singular or plural. Some examples
are series, species, means, chassis, corps, and headquarters.
This species of fish lives in fresh water. (just one species)

These species of fish live in salt water. (many species)

Agreement: Titles of Creative Works
Sometimes a publication or movie, or a work of literature, art, or music has a plural noun or pronoun in the title. This makes
it seem like you should use a plural verb, but if you're talking about only one work, use a singular verb.
The New York Times has been around since 1851.
The Hunger Games is my favorite book.
The song Jingle Bells was written in 1850.
Irises is a famous painting by Vincent van Gogh.
Don't let words like games and bells confuse you. Each of the sentences above talks about only one publication, book,
song, or painting, so use a singular verb.

Agreement: Proper Nouns
Different types of proper nouns follow different agreement rules.
Names of Companies and Organizations

Organization and company names are similar to collective nouns, and they typically take singular verbs even though they
refer to a group.
The World Health Organization has worked hard to eradicate smallpox.
Toyota builds very reliable cars.
Team Names
After reading all of this information about collective nouns, you might think that you can use a singular noun with specific
team names, but they actually require plural verbs.
The New England Patriots have been to the Superbowl ten times.
The Miami Heat were in the NBA playoffs in 2018.
The only exception is when you use a team's city name instead of their team name. In this case, you always use a singular
verb.
Vancouver has never won the Stanley Cup.
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Musical Groups
If a musical group's name is singular, use a singular verb. If the name is plural, use a plural verb.
Maroon 5 has released six platinum albums.
Twenty One Pilots have spent 140 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 list.
Geographic Names Ending in s

In Lesson 5 you learned that titles are singular even when they contain plural nouns and pronouns. Geographic locations
ending in s usually follow the same rule. Occasionally, however, you'll use a plural verb when you're referring to a region's
separate states, provinces, or islands. Let's take a look at the examples below to get a better grasp of this concept.
The United Arab Emirates is located in Western Asia.
This sentence refers to the United Arab Emirates as a one country, not as individual emirates. (Emirates are similar to
states or provinces.)
The United Arab Emirates form a single government.
Here, we're referring to the separate emirates, not to the country as a whole.
The Cayman Islands has a population of approximately 60,765.
In this sentence the Cayman Islands is a single location. The Cayman Islands is the official name. We're not referring to the
populations of the individual islands.
The Cayman Islands are known for their beauty.
This sentence refers to each of the three Cayman islands separately, not to the territory as a whole.

Agreement: Money, Time, and Measurements
Money, time, and measurements can be plural or singular. If the focus of your sentence is a total amount, use a singular
verb. If the focus of your sentence is on multiple units, use a plural verb.
Sometimes it's difficult to tell whether to use a singular or plural verb, but there's an easy way to figure it out—just think
about your sentence as the answer to a question. If to get your answer you can ask questions like how much? how
big? how small? or how long?, use a singular verb. These questions suggest a total amount.
If you can ask the question how many?, use a plural verb. This question suggests multiple units.
Take a look at the chart below to see some examples.
Singular Plural
(How much?, how big?, how small?, how long?) (How many?)
Money Fifteen dollars is the cost of the cake. There are only two dollars in my wallet.
How much does the cake cost? A total of fifteen How many dollars are in the wallet? Two of them.
dollars. Your focus is on a total dollar amount. Your focus is on multiple dollar bills.
Millions of dollars is what it will cost to renovate the Millions of dollars were spent to renovate the
library. library.
How much will it cost? Millions of dollars. How many dollars were spent? Millions of them.
Time Ten hours is how much time we'll need to complete Ten hours were spent on this project.
this project.
How many hours did they spend? Ten of them.
How much time will they need? (Or how long will
they need?) A total of ten hours.
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Measurement Five hundred square feet is a very small space to Five hundred square feet have been added on to
s live in. the house.
How big is the space? A total of five hundred square How many square feet have been added? Five
feet. hundred of them.
You may still be a little confused, and that's OK. This is a difficult topic! Just remember to always consider the main focus of
your sentence. Are you talking about a total amount or multiple units? And if you're not sure, asking questions like how
much? and how many? will help you figure it out.
Hint:
If you can replace the time, measurement, or dollar amount with a singular pronoun (it, this, that), use a singular
verb. If the sentence doesn't make sense when you substitute a singular pronoun, use a plural verb.
Singular (Total Amount) Plural (Multiple Units)
Fifteen dollars is the cost of the cake. There are only two dollars in my wallet.

That is the cost of the cake.
Replacing two dollars with it, this, or that wouldn't make sense, so you know
that the verb has to be plural.
Ten hours is how much time we'll need to Ten hours were spent on this project.
complete the project.
This is how much time we'll need to Replacing ten hours with it, this, or that wouldn't make sense.
complete the project.
Five hundred square feet is a very small Five hundred square feet have been added on to the house.
space to live in.
It is a very small space to live in. Replacing five hundred square feet with it, this, or that wouldn't make
sense.

Agreement: Fractions and Percentages
Percentages and fractions can be plural or singular. Just like in the last lesson, the verb you choose will depend on whether
you're talking about a total amount or multiple units. There are several ways to figure out whether to use a singular or plural
verb.
Often, if the word that follows the fraction or percentage is singular, you'll use a singular verb. If the word following the
fraction is plural, use a plural verb.
Two-thirds of the lemonade has been finished off.
Twenty-five percent of the lemonade has been finished off.
Lemonade is singular, so use a singular verb.
Two-thirds of the students are on the field trip today.
Twenty-five percent of the students are on the field trip today.
Students is plural, so use a plural verb.
If the fraction or percentage comes before a collective noun, follow the rules you learned in the collective nouns lesson in
this module. Remember that collective nouns can take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the noun is acting as
a whole group or whether the members of the group are acting as individuals.
Half the class is on the field trip today.
Fifty percent of the class is on the field trip today.
You're talking about the class as a whole group, not about what the individual students are doing.
Half the class have signed up for the field trip.
Fifty percent of the class have signed up for the field trip.
Each individual student signed up for the field trip; the class did not sign up together as a group.
Hint:
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You can also fall back on asking questions like how much? and how many?, just like you did in the last lesson on
money, time, and measurements. If you can ask the question how much?, use a singular verb. If you can ask the
question how many?, use a plural verb.
Singular Plural
Fractions Two-thirds of the lemonade has been finished off. Two-thirds of the students are on the field trip
today.
How much of the lemonade has been finished? Two-
thirds of it. How many students are on the field trip? Two-thirds
of them.
Half the class is on the field. Half the class have signed up for the field trip.
How much of the class is on the field? Half. How many in the class have signed up? Half of
them.
Percentage About 2% of the population has autism. About 2% of people have autism.

s
How much of the population has autism? Two How many people have autism? Two percent of
percent. them.

Agreement: Indefinite Pronouns
This lesson will help you learn how to make indefinite pronouns and verbs agree. When people talk, they often use the
wrong verb, but in writing, it's important to use the correct one. You'll need to pay attention to whether the pronoun is
singular or plural.
Singular Pronouns
These pronouns always require a singular verb:
anothe anybody anyone anything each
r
either everybod everyon everythin muc
y e g h
neither nobody no one nothing one
other somebod someon somethin
y e g
It's always nice when someone appreciates your hard work.
Nobody goes into the abandoned warehouse because it's haunted.
You may be surprised at a few of the pronouns on this list, especially everyone and everybody. They sound like more than
one person or thing, right? Just remember that these pronouns are short for every single one. You use them to talk about
what each individual does, not what many people do.
Everybody has certain inalienable rights.
Everyone experiences challenges in life.
Plural Pronouns
These indefinite pronouns always require a plural verb:
bot fe man other severa
h w y s l
Both have driver's licenses.
Only a select few win the Pulitzer Prize.
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For the always plural indefinite pronouns, ignore the prepositional phrase.
Singular or Plural Pronouns

The indefinite pronouns below can be either singular or plural. If the word after the pronoun is singular, use a singular verb.
If the word is plural, use a plural verb.
al an mor mos non som
l y e t e e
All of the cake has been eaten.
There is only one cake.
All of the cookies have been eaten.
There are many cookies.
Hint:
When asking a question, you often use a form of the helping verb to do plus another verb. Always remember that
the helping verb, not the main verb, is the one that agrees with the pronoun.
Does anyone know what time it is?
Do you know what time it is?

Agreement: Hard to Find Subjects
Questions and Emphatic Statements

Sometimes the subject of a sentence can be hard to find. In a question, the subject usually comes between the helping
verb and the main verb. To find the subject, keep all the words from the question and turn it into a declarative sentence.
Did you decide to keep that puppy?
You did decide to keep that puppy.
Here and There

Even if a sentence begins with here or there, these two words can never be the subject. In sentences like this, the subject
usually comes after the verb. Find the verb and ask yourself who/what did it? You can also rearrange the sentence,
switching the part after the verb with the part in front of the verb.
Here are the books from the library. (What are here? The books.)

The books from the library are here.
Inverted Phrases and Sentences

Sometimes a sentence is inverted, which means the normal sentence order is reversed. The sentence begins with
a prepositional phrase and the subject has been placed after the verb. Find the verb and ask yourself who/what did it? You
can also rearrange the sentence by switching the part after the verb with the part in front of the verb.
On the bench are my sister's gloves. (What are on the bench? The gloves.)

My sister's gloves are on the bench.
Predicate Nouns
If a sentence with a linking verb has a predicate noun, the verb must still agree with the subject, not the predicate noun. The
subject generally comes before the verb, and the predicate noun after the verb. In a question, however, they both come
after the verb.
Casey's Christmas present was two tickets to a concert.
Are sports your favorite pastime?
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Prepositional Phrases After Subjects
Don't let yourself be tricked by prepositional phrases after the subject. Make sure you match your verb to the subject, not to
the object of the preposition.
The birds on the beach are seagulls.
That box of erasers belongs in my desk.
Hint:
If you cross out the prepositional phrase, it is easier to find the subject.
The birds on the beach are seagulls.
That box of erasers belongs in my desk.

Challenging Verbs: Lie/Lay
Lie: to lie (yourself) down.

I lie down on my bed when I am tired.
Lay: to lay something else down.
I lay down my backpack in the hallway when I get home.
Present Present Past Past Participle

Participle
Lie (self) lie lying lay lain
Lay lay laying laid laid

(object)
Notice that the transitive verb (the one you do to an object) is more regular than the intransitive verb (the one you do to
yourself). Lay adds -ing and -ed (with a spelling change). Lie adds -ing, but changes to lay and lain.
I lie down on my bed when I am tired.
I am lying down on my bed right now.
I lay down on my bed yesterday.
In the past I have lain down on my bed.
I lay my backpack down in the hall.
I am laying my backpack down.
Yesterday I laid my backpack down.
In the past I have laid my back pack down.

Challenging Verbs: Sit/Set
Sit: to sit (yourself) down.

I sit down on my bed when I am tired.
Set: to set something else down.
I set down my backpack in the hallway when I get home.

Participle
Sit (self) sit sitting sat sat
Set set setting set set

(object)
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yourself). Set adds -ing to the present progressive, but the present, past, and past progressive are the same. Sit adds -ing,
but changes to sat in the past and past progressive.
I sit down on my bed when I am tired.
I am sitting down on my bed right now.
I sat down on my bed yesterday.
In the past I have sat down on my bed.
I set my backpack down in the hall.
I am setting my backpack down.
Yesterday I set my backpack down.
In the past I have set my back pack down.

Challenging Verbs: Rise/Raise
Rise: to rise (yourself).

I rise from my bed when I am no longer tired.
Raise: to raise something else.
I always raise my hand in class.

Participle
Rise (self) rise rising rose risen
Raise raise raising raised raised

(object)
yourself). Raise adds -ing and -ed. Rise adds -ing, but changes to rose and risen.
I rise in the morning when my alarm goes off.
I am rising from my bed right now.
I rose from my bed late yesterday.
In the past I have risen as early as 5:00.
I raise the window shade every morning.
I am raising the window shade now.
Yesterday I raised the window shade.
In the past I have raised the window shade.
Module 5, Sentence Parts, Lesson 1:

Simple Subjects
Definition:

The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that the sentence is about.
Hint:
Ask yourself, "Who did it?" or "What did it?"
Carlos wrote a letter to his uncle. (Carlos did the writing.)

My neighbor's dog barked all night. (The dog did the barking.)
Hint:
A proper name or compound noun is considered a single word.
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Fred Mosby will be my new tutor.
The police officer explained what had happened.
Definition:

The subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that the sentence is about.
Hint:
Ask yourself, "Who did it?" or "What did it?"
Carlos wrote a letter to his uncle. (Carlos did the writing.)
My neighbor's dog barked all night. (The dog did the barking.)
Hint:
A proper name or compound noun is considered a single word.

The police officer explained what had happened.

Simple Predicates
Definition:

The simple predicate of a sentence is the verb that is done in the sentence. It can be the action that happens, the
state of being, or the linking verb.
Hint:
Ask yourself, "The subject did what?" It can help if you find the subject first.
Carlos wrote a letter to his uncle. (Carlos did what? He wrote.)

My neighbor's dog barked all night. (Dog did what? It barked.)
Hint:
A verb phrase is considered a single idea; therefore, it is still a simple predicate.
The police officer had explained what happened.
Hint:
Not is not a verb. Therefore, it cannot be part of the simple predicate. Be careful when dealing with contractions.
I don't want spaghetti for dinner again.
I do not want spaghetti for dinner again.

Challenging Subjects
Challenge 1: Questions
In questions, the subject is often either after the verb or between parts of the verb phrase.
Where are my slippers?
Will we be going to the mall?
Hint:
Keep all the words and turn the sentence into a declarative sentence.
We will be going to the mall.
Challenge 2: Commands
In commands, the subject of the verb is always the unstated you.
Raise your hand. = (You) Raise your hand.
Challenge 3: Inverted order

Sometimes for emphasis, writers will switch around the parts of the sentence. In those sentences, the subject is usually
after the verb.
Behind the bookcase is the door to the secret room.
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Hint:
Find the verb first and ask yourself who did it. You can also turn the sentence back to the usual order.
What is? The door is.
The door to the secret room is behind the bookcase.
Challenge 4: Sentences that begin with here/there

If a sentence begins with here or there, here or there is never the subject.
Hint:
Sometimes here or there are adverbs telling where the subject is. Often, though, the words here or there are
considered expletive constructions - words that are expressions we use that have no real meaning in the sentence.
Here are your missing earrings.
There goes the four o'clock train.
Hint:
Find the verb first and then ask yourself who did it. You can also rearrange the sentence to the usual order.
What are here? Earrings.
Your missing earrings are here. (In this case, here works as an adverb.)
What goes there? Train.
The four o'clock train goes there. (In this case, there is an explicative expression.)
Challenge 5: Subjects followed by prepositional phrases

Sometimes a noun is followed by a prepositional phrase explaining more about the noun. It is easy to confuse the subject
with the object of the preposition.
The box of books belongs in the library.
The members of the committee worked hard to come up with a plan.
Hint:
Think of the prepositional phrase in parentheses.
The box (of books) belongs in the library.
The members (of the committee) worked hard to come up with a plan.

Compound Subjects and Predicates
Definition:

A sentence has a compound subject when it has more than one subject. It has a compound predicate when there is
more than one predicate. Sometimes sentences can have both a compound subject and a compound predicate.
Rachel and Steffi read the same book. (compound subject)
Ulysses ran, swam, and rode a bicycle in the triathlon. (compound predicate)
My dog and ferrets play and sleep together. (compound subject and predicate)
Compound subjects and predicates are joined with either the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor) or the correlative
conjunctions (both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also).
Hint:
Don't confuse a verb phrase with a compound predicate.
We will be going to China this summer. (verb phrase - it has only one main verb - going)
A compound predicate might share a helping verb, or it might be two (or more) separate verb phrases.
Dolphins are swimming and splashing near our dock. (swimming and splashing share the helping verb are.)
Dolphins do swim and do splash near our dock. (do swim and do splash have the same helping verb but are two separate
verb phrases.)
Dolphins do swim and might splash near our dock (do swim and might splash are two separate verb phrases.).
Hint:
Don't confuse a simple sentence with a compound subject and predicate with a compound sentence.
Sam and Clarence are talking and eating at the same time. (compound subject and predicate - notice the pattern: subject,
subject, verb, verb. Both subjects are doing both verbs.)
Sam is talking, and Clarence is eating at the same time. (compound sentence - notice the pattern: subject, verb, subject,
verb. The first subject is doing the first verb, and the second subject is doing the second verb.)
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Complete Subjects and Predicates
Definition:

A sentence can be divided into two halves: the complete subject and the complete predicate. The complete subject
is made up of all the words that tell who or what the sentence is about. The complete predicate includes the verb
and all the words that tell what happened in the sentence. Every word in the sentence belongs either in the
complete subject or complete predicate.
Hint:
Find the simple subject and simple predicate first. Then divide the sentence between the parts.
Carlo | wrote a letter to his uncle.

My neighbor's dog | barked all night.
Hint:
Sometimes a word or phrase will come between the simple subject and simple predicate. You will need to decide if
the phrase describes the subject or the predicate.
Fred Mosby, a high school senior | will be my new tutor. (a high school senior describes Fred)
The police officer | later explained what had happened. (later tells when he explained)
Hint:
Watch out for inverted sentences or sentences with adverb prepositional phrases. (Remember, an adverb modifies
a verb, adjective, or another adverb. For more information on adverbs, refer to lesson 5 in Module 5, Modifiers:
Adjectives and Adverbs.)
Filling the auditorium were | fascinated students.

Our electricity | went out during the storm.
During the storm, our electricity | went out. (The adverb prepositional phrase, During the storm, is part of the predicate
even though it is at the beginning of the sentence.)

Direct Objects
Definition:

A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object.
Definition:

A direct object is the noun or pronoun that directly receives the action of the verb.
Dante threw the ball. (He took the ball and threw it. Ball is the direct object.)
Hint:
First find the subject and verb. Then ask yourself, "The subject verbed what?" putting the subject and verb into the
question.
"Dante threw what?" (Answer: the ball = the direct object.)
Definition:

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not take a direct object.
Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic.
Hint:
Sometimes what looks like a direct object is really an adverbial noun. If the answer to "what?" is a where, how,
or when, it's an adverbial noun.
Christopher Columbus sailed the Atlantic. (He sailed a ship across the Atlantic. Atlantic is where he sailed.)
We hiked five miles along the mountain ridge. (We hiked the trail for five miles. Five miles is how long we hiked, not what
we hiked.)
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Hint:
The same verb can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on how it is being used.
Jerome ran the marathon. (Jerome took the marathon and ran it.)
Jerome ran around the track. (around the track just tells where he ran.)

Challenges with Direct Objects
Challenge 1: Compound Direct Objects

A verb may have two direct objects.
Bob hit the trash can and the mail box on his way out of the driveway.
Challenge 2: Direct Objects in Questions

In a question, the direct object may be the interrogative pronoun what, which, or whom. It cannot be where, how, or when.
They are adverbs. Sometimes it helps to keep all the words in the sentence and turn it into a declarative sentence.
What did you buy? (You did buy what.)
Whom did you see at the mall? (You did see whom at the mall.)
Which is mine? (Mine is which.)
The interrogative pronoun, however, could be acting as an adjective modifying the direct object.
What color do you like best? (You do like what color best.)
Whose books do you read? (You do read whose books.)
Which figurine did you buy in Japan? (You did buy which figurine in Japan.)
The direct object may also be a noun in the sentence, but the noun may not be where you expect it to be.
Where will you spend your summer? (You will spend your summer where.)
How many books have you read? (You have read how many books.)

Subject ComplementsIf the verb in a sentence is a linking verb instead of an action verb, then it cannot take a direct object.
Definition: A subject complement is the word after the linking verb that renames or describes the subject. It completes (not
gives a compliment to) the verb.
Hayley is a nice girl. (girl renames Hayley)
Hayley is nice. (nice describes Hayley)
Subject complements can be nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. They are called predicate nouns, predicate pronouns (both
can also be called predicate nominatives), and predicate adjectives.
Keith is our class president. (predicate noun)
The new substitute is he. (predicate pronoun)
All our students are responsible. (predicate adjective)

Object Complements
Definition: The object complement renames or describes the direct object the same way the subject complement renames
or describes the subject.
The class voted Hilary most friendly. (friendly describes Hilary)
His late arrival had his mother worried. (worried describes the mother)

Distinguishing Between Objects and Complements
To distinguish between direct objects and subject complements, you need to decide if the verb is acting on the object or if
the complement is renaming or describing the subject.
We sailed the spaceship out of the atmosphere. - Direct object (We took the spaceship and sailed it.)
Our trip to outer space was exciting. - Subject complement (Exciting describes trip.)
To distinguish between direct objects and indirect objects, you need to decide if you could change the indirect object to a
prepositional phrase. Remember, you cannot have an indirect object without a direct object.
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Jonas threw the ball. (Only one object, so it must be direct.)
Jonas threw me the ball. Jonas threw the ball to me. (Indirect object because both sentences mean the same thing.)

Classifying Verbs
Remember, main verbs can be action or linking verbs. Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Intransitive action:
We packed for the trip.
We slept all day
Intransitive verbs do not have a direct object in the sentence.
Transitive action:
The ferret stole the dog's toy.
The baseball broke my neighbor's window.
Action verbs that are transitive have a direct object.
Linking:
The weather was beautiful that day.
My sister is a lawyer.
Linking verbs link the subject to the subject complement. (All linking verbs are intransitive.)
Module 6, Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs, Lesson 1:

Adjectives
Definition:

An adjective is a word that modifies, or changes, a noun.
A cat walked past my window.
Everyone who reads that sentence probably pictures a different cat.
A large orange striped cat walked past my window.
Now I have modified the picture in your mind so it matches mine.
Adjectives answer the questions which one, what kind, and how much/many.
Which one: That car has been in a crash.
What kind: We have black squirrels in our neighborhood.
How much: I ate too much sugar for breakfast.
How many: I saw five swans in our pond.
Definition:
The articles are the most common of all adjectives. There are three of them: the, a, and an.
Definite article: the (You know which one you are talking about.)

Indefinite articles: a, an (You don't know which one you are talking about.)
Use a before a word that begins with a consonant sound (not a consonant letter). Use an before a word that begins with a
vowel sound (not a vowel letter). An was created because it is difficult to say a before a word that begins with a vowel
sound. An is easier to say. Therefore, it is the sound of the beginning of the word that matters, not the letter itself.
a carrot, a unicorn, a yellow apple (Yes, u is a vowel, but the sound is a consonant y sound)
an apple, an umbrella, an honor (Yes, h is a consonant, but the sound is a vowel o sound)
Hint:
Most adjectives we will deal with in this lesson are descriptive adjectives. They usually come before the nouns they
are modifying. Other adjectives in sentences may act as subject complements (predicate adjectives) or as object
complements.

Different Types of Adjectives
When looking at words and how they are used in sentences, sometimes the same word can be used as different parts of
speech in different sentences. Words that are usually nouns or pronouns sometimes act as adjectives.
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Nouns: Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives.
Rachelle prefers chocolate cookies.
Chocolate is usually a noun, but here it tells what kind of cookies.
That tree branch fell through my kitchen window.
Tree and kitchen are usually nouns, but here they tell what kind of branch and window.
Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns actually always act as adjectives.

The teacher's desk is in front of the class.
Teacher is a noun, but the possessive form is telling whose desk.
Proper Nouns: Sometimes proper nouns are used as adjectives.

Her dress was covered in Brussels lace.
Brussels is a city, but here it is telling what kind of lace.
Hint:
Some adjectives are both possessive and proper nouns.
That is Maia's new laptop.
Maia is a proper noun, but the possessive form is telling whose laptop.
Proper Adjectives: Sometimes new adjectives are formed from proper nouns. Just like proper nouns, proper adjectives need
to be capitalized.
Strangely the Chinese restaurant also served spaghetti, an Italian dish.
China and Italy are places. They become Chinese and Italian when they are used as adjectives.
Pronouns: Some pronouns can be used as adjectives. If a pronoun is used by itself, it is a pronoun. If it modifies a noun, it is
being used as an adjective.
 Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
These toys are for the children's shelter.
 Possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, our, their
My brother has lost his skateboard.
 Interrogative pronouns: which, whose, what
Which car belongs to your sister?
 Indefinite pronouns: all, any, both, each, either, few, many, neither, one, several, some
Some people like warm weather.

Hint:
To determine if a pronoun is being used as a pronoun or as an adjective, ask what? after the pronoun. If you get a
logical answer, it is acting as an adjective.
This is your sundae. (This what? nothing - it is a pronoun.)
This sundae is yours. (This what? sundae - it is an adjective)
Compound Adjectives
Definition:

A compound adjective is made up of two or more words put together. Some adjectives are compound. Some are
written as one word (closed) and some are hyphenated. Few are written as two words (open).
Hyphenated compounds usually occur when the writer wants to be clear that the first adjective is modifying the second, not
that both adjectives are modifying the noun. If the sentence is written with the adjectives as predicate adjectives, they are
often not hyphenated.
Use a hyphen:
Generally, use a hyphen when the two adjectives are working together as a single idea.
Gina's half-finished essay sat on the counter.
My two-year-old sister loves puppies.
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Some combinations generally use hyphens. They include the following
 prefixes with words that must be capitalized (pro-American)

 numbers or letters combined with words (20-foot)
 prefixes with dates (mid-1920s)
 to avoid three of the same letter in a row (ball-like)
 numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
 prefixes such as ex, near, mid, self, and all (all-seeing, self-serving)
 fractions as adjectives or adverbs (one-half serving)
Hyphens for clarity

American English uses fewer hyphenated compound adjectives than British English. It is important to use the hyphens
when the meaning might be unclear.
We bought three pound weights. (We bought three weights that each weighed one pound.)
We bought three-pound weights. (We bought several weights that each weighed three pounds.)
I saw a man eating snake. (I saw a man who was eating snake meat.)
I saw a man-eating snake. (I saw a snake who eats men.)
Hyphenated adjectives in a list
If you use two or more hyphenated adjectives in a list, you can suspend the hyphen.
I like vanilla-, strawberry-, and chocolate-flavored ice cream.
Long hyphenated adjectives
Sometimes it's fun to create long hyphenated adjectives.
The about-to-be-senior students were looking forward to their next school year.
My always-annoying-but-sometimes-cute little sister was bugging me again.
Do not use a hyphen
Adverbs combined with adjectives, especially adverbs ending in ly, do not get hyphenated.
The slowly moving train blocked the traffic. (Slowly is an adverb)
The slow-moving train blocked the traffic. (Slow is an adjective)
If the compound follows the noun, you generally do not need a hyphen. This is because when it follows the noun, the last
adjective remains an adjective, but the first one becomes an adverb.
Gina's essay was half finished. (Finished is an adjective describing essay. Half is now an adverb describing finished.)
My sister is two years old. (Old is still an adjective describing sister, but two describes years and years describes old.)

Order of Adjectives
In sentences, adjectives are usually found before the nouns they modify, but they may also come after the noun if separated
by commas, or they may come after a linking verb.
Adjectives before the noun:
The fluffy white clouds floated across the sky.
Adjectives after the noun:
Adjectives can be moved to immediately after the noun if commas are placed around them. This can be very effective.
The clouds, white and fluffy, floated across the sky.
Adjectives after the verb:
Subject complements that are adjectives are predicate adjectives. Predicate adjectives come after a linking verb.
The clouds were fluffy and white.
In English syntax, adjectives belong in a certain order:
Determiners Quantifiers Opinio Facts

ns
Physical Traits
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a poss demo n amou seque opinion si lengt conditi a c patt o mater purpo noun
r essiv nstrati u nts nce s z h/ on g o ern ri ial se / as
ti es ves m evaluat e shap e l g kind adjec
c b ion e o i tive
l e r n
e r
s s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 13 1 15 16 17
1 2 4
The two comfor old blue recliner chairs
table
My many faithful, big black spotted Labrador retrievers
friendly
Hint:
Most people who are native English speakers recognize when adjectives are out of order. Students learning English
must study the sequence.
Hint:
Generally two or three adjectives after the determiner or noun marker are enough. Too many adjectives, like the
examples above, sound strange.
Coordinate vs. Cumulative
Definition: Coordinate adjectives modify nouns in the same way. They describe the same feature. They are often called
"equal adjectives." Most coordinate adjectives are adjectives of opinion or evaluation. We don't generally use more than one
adjective from any of the other categories together because they sound redundant.
The elegant, wealthy lady looks like a model.
Definition: Cumulative adjectives build upon each other and must be in a certain order. They are equally important and give
different types of information
The big old black bull followed the young Brahma cow.
 Traditional explanation: The way to check is to put and between the adjectives or see if they can be switched
around. If and can be added, or they can be switched and still sound natural, add a comma.
The elegant and wealthy lady looks like a model. (sounds fine)
The wealthy, elegant lady looks like a model. (sounds fine)
but not:
The big and old and black bull followed the young and Brahma cow. (doesn't work)
The black old big bull followed the Brahma young cow. (doesn't work)
 Perhaps an easier explanation: If the two adjectives have the same number in the chart above, they need a comma.
The elegant(#7), wealthy(#7) lady looks like a model. (coordinate adjectives)

The big(#8) old(#11) black(#12) bull followed the young(#11) Brahma(#14) cow. (cumulative adjectives)
 Paired meanings: Sometimes the cumulative adjective works with the noun to create a paired meaning almost like a
compound noun. They don't take commas.
the cute [little boy] = a little boy who is cute

a frosted [chocolate cake] = a chocolate cake that is frosted
a delicious {frosted [chocolate cake]} = a frosted chocolate cake that is delicious
 Clarity: Sometimes a comma is inserted to clarify that two adjectives modify an adjective-noun combination instead
of all the adjectives modifying the single noun.
the cunning, sneaky red foxes (red foxes are cunning and sneaky)
the cunning sneaky red foxes (the sneaky red foxes are cunning)

Adverbs Modifying Verbs
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You know that words that modify nouns (or pronouns) are adjectives. Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are
adverbs.
Definition: An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs answer the questions when, where, how, and to what extent (how much or how long).
when: Yesterday we went to school.

where: We saw the bird there.
how: The car drove fast.
how much: We mostly agree with you.
They also confirm that something was or was not done.
positive: He certainly does feel that way.

negative: You should not be late.
Hint:When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they are usually answering the question to what extent?
Position of Adverbs
Generally, adverbs make sense directly after the verbs they modify, but they can also be moved around the sentence. It can
go at the beginning of the sentence, before the verb, or between a helping verb and the main verb.
I walk my dog daily.

Daily I walk my dog.
I daily walk my dog.
I have daily walked my dog.
Hint: Do not put an adverb between parts of an infinitive verb. Be careful not to move it to a place where it could be
confused with a different meaning.
I like to often read good books. (incorrect - You like it only when you can do it often.)
I like to read often good books. (incorrect - The books aren't often good but sometimes not good.)
I like to read good books often. (correct)

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives
An adverb can tell to what extent an adjective modifies a noun. An adverb that modifies an adjective is called an intensifier.
That is an unusually tall tree. (Unusually tells how tall the tree is.)
Jared's sister is exceptionally smart. (Exceptionally tells how smart the sister is.)
Position of Adverbs
Adverbs that modify adjectives must go directly before the adjectives they modify.
The strangely quiet classroom made the teacher wonder what had happened.

Adverbs Modifying Other Adverbs
An adverb can tell to what extent another adverb modifies a word. An adverb that modifies another adverb is called an
intensifier.
My sister runs very fast. (Very tells how fast she runs.)

Almost daily my teacher gives us a quiz. (Almost tells how daily.)
Position of Adverbs
Adverbs that modify other adverbs must go directly before the adverbs they modify.
It seems like my dog can run unusually quickly when she's chasing a cat.

Special Types of Adverbs
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Other Types of Adverbs
Some nouns can act as adverbs, and some adverbs do unusual jobs.
Definition:

Adverbial nouns may appear to be direct objects, but instead of answering the question "What?" they
tell where, where to, how long, how far, or how much.
Where: We bicycle the back roads for safety and the scenery.
Where to (direction): We sailed east from Florida.
How long: The car ride lasted four hours.
How far: I run two miles every morning.
How much (measure): That mug holds eight ounces of hot cocoa.
How much (value): That gold bar is worth two hundred dollars.
Definition:

Interrogative adverbs ask a question. They include why, where, when, and how.
Why are you late?
Where is your homework?
When will you turn it in?
How will you get a good grade?
Definition:

Relative adverbs, like relative pronouns, connect clauses. They are the same words as the interrogative
adverbs, when, where, and why.
That is the store where I bought that jacket.
That is the reason why we were late.
Last Tuesday was when I saw it last.
Definition:

Conjunctive adverbs also join clauses together with a transition. They need a semicolon before them when joining
sentences. Some common conjunctive adverbs
are anyway, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, instead, likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, next,
otherwise, specifically, still, subsequently, then, therefore, and thus.
We got a late start; however, we should be there on time.

I had been planning on going running; instead, I ran on my treadmill.

Adjective versus Adverb
It can sometimes be difficult to tell the difference between adjectives and adverbs in a sentence. You must ask yourself
what word the modifier is modifying. If the modified word is a noun, the modifier is an adjective. If the modified word is a
verb, adjective, or adverb, the modifier is an adverb.
To complete a sentence correctly, you need to determine whether the sentence needs an adjective or an adverb.
Cheetahs are speedy animals. (adjective modifying animal)
Cheetahs run speedily. (adverb modifying the verb run)
One area of confusion can be when an adjective is modifying a noun that is acting as an adjective.
That is my brother. (My is an adjective modifying the noun brother.)
My brother's bike is broken. (My is still an adjective modifying the noun brother, but now brother is a possessive noun
acting as an adjective modifying bike.)
Many people unintentionally use adjectives to describe verbs. Make sure in your writing to use adjectives to modify nouns
and pronouns and adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
The boys walked slow toward their classroom. (incorrect)
The boys walked slowly toward their classroom. (correct)

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Comparing with Adjectives and Adverbs
We often use adjectives and adverbs to compare. There are three degrees of comparison, positive (or negative),
comparative, and superlative.
Definition:

If you are talking about only one thing, you can't really compare, but if the word modified possesses that
characteristic, it is used in the positive. If it is a negative characteristic, it is in the negative.
I am old.
You are young.
Definition:

If you are comparing two things, you must use the comparative (compare) form or degree.
I am older than my brother.
You are younger than your sister.
Definition:

If you are comparing more than two things, you must use the superlative (super) form or degree.
I am the eldest of three sisters.
You are the youngest person in your family.
Hint:
Superman is the strongest. Superlative means the best.
Forming Degrees of Comparison
Positives Comparative Superlative
add suffix er add suffix est

One syllable adjectives and adverbs bigger, older, newer biggest, oldest, newest
Two syllable adjectives some (including ones ending add suffix er add suffix est
(Check a dictionary if you in y, ow, le) sillier, quieter, politer silliest, quietest, politest
aren't sure.) some (including ones ending use more use most
in ful) more often, more careful most often, most careful
some can either add suffix er or can either add suffix est or
use more use most
heavier or more heavy heaviest or most heavy
cleverer or more clever cleverest or most clever
Two syllable adverbs use more use most
more quickly most quickly
Three syllable adjectives and adverbs use more use most
more incredible most incredible

Negatives Comparative Superlative
all adjectives and adverbs use less use least
less friendly least friendly
Hint:
When you are comparing one thing to the group, you can use the words other or else in your writing or in your mind
to clarify what you are comparing.
James is taller than any boy in his class. (Is it comparative or superlative?)
James is taller than any other boy in his class. (It is clearly comparative.)
Michelle is a better artist than anyone in her art class. (Which is it?)
Michelle is a better artist than anyone else in her art class. (Clearly superlative.)
Hint:
Watch out for adjectives and adverbs that share the same root. They are not the same word.
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careful, more careful, most careful
carefully, more carefully, most carefully
Spelling changes
One syllable adjectives with a short vowel before a single consonant usually double the consonant before adding the
suffixes.
big - bigger, biggest; mad - madder, maddest
One syllable adjectives that end in silent e or two syllable words that end in le do not double the e.
cute - cuter, cutest; little - littler, littlest
When adding suffixes er and est to words ending in y, you must change the y to an i before adding the suffix.
merry - merrier, merriest; friendly - friendlier, friendliest

Challenging Comparisons
Challenge 1: Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs

Some frequently used adjectives and adverbs form comparative and superlative forms in irregular ways.
good bette best

r
bad wors wors

e t
well bette best

r
muc more most

h
man more most

y
som more most

e
Challenge 2: Multiple Meaning Modifiers

Some positive forms have multiple meanings, and each meaning has different, irregular comparative and superlative forms.
little (size) littler littlest
little less least

(amount)
late (time) later latest
late (order) latter last
old (age) older oldest
old (order) elder eldest
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far (distance) farthe farthes
r t
far (progress) furthe furthes

r t
Littler/less
Littler (size): My cat is little, your cat is littler, but his is the littlest.
Less (amount): I only have a little money, you have less than I do, but he has the least money.
Later/latter
Later (time): Sarah was late, Michael was later, but Shelly was latest.
Latter (sequence):
I told the secret to Jeremy and Eric, but the latter told Kyle. (The latter is Eric because he is the second in the list)
I told the secret to Jeremy, Eric, and Kyle, and the last told Mom. (The last is Kyle because he is the last in the list.)
Older/elder
Older (age): My father is old, my grandfather is older, but my great-grandfather is oldest.
Elder (sequence): Of the two brothers, Mark is the elder. Of the four sisters, Mollie is the eldest.
Farther/further
Farther (distance): John threw the ball far, Shannon threw the ball farther, and Lonnie threw the ball the farthest.
Further (progress): I have gotten far in my new book, Lydia is further in her book, but Michael is the furthest.
Challenge 3: Absolutes
Absolutes don't have a comparative or superlative form because they can't be any more than they already are. Absolutes
include:
best worst first last only pregnan
t
dea uniqu perfec straigh roun square
d e t t d
You can't have something that is better than the best or worse than the worst.
You can't be more dead or more pregnant. (Either you are or you aren't.)
Something can't be more straight or more round. (Either it is straight or it isn't.)
Hint:
Absolutes are often superlatives themselves (best, worst)

Challenging Adjectives and Adverbs
Challenge 4: Often Confused Adjectives and Adverbs

Good/well
Good (adjective): I did a good job.
Well (adverb): I did well on that test.
Well (adjective): I had a cold, but I am finally feeling well.
Bad/badly
Bad (adjective): I have a bad reaction to corn.
Badly (adverb): We played badly in last night's soccer game.
Real/really
Real (adjective - opposite of imaginary): A real ladybug flew onto my paper.
Really (adverb - means very): My picture of a ladybug looked really good.
Hint:
If you can substitute the word very, really is the correct choice.
Challenge 5: Adjectives with countable/not countable nouns

Be careful with using adjectives with countable and non-countable nouns.
You can count: books, dollars, cups, etc.
You cannot count: information, money, sugar, etc.
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Therefore you might have many books, dollars, and cups, but you would have much information, money, and sugar.
Countable - (a large number) Non-Countable - (a large amount)
many, more, most, few, fewer, fewest, much, more, most, little, less, least, some
several

Common Mistakes and Dangling Modifiers
Mistake 1: Double Comparisons

You can not combine the suffix er or est and the word more or most. You can only use one at a time.
The giant was more bigger than the knight. (incorrect)
The giant was bigger than the knight. (correct)
Mistake 2: Double Negatives

You know from math class that a negative plus a negative equals a positive. The same holds true in English. If you use two
negatives together, the meaning is actually the opposite.
I did not bring no cookies. (That means you must have brought some cookies. I did not bring any cookies or I did
bring no cookies would be correct.)
Common Negative Words
barel hardly neither never

y
no nobody none no one
not nothing nowhere scarcely
Mistake 3: Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Definition: A modifier that seems to modify the wrong word is a misplaced modifier.
The most often misused adverbs are only and just. Others often misused include almost, even, hardly, merely, and nearly.
The adverb should go in front of the word it modifies.
I only want a new laptop for my birthday. (The only thing I want in the world is a laptop for my birthday. I don't want
anything else for any other reason.)
I want only a new laptop for my birthday. (The only thing I want for my birthday is a new laptop. I do want other things, but
not for my birthday.)
Your mother just had enough eggs. (The only thing she had was enough eggs.)
Your mother had just enough eggs. (She had enough eggs and no extra eggs.)
Your prank almost was scary. (It probably didn't work at all.)
Your prank was almost scary. (It was close to scary.)
All those cookies are not peanut free. (All of the cookies have peanuts.)
Not all those cookies are peanut free. (Some are peanut free; some are not.)
Mistake 4: Redundant Modifiers

Be careful not to use adjectives when the trait is part of the noun.
A wet rain followed the cold snow. (Isn't all rain wet and all snow cold?)
The tall giant helped the short dwarf. (Aren't giants by definition tall and dwarves short?)
Mistake 5: Illogical Comparisons
70

When comparing with adjectives and adverbs, make sure your sentence has all the words needed to be clear. You may
understand what you are writing about, but if you leave out words, your meaning might be confusing.
The students at our school are smarter than Gemini Middle School. (Is it possible for students to be smarter than a school?)
The students at our school are smarter than those at Gemini Middle School. (That makes much more sense.)
A Chihuahua's teeth are smaller than German shepherds. (Of course they are. The teeth are tiny. The whole German
shepherd is giant. Perhaps the writer meant A Chihuahua's teeth are smaller than a German shepherd's teeth.)
That house is taller than any house in the neighborhood. (The house itself is in the neighborhood, so how can it be taller
than itself?
That house is taller than any other house in the neighborhood.
Module 7, Prepositions, Lesson 1:

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Definition:

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object
of the preposition.
You have just finished the Modifiers Module. You learned that adjectives tell which one, what kind, how much, and how
many about a noun or pronoun. You learned that adverbs tell where, when, how, and to what extent about verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs.
Sometimes the answers to those questions take more than one word. Often those phrases are prepositional phrases.
Which one: The flower in the vase is a peony.
What kind: The umbrella with the polka-dots is Mary Anne's.
Where: We will be going to the movies.
When: My lunch period is after science.
How: You are walking on your tiptoes.
Definition:

A phrase is a group of words working together that does not have both a subject and a verb. Phrases usually act as
a single part of speech. (We will get to that part later.)
Prepositions can never be alone, so it makes sense to learn about prepositions in their phrases. Any lone preposition is
actually an adverb.
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object of the
preposition.
In the previous examples:
In shows the relationship between the flower and the vase.
With shows the relationship between the umbrella and the polka-dots.
To shows the relationship between where we are going and the movies.
After shows the relationship between our lunch and science class.
On shows the relationship between how we are walking and our tiptoes.
Definition:

The object of the preposition is the noun following the preposition that the preposition is relating to something in the
sentence.
In the previous examples, the objects are vase, polka-dots, movies, science class, and tiptoes.
Hint:
To find the object of the preposition ask "What?" after the preposition.
The flower in the vase is a peony.
You found in - ask "In what?" Answer - vase. Try it with the other examples.
Definition:

A prepositional phrase is the preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the modifiers between the two.
in (preposition) the vase (object)
with (preposition) the polka-dots (object)
to (preposition) the movies (object)
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after (preposition) science class (object)
on (preposition) your tiptoes (object)
Some teachers have their students memorize a list of common prepositions. That can be confusing because sometimes
those same words act as adverbs. It is better to understand how they show a relationship.
Some Common Prepositions
Prepositions of time: after, around, at, before, between, during, from, on, until, at, in, from, since, for,
during, within
Prepositions of place: above, across, against, along, among, around, at, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, beyond, by, down, in, inside, into, near, off, on, opposite, out,
over, past, through, to, toward, under, underneath
Prepositions of direction/movement: at, for, on, to, in, into, onto, between
Prepositions of manner: by, on, in, like, with
Other types of prepositions: by, with , of, for, by, like, as
Do you need to know what categories they fit into? Not really. It's just a way to sort them.
Remembering time, place, direction, and manner might help you remember what prepositions do.
Hint:
The word to is often a preposition, but it is just as often part of an infinitive verb. If the word after to is a verb, to is
not a preposition.
Preposition: I want to go to Florida for vacation.
Infinitive Verb: I want to go to Florida for vacation.
Hint:
Think of prepositions as arrows.
→ to, at, for...
← from, next to...
↔ with, between...
↑ above, on...
↓ in, inside, under, below...
Hint:
One of the best ways to understand prepositional phrases is to learn how to diagram sentences.

Compound Prepositions and Compound Objects
Definition:

Compound prepositions are made up of two or more words. They may be written as one word (They look like
regular prepositions) or as two or more separate words (They look like an adverb and a preposition or another
prepositional phrase). These separated prepositions are sometimes called double prepositions, multiword
prepositions, or phrase prepositions.
The bird \in the tree \outside my window is singing loudly. (one word compound)
The bird \on top of the tree \outside of my window is singing loudly. (multiword compounds)
That movie will be playing from June 10 to June 23. (This is an unusual one because the parts of the preposition are
interrupted.)
Compound Objects
A preposition can have two or more objects.
72

The swimming pool is \between the oak tree and the palm trees.

Preposition versus Adverb
Some words can be used as either prepositions or adverbs. If the word has an object, it is acting as a preposition. If it has
no object, it is acting as an adverb.
Adverb: My school bus just went past.
Preposition: My brother just drove past us.
Hint:
Ask what after the word to see if it has an object.
Adverb: My school bus just went past. (Past what? Nothing = Adverb)

Preposition: My brother just drove past us. (Past what? Us = Preposition)

Adjective Prepositional Phrases
Definition:

An adjective prepositional phrase describes a noun or pronoun. It answers the questions which one, what kind, how
much, or how many.
Adjective: The wind's sound made a whistling noise.
Prepositional Phrase: The sound \of the wind made a whistling noise.
On the other hand, adverb prepositional phrases modify a verb, adjective, or adverb. They usually
tell when, where, how, why, or to what extent (how many, how much, how long, or how far), and under what condition.
Adjective prepositional phrases can also follow linking verbs; however, this is not very common.
You seem \under the weather. (Under the weather describes you, not how you seem.)
More than one adjective phrase can modify the same noun.
The sound \of the players \from the gym distracted us.
The sound \of the players
The sound \from the gym

Adverb Prepositional Phrases
Definition:

An adverb prepositional phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It usually tells when, where, how, why, or to
what extent (how many, how much, how long, or how far), and under what condition.
Modifying a verb:
We always go \to the beach \on the weekends. (Where and when we go.)
Modifying an adjective:
You look tired \from all the heat. (How tired?)
Michele is very good \at singing. (Under what condition is she good?)
Modifying an adverb:
I don't like getting up early \in the morning. (How early?)
Notice that adverbs don't tell why, but adverb phrases do. You generally can't explain why with a single word.
More than one adverb phrase may modify the same verb.
\At the same time, the two opposing players crashed \into me.
crashed \at the same time
crashed \into me

73

Prepositional Phrases as Nouns
Once in a while, a prepositional phrase may act as a noun. This is fairly rare. A noun prepositional phrase generally acts as
the subject of a sentence or as a subject complement.
In front of the class is a stressful place to be. (subject)
The most stressful place for me is in front of the class. (subject complement)
In these cases, there is usually a noun in front of the prepositional phrase that is implied or understood, but not written.
(The spot) in front of the class is a stressful place to be.
The most stressful place for me is (the spot) in front of the class.

Layered Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase may modify the object of another prepositional phrase.

The flowers \in the pot \on the windowsill \in the kitchen \of my grandmother's house \in Maine are violets.
The flowers are in the pot.
The pot is on the windowsill.
The windowsill is in the kitchen.
The kitchen is of my grandmother's house.
The house is in Maine.
Doesn't this sound like a children's rhyme?
Hint:
Be careful not to use too many prepositional phrases at once because it can be confusing. Two prepositional
phrases at a time are usually enough unless you are intentionally trying to layer lots of prepositional phrases.

Adjective or Adverb Prepositional Phrases
Adjective prepositional phrases follow the nouns they modify, unlike adjectives which generally go immediately before the
nouns they modify. Like adjectives, they tell which one, what kind, how much, or how many.
The show \on television tonight is about snow leopards \in Asia.
On television tells us which show. In Asia tells us which leopards.
Adverb prepositional phrases that modify adjectives and adverbs must go after the words they modify. Like intensifiers, they
tell to what extent. They can also tell why or in what way or in what circumstances.
I am hungry \because of this diet. (Because of this diet tells why I'm hungry.)
You can run pretty quickly \in those high heels. (In those high heels tells when you run quickly.)
Adverb prepositional phrases that modify verbs can move about the sentence, just as adverbs do. Like adverbs they can
tell where, when, how, and to what extent. Since they use more than one word, they can also tell why.
We will go snowboarding \in the winter. (In the winter tells when we will go snowboarding.)
\In the winter, we will go snowboarding.
We will, \in the winter, go snowboarding.
Hint:
Sometimes a prepositional phrase could make sense either as an adjective phrase modifying the noun before it or
as an adverb phrase modifying the verb. In this case, it is usually considered an adjective phrase.
The plant \in the window gets lots of sunlight. (Tells which plant.)
\In the window, the plant gets lots of sunlight. (Tells where the plant gets lots of sunlight.)
The plant gets lots of sunlight \in the window. (Tells where the plant gets lots of sunlight.)

Placement Problems and Dangling PrepositionsMisplaced Prepositional Phrases
Putting the prepositional phrase in the wrong place can lead to some strange-sounding sentences.
Tourists often wander along our beach \with cameras. (Do the beaches have cameras?)
Tourists \with cameras often wander along our beach. (No, the tourists have cameras.)
It is always best to put prepositional phrases with the words they modify unless you are consciously moving an adverb
phrase. Make sure you don't put a prepositional phrase after a noun that it doesn't modify.
Dangling Prepositions
"Never end a sentence with a preposition!" We have almost all heard that rule, but it is not as carved in stone as it sounds.
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Sometimes a preposition at the end of the sentence is really a problem. Sometimes it is not. If it is, there are several ways to
fix it.
 It is fine - just leave it (unless your English teacher has a big problem with prepositions at end of sentences, in
which case try completely rearranging the sentence).
What are you looking at? - That really is okay.
At what are you looking? - Sounds awkward. No one speaks like that, not even English teachers.
What are these cookies made of? - Okay. You could leave it like this.
What are the ingredients in these cookies? - Better
A teacher is a person most children look up to. - Okay. You could leave it like this.
A teacher is a person to whom most children look up. - A bit awkward. This might impress your teacher, but people do not
talk like this.
Most children look up to a teacher. - Completely rewritten.
 It really is not a problem because it is an idiomatic (two-word) verb.
What time should I pick you up? - Okay because pick up is an idiomatic/two-word verb.
 Move the phrase.
What time should we wake up at? - Nope

At what time should we wake up? - Much better
 Rearrange the prepositional phrase.
Colored pencils are my favorite tools to draw with. - Not terrible

Colored pencils are my favorite tools with which to draw. - Preferable
 Just leave it off. Sometimes people add unnecessary prepositions to the end of a sentence.
Where is your hometown at? - You don't need at.

Where is your hometown? - Much better.
Troublesome Prepositions
Some prepositions commonly cause trouble for writers.
Beside / Besides
Beside means next to or at the side of.
The book is on the table beside my chair.
Besides means in addition to.
No one besides the teachers is allowed in the teachers' lounge.
Between / Among
Between is used with two things.
I sit between Annie and Mark.
Among is used with a group of three or more.
I sit among my friends.
Have / Of
Because the verb have is often contracted with a helping verb like could or should resulting in could've or should've,
students often think the contractions mean could of or should of.
You should have brought it since you could have.
Angry with / Angry at
You are angry with a person.
I am angry with my little brother for breaking my television.
You get angry at an object.
I was angry at my locker when I couldn't get it open.
Different from / Different than
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Always use different from.
My answer was different from the answer on the key.
Never use different than.
My answer was different than the answer on the key.
Commas with Prepositional Phrases

Restrictive or Essential Adjective Phrases
Definition:

A restrictive phrase, or essential phrase, is one that is necessary to the sentence. It limits or restricts the word it is
modifying so that the reader knows which noun is being referred to. Restrictive phrases do not have commas
around them.
The newspapers \in the attic are garbage. The newspapers \in the den are not garbage.
Without the phrase, I might throw out the wrong newspapers.
Definition:

A nonrestrictive, or nonessential, phrase is one that is not necessary to the sentence. It adds information that is not
needed. Nonrestrictive phrases need commas around them.
My father, \with his fear of crowds, did not come with us to the state fair.
I don't need to know about his fear of crowds to know which father I am talking about.
Commas with Adverb Phrases
Adverb phrases at the beginning of the sentence, now introductory prepositional phrases, are usually separated from the
sentence by a comma unless they are very short (three words or fewer) and it is easy to tell where the phrase ends.
In the morning we got up and got ready for work.
In the morning, we got up and got ready for work.
(Short phrase okay with or without a comma.)
This is one of the few places where how a sentence sounds determines the punctuation.
Without my work, I was tempted to skip class.
(Short, but pauses. It is obvious that work does not describe I.)
Prepositional phrases layered together usually have a comma.
On the morning before my birthday, my parents surprised me with a trip to Hawaii.
Commas are especially important if the object of the preposition is a verb acting like a noun. Otherwise, the results can be
funny.
After vacuuming my brother collapsed on the couch. (Was someone vacuuming your brother?)
After vacuuming, my brother collapsed on the couch. (Comma is necessary)
Sometimes for effect, writers turn the whole sentence around, using the prepositional phrase first, then the verb, and finally
the subject.
Down the stream paddled the kayakers.
This is not an example of an introductory phrase and does not need a comma.
Module 7, Prepositions, Lesson 12:Idiomatic Verbs

You learned about phrasal verbs in Verbs Module Lesson 12.
Definition:

Phrasal verbs, also called idiomatic verbs or two-word verbs, are made up of a verb and one or more prepositions.
The preposition in an phrasal verb is called a particle. This is because the preposition is not being used to show a
relationship such as time, place, or direction; it is just there because that is the way we speak.
If you wake up in the morning, is there anything up about how you wake? If you tell someone to shut up (which we know is
rude), what up are they supposed to shut?
Examples:
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Please fill out these forms so I can find out more about you.
If you fall behind in your homework, your parents will hear from your teacher.
If you blow up at your friends, it makes it harder to get along with them.
It is important to be able to tell the difference in the ways prepositions are used.
 Verb with an adverb:
We looked up at the sky to see the meteor shower.
As we were racing, James fell behind.
 Verb with a prepositional phrase:
We looked up the road to see if the car was coming.

James fell behind the couch.
 Idiomatic verb:
We looked up the definition of that word in the dictionary.

James fell behind in his schoolwork.
Hint:
If you ask what after the word and get an answer, it's a preposition.
 Idiomatic verb:
We looked up the definition of that word in the dictionary.

James fell behind in his schoolwork.
Hint:
If you ask what after the word and get an answer, it's a preposition.
Module 8, Conjunctions and Interjections, Lesson 1:

Coordinate Conjunctions
Definition:

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses. There are several types of conjunctions and several
other types of words that act as conjunctions.
Joining words: You should wait before grabbing one of those tempting but hot cookies.
Joining phrases: We have to drive across two states and around a lake to get to Grandmother's house.
Joining clauses: Because you didn't do your homework, you will need to miss recess.
Definition:

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses that are grammatically equal. In other words, the
conjunction can join several nouns or several phrases or several clauses. The coordinating conjunctions
are and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
Joining nouns: We can have pizza, spaghetti, or lasagna for dinner.
Joining verbs: The puppies in the dog park chased, wrestled, and swam all afternoon.
Joining adjectives: The forest behind your house seems dark and mysterious.
Joining phrases: We left on time but arrived late because of the storm.
Joining clauses: The dragon refused to eat people for he found them rather foul tasting.
Each coordinating conjunction connects ideas in a slightly different way.
And - combines two or more positive ideas.
But - connects two or more true but contrasting ideas.
Or - presents a choice between ideas. Only one of the choices is true or possible.
Nor - combines two or more negative ideas. Neither of the ideas is true or possible.
Yet - connects two or more ideas that are somewhat contrasting.
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For - explains a reason or purpose.
So - shows an effect or result.
Beware - so can also be so that, which is a subordinating conjunction. Sometimes we say so when we mean so that.
We are going to the movies, so we can't watch that program.
You need to be here on time so we can get to the movie before it starts.
You need to be here on time so that we can get to the movies before it starts.
Punctuating Coordinate Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions have a comma before them when they join two independent clauses. (A simple sentence is an
independent clause.) Both clauses must make sense by themselves.
I know I brought my pencil. I can't find it.
I know I brought my pencil, but I can't find it.
Often a conjunction is used at the end of a series. That conjunction is usually preceded by a comma in American English.
British English writers often leave out that "terminal comma" or "serial comma." The conjunction can be repeated for an
emphatic effect instead of using commas.
I have English, math, and science homework.
I have English and math and science homework.
Note:
Can you start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction? Most teachers say no, but I'm sure you've noticed
sentences beginning with and or but in books that you have read. It can be done for effect if it is done on purpose.
Many professional writers often ignore the "rules." That is because they know the rules and can choose to break
them when they want a certain effect. Most teachers require students to demonstrate that they know the rules
before allowing them to break them.

Correlative Conjunctions
Definition:

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words, phrases, or clauses. The correlative conjunctions
are either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also, whether...or.
Joining words: My uncle is not only a doctor but also a pharmacist.
Joining phrases: All of these clothes are either too small or worn out.
Joining clauses: Either Monica will bring drinks, or she will bring brownies.
Correlative conjunctions are stronger than coordinating conjunctions and emphasize the relationship between the ideas
being joined. Notice the difference in the following sentences:
Cats and dogs make good pets.
Both cats and dogs make good pets.
Ron or Davie found my bicycle.
Either Ron or Davie found my bicycle.
Note: Not only...but also can be split apart. Even the second half can be split. Not only cannot be split.
I like not only ice skating but also hockey. Not only is he a great singer, but he is also an actor.
Note: Be careful of the placement of the parts of the conjunction.
Confusing: Either you must bring in your permission slip or stay home. (The reader is left hanging waiting for the second
clause.)
Better: You must either bring in your permission slip or stay home. (You must do one of these two actions.)
Also better: Either you must bring in your permission slip, or you must stay home.
Confusing: It was not only a long movie but also exciting.

Better: The movie was not only long but also exciting.
Better: It was not only a long movie but also an exciting one.
As you learned in the modifiers unit, watch where you put only.
Confusing: Jeremy not only won a trophy but also money.

Better: Jeremy won not only a trophy but also money.
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Parallel Ideas
Definition:

Ideas are considered parallel when they are grammatically equal. Ideas in a series must be parallel. You might
have a series of nouns, a series of verbs, a series of prepositional phrases, a series of predicates, a series of
independent clauses, or a series of some other grammatical element. Each item in the series should be the same
thing.
A series of nouns: kitchen, bathroom, entryway
Please mop the kitchen, bathroom, and entryway.
A series of verbs: reading, writing, daydreaming (all are present participles)
The students in the class were reading, writing, and daydreaming.
A series of prepositional phrases: under the sofa, in the cushions, behind the television
I have looked for the remote control under the sofa, in the cushions, and behind the television.
A series of predicates: went to the store, bought some milk, came home
After school, I went to the store, bought some milk, and came home.
A series of clauses: Laura likes mysteries. Malachi prefers suspense. Shona loves romances.
Laura likes mysteries, Malachi prefers suspense, and Shona loves romances.
Too often writers pay attention to the ideas instead of the construction of the sentence.
Incorrect: We watched two movies, a television show, and read a book. (noun phrase, noun phrase, predicate)
Correct: We watched two movies, watched a television show, and read a book.
Incorrect: I want to go skiing, biking, or to go to the mall. (gerund, gerund, infinitive)
Correct: I want to go skiing, to go biking, or to go to the mall. (Now they are all infinitive phrases.)
Correct: I want to go skiing, biking, or shopping at the mall. (Now they all are gerunds following go)
Hint:
Try putting each item in the series on its own line and see if they match.
I want to go
skiing ✓
biking ✓
to go to the mall ✗

Conjunctive Adverbs
Definition:

A conjunctive adverb (adverbial conjunction, transitional device) can be used to join two independent clauses,
making a compound sentence.
Like a conjunction, it connects ideas, but it is stronger. It shows a more specific relationship and usually acts as a transition
between the clauses. It can combine, compare, contrast, emphasize, summarize, illustrate, show sequence, and concede
that the reader already knows an idea. (Notice that all the ideas in this series are verbs or verb phrases so they are parallel.)
Weak: Most Labrador retrievers are friendly, but some can be mean.
Stronger: Most Labrador retrievers are friendly; however, some can be mean.
Some common conjunctive adverbs

accordingly however otherwise
also incidentally similarly
anyway indeed specifically
besides instead still
certainly likewise subsequentl
consequentl meanwhile y
y moreover then
conversely next therefore
finally nevertheles thus
furthermore s
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hence nonetheless
Beware: This is not a complete list, and all of these words are not always used this way. Memorizing the list is not useful.
Analyzing how words work together in a sentence is the best way to find them.
Definition:

Conjunctive adverbs can also be used in the middle of a sentence as parenthetical expressions.
I know Jeremiah can, in fact, sing very well.
Conjunctive adverbs used as parenthetical expressions include the list above and these common compound ones.
for on the that is
example contrary on the other
namely in fact hand
Punctuating Conjunctive Adverbs

When used in a simple sentence as a parenthetical expression, the conjunctive adverb has commas around it because it is
not grammatically a part of the sentence. It may seem like an adverb, but it is usually just something people say in
conversation.
We are, however, not ready to go.
If it is used to combine sentences, a semicolon is used before the conjunctive adverb. (Think of a semicolon as two commas
- one that would have been in front of a coordinating conjunction plus one that shows that however is parenthetical.)
I am ready; however, you are not.
Sentences with conjunctive adverbs can also be written as separate sentences.
I am ready. However, my sister is not.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition:

A subordinating conjunction joins two clauses by making one clause subordinate to, or dependent on, the other. It
makes a stronger connection than a coordinating conjunction does. The subordinating conjunction shows a
relationship between the two clauses. Some subordinating conjunctions are made up of more than one word.
Independent: It is raining hard.

Independent: We might get wet.
Loose connection with coordinating conjunction: It is raining hard, and we might get wet. (The reader isn't told that the
reason they might get wet is the rain.)
Stronger connection with subordinating conjunction: We might get wet because it is raining hard. Because it is raining
hard, we might get wet. (The reader can see the cause and effect relationship)
Some common subordinating conjunctions

after how though
although if till
as in order that unless
as if once until
as far as provided when
as long as (that) wheneve
as soon as rather than r
as though since where
because so long as wherever
before so (that) whether
even if so that while
even than why
though that
Beware: This is not a complete list, and all of these words are not always used this way. Memorizing the list is not useful.
Analyzing how words work together in a sentence is the best way to find them.
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Subordinating conjunctions introduce adverb or noun clauses. Adverb clauses tell how, why, to what extent, and under what
conditions something happened.
Punctuating subordinating conjunctions

If the subordinating conjunction is between the independent clause and the dependent clause, it is strong enough to hold
the sentences together without a comma. (Subordinating conjunctions are superglue! Coordinating conjunctions are just
classroom glue.)
You must finish your painting before it dries.
If the subordinating conjunction is at the beginning of the sentence (making the dependent clause an introductory
dependent clause), the sentence needs a comma between the two clauses. (If the glue is at the beginning, how is it going to
hold anything together? The comma is the glue.)
Before it dries, you must finish your painting.

If the subordinating conjunction is combining two words or phrases, it isn't acting as a subordinating conjunction. It might be
acting as a preposition or adverb. You will need to decide on its punctuation based on that use.
My movie will end before yours.
Note:
Many students believe it is incorrect to start a sentence with because. This is because too many students for too
many years answer questions with only the second, dependent clause. Teachers want to discourage that, so they
tell students that they are not allowed to start sentences with because.
Why did the Chinese build the Great Wall?
Incorrect: Because they were trying to keep out their enemies.

Correct: The Chinese built the Great Wall because they were trying to keep out their enemies.
Correct: Because they were trying to keep out their enemies, the Chinese built the Great Wall.

Other Words that Act as Conjunctions
You have already learned about relative pronouns and relative adverbs in previous modules. Both act as subordinating
conjunctions when they connect sentences.
Relative pronouns, which include some interrogative and one demonstrative pronoun, introduce adjective or noun clauses.
They are that, which, who, whom, and whose.
These are the students who have done well on the test.
These are the students. The students have done well on the test.
(Who replaces students when combining the sentences.)
Relative adverbs introduce adjective clauses: when, where, why. (Yes, that seems backwards, an adverb in an adjective
clause.) They replace in which, which sounds more formal.
That is the museum where I saw the unicorn tapestry.

That is the museum in which I saw the unicorn tapestry.
Adjective clauses modify nouns. Sometimes in a sentence the noun modified by the adjective clause is omitted but
understood.
Tell your teacher why you forgot your homework.

Tell your teacher (the reason) why you forgot your homework.
Other pronouns can introduce noun clauses. They are whoever, whomever, what, whatever, and whichever.
Whatever you want for breakfast is fine with me.

You want whatever for breakfast. Whatever is fine with me.
Hint:
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When using whoever or whomever, the pronoun is part of the dependent clause. Whoever is a subject
pronoun. Whomever is an object pronoun. It needs to work correctly in the dependent clause.
[Whoever ate the cookies] should have left them alone.
I expect [whomever I pick] to do a good job.

As/As if Versus Like
Like versus as/as if/as though/such as - In casual speech people often use like when they should use as or as if.
Like should only be used when followed by a noun.
The clouds look like cotton balls.
As, as if, and as though join clauses.
It is going to rain today like as it did yesterday.
It looks like as if it is going to rain.
We ran between the buildings like as though it were already raining.
Such as is used before a list.
You will need to bring rain gear like such as an umbrella, a poncho, or boots.

Interjections
Definition:
An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses emotion. They can show happiness, surprise, anger,
impatience, and many other emotions. They can also be used to get attention. Interjections do not have a
grammatical purpose in the sentence. They are considered parenthetical and are set off with commas.
Some common (and less common) interjections
yes dear oh, the
no dear me horror
drat oops
hello duh ouch
hi eek phew
hey eh please
good-bye enough rats
er shh
absolutely Eureka shoot
achoo eww shucks
ack gee snap
agreed good grief stop
ah gosh sweet
aha great ugh
ahem groovy uh
ahh ha uh-huh
ahoy hmm uh-oh
alas holy um
alright macaroni umm
alrighty hooray waa
anyhow humph way to go
argh hush well
bah indeed what
humbug mmmm whew
beware my goodness whoa
blech my wow
bravo nah yay
congratulation never yikes
s no way yippee
crud nonsense yuck
dang oh yum
darn
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As you can see, many interjections use onomatopoeia. Others are fad words. All of them are words we use that don't have
any real meaning in the sentence.
Interjections are generally used at the beginnings of sentences, but they may come anywhere in the sentence.
At the beginning: Gee, that's not very nice.

At the end: You like that ice cream, huh?
In the middle: I found that, yes, I had forgotten my toothbrush.
Punctuating interjections
Interjections that express strong emotion are followed with an exclamation mark.
Oh no! I forgot to do my homework!
Mild interjections are set off from the sentence with a comma.
Rats, it's raining again.
Questioning interjections are followed by a question mark.
Huh? You want me to do what?
Occasionally an interjection might take a period, especially if it is at the end of the sentence.
Hey. What page are we on? (Note: Here hey is used to get attention before asking the question, so it isn't part of the
question. It's not exclaimed, however, or the speaker might get in trouble.)
My sandwich is squished. Yuck.
Hint:
Interjections reflect the way we speak in informal situations. They are generally avoided when writing in formal or
academic situations.
Module 9, Verbals and Phrases, Lesson 1:

Verbals
When is a verb not a verb? When it is a verbal.

You remember that in English there are only four forms of each verb: the present, the present participle, the past, and the
past participle. Sometimes when you see these forms in a sentence, they are not actually being used as verbs.
Definition:

A verbal (or non-finite verb) is a verb form that is not being used as a verb. Verbals can act as nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs. There are three types of verbals: the present participle, the past participle, and the infinitive, which is
formed by putting to in front of the present tense form. (A verb being a verb is called a finite verb.)
Verb: We were walking along the midway at the carnival.
Verbal: Walking along the midway at the carnival, we ate our funnel cakes. (present participle)
Verb: All that dancing tired me out.
Verbal: Tired out by all that dancing, I went home and collapsed. (past participle)
Verb: We always sing the National Anthem at the ball game.
Verbal: I really like to sing. (to + present = infinitive)

Participles and Participial Phrases
Participles
Definition:
A participle is a form of a verb that needs a helping verb. There are two participles, the present participle and the
past participle.
Present Present Participle Past Past Participle
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(needs to be) (needs have)
dance(s) dancing danced danced
eat(s) eating ate eaten
become(s becoming became become

)
 The present participle of all verbs ends in ing.

 The past participle of regular verbs ends in ed.
 The past participles of irregular verbs have different forms.
In order to work as a verb in a sentence, all participles must have a helping verb. A participle without a helping verb is being
used as either a participle or a gerund. (We'll get to gerunds later.)
Used as a verb:
We were singing as we walked along the sidewalk.
Peter was laughing and fell out of his chair.
Used as a participle:
Singing, we walked along the sidewalk.
Peter, laughing, fell out of his chair.
Past participles and present participles can be used as adjectives in sentences. When used as adjectives, we identify them
as participles instead of verbs.
The burning sun beat down on us. (burning tells what kind of sun)

The broken flowerpot lay on the ground. (broken tells what kind of flowerpot)
The museum was closed when we got there. (closed is a predicate adjective describing museum)
Participial Phrases
Definition:

A participial phrase is made up of the participle along with its objects and modifiers.
Singing a silly song, we walked along the sidewalk.
Peter, laughing at Allie's joke, fell out of his chair.
Participial phrases act as adjectives because they modify nouns.
Singing a silly song, we walked along the sidewalk.
(Singing a silly song describes "we".)
Peter, laughing at Allie's joke, fell out of his chair.
(Laughing at Allie's joke describes Peter.)

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Participial Phrases
Definition:

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A phrase is restrictive (also called essential) if it narrows down the word it modifies. It tells which one of a noun you
are writing about. A restrictive phrase is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. Restrictive phrases do not have
commas around them.
The man wearing the white jacket is our coach.
There are several men. Wearing the white jacket restricts which man is the coach. If we take the phrase out, we don't know
who the coach is.
Definition:

A phrase is nonrestrictive (also called nonessential) if we know exactly who or what is being written about without
the phrase. A nonrestrictive phrase is simply adding extra information. Nonrestrictive phrases need commas around
them.
Mr. Davis, wearing a white jacket, is our coach.
We know Mr. Davis is the coach. We are adding that he is wearing a white jacket. If we take the phrase out, we still know
that Mr. Davis is the coach.

Misplaced Participial Phrases
A participle or participial phrase generally follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. Nonessential phrases can sometimes
come before the noun. Phrases before nouns are set off with commas.
Kevin, playing with his new puppy, did not finish his homework.
Playing with his new puppy, Kevin did not finish his homework.
Justin, working on his homework, made good use of his time.
Working on his homework, Justin made good use of his time.
Moving the phrase can change which word the phrase is modifying.
Justin made good use of his time working on his homework.
(Now the phrase is modifying time.)
Definition:

A participial phrase is misplaced if it seems to modify a word other than the one the writer intended to modify. It is
often added to a sentence as an afterthought. The idea was clear in the author's mind, but it didn't translate to the
reader.
Misplaced: We got on the bus, soaked from the rain. (Was the bus soaked?)
Better: Soaked from the rain, we got on the bus.
Definition:

A participial phrase is dangling if it modifies a word that is not in the sentence at all.
Dangling:
Sitting in the back row, the board was hard to see. (The board wasn't sitting in the back row.)
Mowing the lawn, grass clippings got all over my face. (The grass clippings weren't mowing the lawn.)
Corrected:
Sitting in the back row, I couldn't see the board well.
Mowing the lawn, I got grass clippings all over my face.
A participle or participial phrase generally follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. Nonessential phrases can sometimes
come before the noun. Phrases before nouns are set off with commas.
Kevin, playing with his new puppy, did not finish his homework.
Playing with his new puppy, Kevin did not finish his homework.
Justin, working on his homework, made good use of his time.
Working on his homework, Justin made good use of his time.
Moving the phrase can change which word the phrase is modifying.
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Justin made good use of his time working on his homework.
(Now the phrase is modifying time.)

Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
Definition:

A gerund is a verbal that uses the present participle of a verb (the ing form) but acts as a noun. It can act as a
subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition.
Reading is my favorite activity. (gerund as a subject)

Julie's best subject is writing. (gerund as a subject complement)
Carlos really enjoys biking. (gerund as a direct object)
Maria gives singing all her attention. (gerund as an indirect object)
I got this bruise from fencing. (gerund as the object of a preposition)
Hint:
Watch out for present participles used as participles (adjectives).
Participle: Let's meet at the bowling alley. (Bowling describes alley.)
Gerund: On the weekends, I go bowling. (Bowling is acting as a noun.)
Definition:

A gerund phrase is the gerund plus its object and modifiers.
Reading mystery novels is my favorite activity. (gerund phrase as a subject)
Julie's best subject is creative writing. (gerund phrase as a subject complement)
Carlos really enjoys biking through the mountains. (gerund phrase as a direct object)
I got this bruise from fencing with my instructor. (gerund phrase as the object of a preposition)
Hint:
If you're not sure if a word or phrase is a gerund, replace it with the word something. Since a gerund is a noun,
replacing it with a pronoun should work.
Playing the banjo is a skill I am learning.
Something is a skill I am learning.
Note: Because a gerund is a noun, it requires a possessive noun or pronoun before it.

Johnny's swimming has improved this last year.
Not: Johnny swimming has improved this last year.
I think that our swimming will be even better next year.
Not: I think that us swimming will be even better next year.

Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
Definition:
An infinitive is a verb that has not been conjugated (changed to show person or tense). In English, infinitives
generally use to with the base (present) form of the verb. The infinitive can work as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb.
Noun: To drive would be my first choice. Mom's first choice is to fly.

Adjective: Watermelons are good fruits to eat.
Adverb: We used our binoculars to see.
Sometimes the infinitive uses the perfect, progressive, or passive form of the verb.
I want those books to be read. (passive)

By tomorrow, I want those books to have been read. (perfect passive)
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By tomorrow, I want you to be reading your books. (progressive)
By Friday I expect you to have started your reports. (perfect)
Definition:

An infinitive phrase is made up of the infinitive verb with its object and modifiers.
Noun: To drive to Chicago would be my first choice. Mom's first choice is to fly to her hometown.
Adjective: Watermelons are good fruits to eat when you are hot.
Adverb: We used our binoculars to see the dolphins in the ocean.
Negative adverbs: Sometimes an infinitive verb will have an adverb like not or never before the verb itself. It is part of the
infinitive phrase.
I told your father not to bring your puppy when he came to pick you up.
I warned you never to drive without your driver's license.
Hint:
The word to is also a preposition. If the word to is before a verb, it is part of an infinitive. If the word to is before any
other word, it is probably a preposition.
I asked you to bring the book you borrowed. (Bring is a verb; to bring is an infinitive.)
I took my little sister to the movies. (To the movies is a prepositional phrase.)
To split or not to split?
Definition:

An infinitive with an adverb between the two parts is called a split infinitive. The adverb is often part of the infinitive.
Is it best to not split infinitives?
Is it best not to split infinitives?
Some teachers teach this as a hard and fast rule. They believe it is preferable to keep the two parts of the infinitive together
unless the result is awkward. This seems to be another example of overkill of a rule. Sometimes it is better not to split the
infinitive. Sometimes splitting it is the best way to write the idea. In formal writing, rewording a sentence to avoid a split
infinitive is often the best choice.
I need to quickly stop for some gas before we leave. (could work)

I need to stop quickly for some gas before we leave. (better in formal writing)
Heather likes to before choir warm up her voice. (doesn't work)
Heather likes to warm up her voice before choir. (better)
Before choir, Heather likes to warm up her voice. (better)

Classifying Verbals and Verbal Phrases
Examples
Participles present participle and past acting as an adjective The tiger walking toward us is the
participle forms oldest cub.
Gerunds present participle acting as a noun I really enjoy painting ceramics.
Infinitives infinitive form (to walk) acting as a noun, adjective, or My grandfather is learning to skydive.
adverb
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Appositives and Appositive Phrases
Definition:

An appositive is a word or phrase that renames the noun. It makes positively sure you know what the writer is
talking about. We say that an appositive is "in apposition" to the noun, which means that it's next to the noun.
My uncle, a doctor, is moving to New Jersey.

(Uncle and doctor are the same person. Doctor is in apposition to uncle.)
That apple, a Golden Delicious, is best for eating as is.

(Apple and Golden Delicious are the same thing. Golden Delicious is in apposition to apple.)
My sister Marcy wants to be a lawyer.
(Sister and Marcy are the same person. Marcy is in apposition to sister.)
Definition:

An appositive phrase is the appositive and its modifiers.
My uncle, a doctor in California, is moving to New Jersey.
That apple, a variety of apple called Golden Delicious, tastes best when eaten as is.
Hint:
Think of appositives and appositive phrases as if they were in parentheses.
My uncle (a doctor) is moving to New Jersey.
That apple (a variety called Golden Delicious) is best for eating as is.
Note:

An appositive can be a word, a phrase, or even a clause. Noun clauses are covered in the Clauses module.
The appositive usually follows the noun it modifies.
George, my best friend, is from Hawaii. (The appositive noun is friend.)

My best friend George is from Hawaii. (The appositive is George.)
An appositive that precedes the noun it modifies will be separated from the sentence by a comma.
A famous Arabian horse, the Darley Arabian is one of the ancestors of many modern Thoroughbreds.
(Horse is the appositive noun. Darley Arabian is the subject.)

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Appositives
Definition:
An appositive noun or phrase is restrictive (also called essential) if it narrows down the word it modifies. It
tells which one of the noun you are writing about. A restrictive appositive noun or phrase is necessary to the
meaning of the sentence. If you remove a restrictive appositive phrase, the sentence will sound like it is missing
something. It is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
My friend Amanda is on the honor roll again.

(You have several friends. Amanda restricts which friend is on the honor roll. If we take out the phrase, we don't know who
you are writing about.)
Definition:
An appositive noun or phrase is nonrestrictive (also called nonessential) if we know exactly who the writer is
referring to when the appositive is removed. Nonrestrictive appositives simply add extra information, and they need
commas around them.
Amanda, my friend, is on the honor roll again.
(We know Amanda is on the honor roll again, even if we don't know she's your friend.)
My best friend, Amanda, is on the honor roll again.
(In this case, Amanda is nonrestrictive because you can only have one best friend. We don't need to know her name is
Amanda in order to know who you are writing about.)
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Absolute Phrases
Definition:
An absolute phrase (nominative absolute) is generally made up of a noun or pronoun with a participial phrase. It
modifies the whole sentence, not a single noun, which makes it different from a participial phrase.
Absolute phrases:
Its branches covered in icicles, the tall oak stood in our yard.

The tall oak, its branches covered in icicles, stood in our yard.
The tall oak stood in our yard, its branches covered in icicles.
As the main clause:

Its branches were covered in icicles.
Absolute phrases are always set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Sometimes when the participle of an absolute phrase is a form of the verb to be, the participle is left out and understood.
The movie being over, the patrons flooded the lobby and parking lot.
The movie over, the patrons flooded the lobby and parking lot.
Sometimes a noun phrase (a noun and its modifiers) can act as an absolute phrase.
The stars of that movie, where are they now?
Module 10, Clauses, Lesson 1:

What is a Clause?
Definition:
A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a predicate. Every complete sentence is made up of at
least one clause.
Michael bought a new computer. (One sentence, one clause)
Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. (One sentence, two clauses)
Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (One sentence, two clauses)
Definition:

An independent clause (or main clause) makes sense by itself. It expresses a complete thought.
Michael bought a new computer. (One independent clause)
Michael bought a new computer, but he still has the old one. [Two independent clauses (Coordinating conjunctions
don't count as part of the clause.)]
Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (Only the second clause is independent.)
Definition:
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) does not make sense by itself. It does not express a complete thought.
Although he still has his old one. (Without the independent clause, a dependent clause is a sentence fragment.)
A dependent clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction, a relative pronoun, or some other word that
causes it to become dependent. A dependent clause will make sense only when attached to an independent
clause.
Although he still has his old one. (Although is a subordinating conjunction.)
He still has his old one. (Without the conjunction, the clause becomes independent.)
Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one. (Combined with an independent clause,
the dependent clause makes sense.)
Dependent clauses can come after, before, or in the middle of the independent clause.
Michael now has a new computer although he still has his old one. (Dependent clause after an independent
clause)
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Although he still has his old one, Michael now has a new computer. (Dependent clause before the
independent clause)
Michael, although he still has his old one, now has a new computer. (Dependent clause inside the
independent clause)
Lesson 2:
Adjective Clauses
Definition:
An adjective clause (also called relative clause) is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. It
tells which one or what kind. Adjective clauses almost always come right after the nouns they modify.
There is the mountain that we are going to climb.
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed.
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English.
Using dependent clauses is a way of combining sentences.
Daniel was late again today + Daniel sits next to me in English = Daniel, who was late again today, sits next
to me in English.
With relative pronouns - An adjective clause generally begins with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, whose) that
connects the clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies. The relative pronoun shows the relationship between the clause and
the antecedent.
There is the mountain that we are going to climb. (Antecedent = mountain. That connects the clause we are going to climb
that with the antecedent.)
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed. (Antecedent = shoes. Which is a pronoun
replacing shoes in the dependent clause shoes used to be my mom's and relating it to the subject of the independent
clause.)
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English. (Antecedent = Daniel, Who = Daniel, so the dependent clause
means Daniel was late again today. Who is replacing Daniel in the second clause and relating it to the subject of the
independent clause.)
The relative pronoun has a grammatical function in the sentence.
There is the mountain that we are going to climb. (That is the direct object of the infinitive to climb.)
My blue tennis shoes, which used to be my mom's, were under the bed. (Which is the subject of the verb used.)
Daniel, who was late again today, sits next to me in English. (Who is the subject of the dependent clause.)
Hint:
When choosing between who and whom, consider how the pronoun is used in the dependent clause, not the
independent clause.
These are the students who are going. (Who is the subject of the dependent clause.)
These are the students. Who are going. (They are going.)
Those are the students for whom I bought the tickets. (Whom is the object of the preposition for.)
Those are the students. I bought the tickets for whom. (I bought the tickets for them.)
With understood pronouns - Sometimes the relative pronoun is understood and not written in the sentence.
Have you seen the book I lost?

Have you seen the book [that] I lost?
The teacher I had in fifth grade really inspired me.
The teacher [whom] I had in fifth grade really inspired me.
With prepositions - If the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition and is left out, the preposition has no choice but to
dangle. In informal, spoken English, this is fine. It is also fine in spoken English to end the clause with the preposition.
However, in formal English it is better to put the preposition before the pronoun. Note that the preposition is part of the
dependent clause.
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This movie was the sequel we had been waiting for. (Informal)
This movie was the sequel, which we had been waiting for. (Informal)
This movie was the sequel for which we had been waiting. (Formal)
Do you know the actor Shelly is talking about? (Informal)
Do you know the actor that Shelly is talking about? (Informal)
Do you know the actor about whom Shelly is talking? (Formal) (Note that that becomes whom or which.)
With relative adverbs - Adjective clauses can also start with the relative adverbs where, when, and why. They connect the
dependent clause to a noun in the sentence. The relative adverb modifies the verb in the dependent clause.
That is the bench where you and I were supposed to meet.

Six o'clock was the time when we were supposed to be there.
That is the reason why I couldn't meet you.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Adjective Clauses
Definition:
An adjective clause is restrictive (also called essential) if it narrows down the word it modifies. It tells which one of
the noun you are writing about. A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. It is not
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
The players who are wearing the red uniforms are winning the game.
If we take out the clause, we won't know which players are winning the game. It's a restrictive or essential clause.
Definition:

An adjective clause is nonrestrictive (also called nonessential) if we know exactly who is being written about without
it. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is simply adding extra information. Nonrestrictive adjective clauses need
commas around them.
Those girls, who have been friends for years, are all going to the same college.
Without the clause, we still know that those girls are going to the same college. The clause is nonrestrictive.
A proper noun is usually followed by a nonrestrictive clause.
Amanda, who is my best friend, is on the honor roll again.
Without the clause, we know that it is Amanda who is on the honor roll.
That versus Which
The relative pronoun that always begins a restrictive clause. That can be used to replace who, whom, or which in restrictive
clauses, but many teachers prefer students to use that only with non-human antecedents.
The oranges that you need for this recipe are on the table.
The workers who built this bridge did a good job.
The relative pronoun which generally begins a nonrestrictive clause. It can begin a restrictive clause, but most style
manuals prefer writers use it only for nonrestrictive clauses.
The oranges, which have been sitting on the table for a week, are starting to look brown.
Definition:

An adjective clause is restrictive (also called essential) if it narrows down the word it modifies. It tells which one of
the noun you are writing about. A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. It is not
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
The players who are wearing the red uniforms are winning the game.
If we take out the clause, we won't know which players are winning the game. It's a restrictive or essential clause.
Definition:

An adjective clause is nonrestrictive (also called nonessential) if we know exactly who is being written about without
it. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is simply adding extra information. Nonrestrictive adjective clauses need
commas around them.
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Those girls, who have been friends for years, are all going to the same college.
Without the clause, we still know that those girls are going to the same college. The clause is nonrestrictive.
A proper noun is usually followed by a nonrestrictive clause.
Amanda, who is my best friend, is on the honor roll again.
Without the clause, we know that it is Amanda who is on the honor roll.
That versus Which
The relative pronoun that always begins a restrictive clause. That can be used to replace who, whom, or which in restrictive
clauses, but many teachers prefer students to use that only with non-human antecedents.
The oranges that you need for this recipe are on the table.

The workers who built this bridge did a good job.
The relative pronoun which generally begins a nonrestrictive clause. It can begin a restrictive clause, but most style
manuals prefer writers use it only for nonrestrictive clauses.
The oranges, which have been sitting on the table for a week, are starting to look brown.

Adverb Clauses
Definition:

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb clause
tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions something happened.
We will not have school today because it snowed last night.
Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.
An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.
Some common (but not all) subordinating conjunctions
after even though that

although how though
as if unless
as if in order that until
as far as once when
as long as provided wheneve
as soon (that) r
as rather than where
as though since wherever
because so long as whether
before so (that) while
even if than why

Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.
Commas with adverb clauses - When an adverb clause is at the beginning of the sentence, it is an introductory clause and
needs a comma separating it from the independent clause. If the adverb clause comes after the independent clause, the
conjunction is enough to hold the two clauses together.

Because it snowed last night, we will not have school today.
Locating adverb clauses - Adverb clauses modifying verbs can move around the sentence.
I missed the bus because my alarm didn't go off. Because my alarm didn't go off, I missed the bus. (The dependent
clause because my alarm didn't go off modifies the verb missed. The dependent clause is adverbial because it tells why you
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missed the bus.)
Whenever it rains, my little sister loves to jump in the puddles. My little sister loves to jump in the puddles whenever it
rains. (The dependent clause whenever it rains modifies the verb loves. The dependent clause is adverbial because it tells
when your little sister jumps in the puddles.)
Adverb clauses modifying adjectives or adverbs must come after the word modified.
Playing football is dangerous if you don't have the right equipment.

We walked to class quickly as if we were going to be late.
Elliptical adverb clauses have missing words that are understood.
When finished this building will be the tallest in the city.

When [it is] finished this building will be the tallest in the city.
Lesson 5:
Noun Clauses
Definition:

A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. It can be used as the subject, direct object, indirect
object, object of a preposition, subject complement, or appositive.
Subject: What I had forgotten was that I had a test today.

Direct object: You must choose which flavor of ice cream you want.
Indirect object: I will tell whoever will listen my frightening story.
Object of a preposition: Josie is not interested in whatever Kyle says.
Subject complement: Michael's excuse was that he had forgotten to set his alarm.
Appositive: It seems to bother the teacher that all the students are being too quiet.
(That the students are being too quiet seems to bother the teacher. Note that the appositive renames It, but does
not follow immediately like other appositives.)
It can also be used as an adverbial noun (a.k.a. an adverbial objective or adjective complement), which is a noun
that acts like an adverb modifying a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
I'm afraid that we don't carry that ice cream flavor any longer. (The dependent clause modifies the predicate
adjective afraid.)
Noun clauses often begin with pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, or other words. The introductory word generally has a
grammatical function in the sentence.
Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose, what

Indefinite relative pronouns: whoever, whomever, whatever, whichever, whether, if
Interrogative pronoun: who
Interrogative adjective: what
Interrogative adverb: how
Subordinating conjunctions: how, if, when, whenever, where, whether, why
Hint:
Whoever/Whomever - the correct choice in formal writing is whichever pronoun is correct in the subordinate
sentence. In informal speech, using the correct pronoun often sounds pretentious.
Whoever is responsible for this mess needs to clean it up. (Whoever is the subject of the verb is.)
Whomever you hit accidentally deserves an apology. (Whomever is the direct object of the verb hit.)
Sometimes the introductory word is understood.

Daria told me she was going to be late.
Daria told me (that) she was going to be late.
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Some noun clauses, especially those used as subjects, begin with that, which seems to serve no function. It makes sense if
you include the fact or the idea before it. Some modern English constructions that seem to make no sense are the result of
our dropping words.
That we were late to class really upset the teacher.

The fact that we were late to class really upset the teacher.
Question clauses - In a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question, the dependent clause is written as a declarative.
Where is your father?

Do you know where your father is?
Not: Do you know where is your father?
When did you assign that?

We all asked when you assigned that.
Not: We all asked when did you assign that. (Unless the noun clause is in quotation marks.)

Classifying Dependent Clauses
To classify a dependent clause, you need to determine how the dependent clause relates to the independent clause. If it is
replacing a noun, it is a noun clause. Try replacing it with the indefinite pronouns something or someone.
I know that you were late yesterday. (I know something.)

I bought these cards for whenever I might need some extras. (I bought these cards for something.)
If it is modifying a noun, it is an adjective clause. An adjective clause tells which one or what kind.
The birds that are singing so loudly are monk parakeets.
If it is modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb clause. An adverb clause modifying a verb
tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions. Adverb clauses can be moved around in the
sentence.
Before you eat that brownie, you should read the ingredients.
You should read the ingredients before you eat that brownie.
The team was relieved that the referee's call went their way.
In the library, we worked quietly so we wouldn't disturb anyone.

Kinds of Sentences/Sentence Purposes
Definition:
Declarative sentences (also called assertive sentences) give information. They may state a fact or an opinion.
Declarative sentences end with periods.
I like riding my bicycle around the park.
My essay is better than yours.
Declarative sentences can be positive (affirmative) or negative.
The sun is shining. (Positive)
It is not raining. (Negative)
Definition:
Interrogative sentences ask a question. Interrogative sentences end with question marks.
In English, interrogative questions often begin with interrogative words like who, when, where, why, what, and how.
Why are you late?
What time is it?
Where is the library?
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Interrogative sentences without question words are generally formed by moving the helping verb before the subject.
Do you have any more cough drops?
A question fragment can be added onto the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. This fragment is called a
tag/tail question.
You have answered all the questions on this test, haven't you? (After a declarative sentence)
Close the window, will you? (After an imperative sentence)
A question fragment can also be used by itself, either before or after a sentence.
What? You lost your wallet?
You are late. Why?
Hint:
An indirect question is a declarative sentence that tells that information was asked. It is not asking the question. Indirect
questions end with periods.
The driver asked if we knew which way to turn.

We wondered if it was going to rain.
Definition:
Imperative sentences give a command, a request, advice, a suggestion, a warning, or a wish. They can be followed
by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
Be quiet. (a command)
Please have a seat. (a request)
Watch out! (a command)
Enjoy yourselves. (a wish)
The simple subject of an imperative sentence is usually the understood you.

Turn to page 37.
(You) turn to page 37.
Hint:
If a person's name is included in an imperative sentence, it is a direct address, not the subject.
Wayne, turn to page 37.
Wayne, (you) turn to page 37.
Imperative sentences may be written like a question, but they aren't asking anything.
Will you please mind your manners?
Definition:
Exclamatory sentences exclaim, or show great emotion. Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation marks. Use
exclamation marks only when necessary. It's easy to overuse them.
Wow!
That magic trick was amazing!
Exclamatory sentences can begin with question words.
What wonderful weather we are having today!
How lovely to see you!
Fun fact:
The ? is called the interrobang. It truly is a type of punctuation mark. It was invented by a journalist in 1962. Martin K.
Speckter combined the ? and ! since he didn't like using two end marks. It didn't catch on. Most teachers don't like two end
marks either. Sometimes, though, you really need both. It's okay in informal writing. Only one exclamation mark at a time is
enough in formal writing.

Simple and Compound Sentences
Definition:
A simple sentence has one independent clause.
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The radio is blaring.
Your sneaker is under the couch.
A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate.
The walrus and the sea lion live both on land and in the water.
The trains pass our street and stop at the station a mile away.
Definition:
A compound sentence is made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction.
The conjunction is not included when deciding if the clauses are independent.
The sunbathers relaxed on the sand, and the surfers paddled out to sea.
The sunbathers relaxed on the sand. (independent)
+ The surfers paddled out to sea. (independent)
= compound sentence
I ate breakfast, but my brother did not.
I ate breakfast. (independent)
+ My brother did not. (independent)
= compound sentence
The clauses in a compound sentence are joined together in three different ways: a comma with a coordinating
conjunction; a semicolon; or a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb, which is followed by a comma.
The teacher gave the assignments, and the students wrote them down.
The teacher gave the assignments; the students wrote them down.
The accident had been cleared, but the traffic was still stopped.
The accident had been cleared; however, the traffic was still stopped.
Note:
As writers become more proficient, they are allowed to omit the comma between two short independent clauses in a
compound sentence. You will sometimes notice that in books you read.
The hero saved the princess and then he went home.

Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences
Definition:

A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Before we arrived at school, we met up at the coffee house across the street.
We met up at the coffee house across the street [independent]

+ before we arrived at school (dependent)
= complex sentence
(Before we arrived at school),[we met up at the coffee house across the street.]
Clara, who has an incredible voice, was asked to sing the school song.
Clara was asked to sing the school song [independent]
+ who has an incredible voice (dependent)
= complex sentence
[Clara, (who has an incredible voice), was asked to sing the school song.]
The book that I had found disappeared after Julia returned it to me.
The book disappeared [independent]
+ I had found that (dependent)
+ after Julia returned it to me (dependent)
= complex sentence
[The book (that I had found) disappeared] (after Julia returned it to me.)
Definition:

A compound-complex sentence has two ormore independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
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My father and I went to the movie that I had been wanting to see, and then we went to the restaurant near the
theater.
My father and I went to the movie [independent]
+ then we went to the restaurant near the theater [independent]
+ I had been wanting to see that (dependent)
= compound-complex sentence
[My father and I went to the movie] (that I had been wanting to see), and [then we went to the restaurant near the
theater.]
Before they were friends, Louisa and Julie knew Aimee, but they didn't realize that they knew her until they met.
Before they were friends (dependent)
+ Louisa and Julie knew Aimee [independent]
+ They didn't realize [independent]
+ that they knew her (dependent)
+ until they met (dependent)
= compound-complex sentence
[(Before they were friends), Louisa and Julie knew Aimee], but [they didn't realize (that they knew her) (until they
met).]

Classifying Sentences
Classifying sentences is easiest if you mark the parts and then see what you have. Underline independent clauses once.
Underline dependent clauses twice.
1 independent = simple
2 independent = compound
1 independent and 1(or more) dependent = complex
2(or more) independent and 1(or more) dependent = compound-complex
We might go to New Orleans on our Christmas vacation or to New York next spring.
(1 independent = simple)
Our families have been friends forever, but we haven't seen each other in years.
(2 independent = compound)
When we get to your aunt's house, you must remember to thank her for the presents that she sent you.
(1 independent + 2 dependent = complex)
Before we go to the movie, which you have been waiting weeks to see, we need to find a babysitter for your little
sister, who is too young to see it.
(1 independent + 3 dependent = complex)
The Egyptians who built the pyramids were amazing architects, but the Romans who built many years later were even
better because they were able to build arches, which the Egyptians hadn't figured out.
(2 independent + 4 dependent = compound-complex)
Run-On Sentences and Fragments
Definition:
A run-on sentence (or fused sentence) has two or more clauses that are not correctly connected.
Run-on sentences can be corrected by separating them into two sentences, by making a compound sentence, or by
making a complex sentence.
Run-on:
Sam is my friend and Melanie is my friend.
Sam is my friend. + Melanie is my friend.
Two separate sentences:
Fixed: Sam is my friend. Melanie is my friend.
Compound sentence:
(Remember: Independent clauses need glue to hold them together. The glue can be a comma and a
coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb with a semicolon before it and a comma after
it.)
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Fixed: Sam is my friend, and Melanie is my friend.
Fixed: Sam is my friend; Melanie is my friend.
Fixed: Sam is my friend; also, Melanie is my friend.
They can also be corrected by making one clause dependent:
Fixed: Although Sam is my friend, Melanie is also my friend.
Frequently, a run-on sentence simply needs to be punctuated correctly. Fix run-on sentences in a few ways: add a
comma before a coordinating conjunction or after an introductory clause, and use a semicolon or period between
two independent clauses.
Run-on: Before we left for vacation we took our dog to the kennel.

Fixed: Before we left for vacation, we took our dog to the kennel.
Run-on: Hannah went to the mall with her friends then she went home then she watched television until her
parents came home.
Fixed: Hannah went to the mall with her friends. Then she went home, and then she watched television until
her parents came home.
Fixed: Hannah went to the mall with her friends. Then she went home. Then she watched television until her
parents came home.
Definition:
A comma splice is a type of run-on sentence in which two independent clauses are connected by only a comma. A
correctly written compound sentence must either have a comma and a conjunction or a semicolon.
Comma splice: I was going to pick up some donuts, I was running late.
Fixed: I was going to pick up some donuts; I was running late.
Fixed: I was going to pick up some donuts, but I was running late.
Definition:
A sentence fragment is an incomplete thought. It may be a phrase or a dependent clause without an independent
clause.
One of the most common fragments students write is a result of answering a question using just the dependent
clause.
Why did the chicken cross the road?
Fragment: Because it wanted to get to the other side.
Fixed: The chicken crossed the road because it wanted to get to the other side.
Fixed: Because it wanted to get to the other side, the chicken crossed the road.
Sometimes students begin a compound-complex sentence and forget to end it.
Fragment: When you finally get here, after you fly into Orlando and then drive all the way from the airport.
Fixed: When you finally get here, after you fly into Orlando and then drive all the way from the airport, we will
celebrate.
Module 11, Capitalization, Lesson 1:

Names of People
Always capitalize the pronoun I.

I always make sure I capitalize the pronoun I correctly.
Always capitalize the names of people and animals.

Joe, Mary, Clifford, Garfield, Spot, Scruffy
Capitalize all parts of a name. Some surnames (last names) have unusual capitalization because of their original meaning.
Names with more than one part can vary as families change spelling to make it simpler.
Sean O'Malley (son/grandson of Malley)

Erin MacDonald (son/grandson of Donald)(Some families do spell it Macdonald.)
Daniel ben Joseph (son of Joseph)
Pierre du Lac (of a town named Lac)
Bernard Vincent Schmall Jr. (all parts of the name capitalized)
Terms of endearment used as names are also capitalized.
Good morning, Sweetheart.
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Always capitalize initials of names.
Peter M. Carlson, Sallie P. Emerson.
Capitalize courtesy titles and abbreviations of titles when they are used with names or in place of names. Capitalize them
when used in a direct address. Do not capitalize them if they do not replace the name. If they are preceded by the or a/an,
they are not capitalized.
Mister Thompson, Mr. Thompson
Missus Gutierrez, Mrs. Gutierrez
Miss Hennessey (no abbreviation)
Dr. Colombo, Fr. Page, the rev. Dennison (Notice the the before Reverend - it's left over from an archaic way of speaking
about a minister.)
Good morning, Doctor. How are you today? (Doctor is replacing his/her name.)
The doctor came to check on me after I had been sick. (Doctor isn't capitalized because it's being used as a common noun,
not a title.)
Hint:
Try replacing the title with a name. If it works, capitalize it. If it doesn't make sense, don't capitalize it.
Examples: Good morning, Doctor George. How are you today? The doctor Gina came to check on me after I had
been sick.
Capitalize abbreviations after a person's name. Some college degrees seem to have unusual capitalization. You are
capitalizing the first letter of each word. While you're at it, notice the periods. You'll see them again in another unit.
Sr., Jr., III

A.A. (Associate of Arts)
B.S. (Bachelor of Science)
M.D. (Medical Doctor)
Ph.D. (Philosophical Doctor)
D.D.S. (Doctor of Dental Science)

Titles
Capitalize family relationship titles when they are used with names or in place of names. Do not capitalize them if they do
not replace the name.
Aunt Denise, Uncle Jerry, Grandfather Joe.
Mom told you to ask Dad since she was busy.
My mother told you to ask my father since she was busy.
Hint:
If you can put the person's name in place of the title, you should capitalize it. If you can't replace the title with the
name, don't capitalize it.
Mom Nora told you to ask Dad Leo since she was busy. (That works, so they should be capitalized.)
My mother Nora told you to ask my father Leo since she was busy. (That doesn't work, so they shouldn't be
capitalized.)
Hint:
If the title is preceded by a possessive pronoun (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) or a possessive noun (Josh's,
Susie's) it should not be capitalized.
Capitalize titles of heads of state, royalty, and nobility when they are used with names, in place of names, or as appositives.
Members of the nobility are often called by their titles. Therefore, the title becomes an alternate name and is capitalized.
Titles of nobility are also capitalized when they are the names of titles of state or nobility.
Queen Elizabeth, King Juan Carlos of Spain, Duke Gunnar, President George Washington. Good morning, Prime Minister.
the Duke of York, President of the United States.
Do not capitalize them if they do not replace the name.
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The queen lives in a castle near the duke.
The president of the club is my sister.
Hint:
According to some style manuals, the titles President or Prime Minister are capitalized to show special respect if
they refer to the current holder of that office. This is a style choice, not a grammar rule. It varies from one style
manual to another.
This week we watched the President meet with the Prime Minister of England.
In 1778 George Washington was president. (Not the current president)
The prince bowed to the queen. (Not the current prince or current queen)
Capitalize family relationship titles when they are used with names or in place of names. Do not capitalize them if they do
not replace the name.
Aunt Denise, Uncle Jerry, Grandfather Joe.

Hint:
If you can put the person's name in place of the title, you should capitalize it. If you can't replace the title with the
name, don't capitalize it.
Mom Nora told you to ask Dad Leo since she was busy. (That works, so they should be capitalized.)
My mother Nora told you to ask my father Leo since she was busy. (That doesn't work, so they shouldn't be
capitalized.)
Hint:
If the title is preceded by a possessive pronoun (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) or a possessive noun (Josh's,
Susie's) it should not be capitalized.
Capitalize titles of heads of state, royalty, and nobility when they are used with names, in place of names, or as appositives.
Members of the nobility are often called by their titles. Therefore, the title becomes an alternate name and is capitalized.
Titles of nobility are also capitalized when they are the names of titles of state or nobility.
Queen Elizabeth, King Juan Carlos of Spain, Duke Gunnar, President George Washington. Good morning, Prime Minister.
the Duke of York, President of the United States.
Do not capitalize them if they do not replace the name.
The queen lives in a castle near the duke.
The president of the club is my sister.
Hint:
According to some style manuals, the titles President or Prime Minister are capitalized to show special respect if
they refer to the current holder of that office. This is a style choice, not a grammar rule. It varies from one style
manual to another.
This week we watched the President meet with the Prime Minister of England.
In 1778 George Washington was president. (Not the current president)
The prince bowed to the queen. (Not the current prince or current queen)

Names of Places
Capitalize the names of places. Make sure to capitalize all the parts of the name except for the articles (a, an, the), and
short (2-4 letter) prepositions (of, to, in, with ...).
Orlando, Orange County, Florida, Atlantic Ocean, Lake Ontario, Des Plaines River, Gulf of Mexico, Kale Avenue,
32nd Street, Highway A1A
Hint:
If you spell out a hyphenated street number, don't capitalize the second part. Example: Seventy-third Street
Hint:
100

We often put the in front of a place name. It is not part of the name and not capitalized. Examples: the Midwest, the
Rocky Mountains
Capitalize the names of the compass points (north, south, west, east) only if they are part of a name. If they point a
direction, do not capitalize them.
Turn west on Main Street, and you will get to U.S. 1, which will take you all the way through the South to Key West.
Oddly, we had to fly north to catch our next flight on our way to tour the Southwest.
Hint:
You don't capitalize front, left, right, back, so don't capitalize the compass points when you could substitute those
words. Example: When you get to the end of the street turn west left, and park in the north front parking lot.

Names of Groups of People
Because you capitalize the names of places, you capitalize the words that come from them. Capitalize the names of
nationalities or ethnic groups, languages, and their adjectives.
German, Caucasian, Asian, Japanese

Capitalize the names of religions, religious followers, holidays, and religious writings.
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism
Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus
Christmas, Hanukkah, Ramadan, Holi
Bible, Torah, Koran, Vedas
The names of gods and goddesses are capitalized. The Judeo-Christian god is named God, since they believe He is the
only one. Believers also capitalize pronouns (like he and him) when referring to God. "God" is only capitalized when being
used as a name. The Muslim name Allah is a translation of the name God. When referring to Greek, Roman, and other
groups of gods and goddesses, only the name is capitalized.
God, Allah
Greek god Zeus, Egyptian goddess Isis
When people form a group and give it a name, it should be capitalized. Capitalize names of organizations, institutions,
stores, businesses, teams, political parties, and government bodies.
Hint:
Do not capitalize words like hospital, high school, church, etc. unless they are part of the name. Examples: I will be
in high school next year. Last year I attended Wilson Middle School.
League of Women Voters, Knights of Columbus, Veterans of Foreign Wars, Lakeland Middle School, Florida State College,
Walter Reed Army Hospital, Tony's Auto Body Shop, Beachside Toys, Suzy's Bakery, South Fork Printing, Safe Arms
Insurance Agency, HNJ Raiders, Chicago Bulls, Democratic Party, Republicans (but not when describing - a democratic
government), Department of Agriculture, Central Intelligence Agency
Capitalize the abbreviations of organization names as well.

YMCA, CBS, FBI, NBA

Names of Things
When people build things and give them names, capitalize the names. Capitalize the names of buildings, monuments,
bridges, and other landmarks.
Empire State Building, Statue of Liberty, Brooklyn Bridge, Grand Canyon

For the same reason, capitalize the names of cars, trains, airplanes, ships, and spacecraft.
Model T, Orient Express, Concorde, USS Enterprise, Atlantis
When people start a company and give it a name, they then put the name on their products. Capitalize the brand names of
products, but not the word that tells what the product is unless it is part of the product's name.
Kleenex tissue, Nike sneakers, Ford cars (Ford Mustang), Sony television

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Names in School
Only capitalize the names of school subjects if they are languages or specific names of classes.
English, language arts, math, Algebra 1, science, Biology 101, history, U.S. History to the Civil War
Hint:
There are many math classes. Many specific names of classes have numbers in them. Others are long,
complicated names so students and teachers can tell the difference between classes on a schedule.
Capitalize the names of classes (groups of students) only when they are part of the name of something else.
Ana is going to be a junior next year.

The junior class sponsors the Senior Prom each year.
Capitalize the names of historical events, periods, and documents. Primeval and medieval are adjectives but are not
capitalized. 20th century and other centuries are not capitalized).
War of the Roses, Civil War, Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, Dark Ages, Middle Ages, Renaissance
Capitalize the names of special events, awards, and degrees.

Spring Soiree, Academy Award, Language Arts Award, Bachelor of Science (not bachelor's degree, which could be any
degree at that level)
Capitalize the names of planets and universal bodies.

Venus, Polaris, Halley's Comet, Milky Way
Note: If you think about the history of astronomy, as people noticed planets, stars, and later moons and other objects in the
universe, they gave them names. Strangely, no one ever named our sun, our moon, or our planet! Therefore, we don't
capitalize sun and moon when we refer to ours. That would be like capitalizing student when referring to you. We only
capitalize earth when we are using it as the name of the planet, usually in context with other planet names. (We usually
put the in front of earth when it is not capitalized.)
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

The moon affects the tides as it waxes and wanes.
Dinosaurs no longer roam the earth.
Mars takes longer to circle the sun than Earth does.

Names on the Calendar
Capitalize the days of the week and the months of the year because they were (mostly) named after people. We don't
capitalize seasons because they don't come from names unless they are part of the name of an event.
Our days of the week come from the Anglo-Saxons, who spoke a Germanic language. They borrowed them from the
Romans, who named them after planets and celestial bodies - sun, moon, Mars, Venus, Saturn. You may recognize these
roots if you know the days of the week in Spanish or Italian.
Monday (Moon's day)

Tuesday (Tew's day - a Norse god of war)
Wednesday (Woden's day - a Norse god who guides souls)
Thursday (Thor's day - another Norse god, the chief god)
Friday (Frige's day - another Norse goddess - Are you seeing a pattern yet?)
Saturday (Saturn's day - a Roman god - What's he doing here?)
Sunday (Sun's day)
January (Janus - Roman god of gates and doorways)
February (month of februa - purification)
March (Mars - Roman god of war)
April (Aphrodite - Greek goddess of love)
May (Maia - Roman goddess of spring)
June (Juno - Roman goddess of marriage and women)
July (named after Julius Caesar, the emperor who began a revision of the Roman calendar)
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August (named after Augustus Caesar, who finished the calendar revision)
September (seventh month)
October (eighth month)
November (ninth month)
December (tenth month - Obviously things have changed since they were named)
Seasons are only capitalized if they are part of the name of something.
Fall Festival, Winter Ball
Always capitalize the names of holidays.

Memorial Day, Flag Day, Easter, Fourth of July, Yom Kippur
Always capitalize the abbreviations B.C., A.D., C.E., and B.C.E. Usually these abbreviations are capitalized but at the height of
lowercase letters. Some computers will do this automatically. You can do it manually by changing the font size. It is okay to
leave it the capital height; it just may look strange to you.
Do not capitalize a.m. and p.m. In the past, publishers used A.M. and P.M. or AM and PM. Now, most use a.m. and p.m.
We will leave tomorrow at 9:00 a.m.

The Roman Empire began in around 27 B.C.E. and lasted until A.D. 476.
(Note that A.D. [Anno Domini] precedes the date.)

Firsts
You already know that you should capitalize the first words of sentences.
You learned this rule in first grade.
If a question is followed by a question fragment that is closely related to the first, capitalize the fragment as well.
She won a million dollars? Really?
When capitalizing dialogue, the basic rule is fairly simple. Capitalize the sentences as they would have been capitalized
when spoken. The speaker's sentence began with a capital letter, so no matter where the quotation falls in a sentence,
capitalize the first word of the speaker's sentence, and only the first word. The narrator's sentence also always begins with a
capital.
That boy is my friend and not my cousin.

The girl said, "That boy is my friend and not my cousin."
"That boy is my friend and not my cousin," said the girl.
"That boy is my friend," said the girl, "and not my cousin."
If the speaker said more than one sentence, each sentence is capitalized.
"James is my friend and not my cousin," said Marcos. "My cousin is Justin."
Hint:
Imagine crossing out the narrative part and check the capitalization. Example: "James is my friend," said
Marcos, "and not my cousin."
Capitalize all the important words in a title. Aren't they all important? Not really. Unless they are the first or last word in the
title, you can skip the articles (a, an, the), coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet) and short (2-4 letter)
prepositions (of, to, in, with). You must capitalize all other short words, including verbs.
All Quiet on the Western Front

For Whom the Bell Tolls
Bridge over the River Kwai
Who Was That Masked Man?
When We Were Young.
The word the may precede a title. The best way to tell if it is part of the title and should be capitalized is if it is in italics or in
quotation marks.
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the New York Times
"The Way Home."

Conventions
Capitalize the first words of greetings and closings of letters. Sometimes family relationship titles are used in place of
names. Remember to capitalize them. If the greeting or closing is more than one word, only capitalize the first.
Dear Sally, ... Love, Jeff
Dear Sis, ... Your sister, Lisa
My dear Gertrude, ... Love always, Josephine
People often use family titles as names in greetings and closings of letters. The titles are capitalized. Sometimes the family
titles are not part of the name and aren't capitalized. Watch carefully.
Dear Aunt Susan, ... Your niece, Jessie. (Susan's name is Aunt Susan, but Jessie doesn't call herself Niece Jessie.)
Dear Mom, ...
My dear mother, ...
Capitalize the first word of each line of traditional poetry. How can you tell if poetry is traditional? The first word of each line
is capitalized. Basically, do whatever the poet did.
Roses are red,
Violets are blue,
Sugar is sweet,
And so are you.
Capitalize the word O. It is generally used in formal addresses, prayers, or poetry. It is not the same as the interjection oh.
Frequently, but not always, the word after the O is capitalized because it is a direct address used as a name.
You are the woman of my dreams, O Juliet.

Tell me, O Muse, of that ingenious hero ... (The Odyssey)
You, O most beautiful lady, are my inspiration ...
Capitalize the first word in each line of an outline. Also capitalize the letter i in Roman numerals and the letters in the first
layer of the outline.
I. Types of transportation
A. Things that fly
1. Airplanes
a. Propeller airplanes
b. Jet aircraft
2. Helicopters
Module 12, Punctuation: End Marks and Commas, Lesson 1:

Sentence End Marks
Definition: An end mark is a punctuation mark used at the end of a sentence to show that the sentence is finished. There
are three end marks: the period, the question mark, and the exclamation mark.
Hint:
You may want to review sentence types in Module 10, Lesson 7: Kinds of Sentences/Sentence Purposes.Periods
Periods are used to end many types of sentences:
 Declarative sentences
The sun is shining this morning.

I want to go to the beach.
I can't find my keys.
 Polite or less emphatic imperative sentences
104

Look under your chair.
Please be on time.
 Indirect questions
The teacher asked Michael why he was late.
Mom asked if you remembered to buy milk.
Question Marks
Question marks are used after interrogative sentences (direct questions). There are several types of interrogative
sentences:
 Basic questions
Have you seen my other shoe?
Where have you been?
 Question fragments
I didn't eat the rest of the pizza, did you?
You are late. Why?
 Imperative sentences phrased like questions

Would you please hand me that book?
Will you all please have a seat?
Exclamation Marks (also called Exclamation Points)

Exclamation marks are used to end several types of emphatic expressions:
 Basic exclamatory sentences
I can't believe you won!
It's raining again!
 Strong interjections
Wow! That's a lot of money!
Whew! That was a close call.
 Powerful imperative sentences

Watch out!
Be quiet!
 Exclamations phrased as questions

What a beautiful home you have!
How wonderful!

Periods in Abbreviations
Definition: An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word. There are different kinds of abbreviations. Some use periods;
others don't. Some are written in capital letters; others use lowercase letters. This is an area that is changing rapidly. It is
always best to check a dictionary or a style manual to be certain.
People's Names and Titles

Abbreviations in people's names and titles generally do use periods, but academic degrees and Roman numerals do not
require periods.
105

Periods
People's Names People's Titles
John Q. Adams (Quincy) Mr. (Mister)

S. E. Hinton (Susan Eloise Hinton) Mrs. (Missus, short for Mistress)
(Also notice that there is a space after the first initial in the second Dr. (Doctor)
example.) Jr. (Junior)
Sr. (Senior)
No Periods
Roman Numerals Academic Degrees
(after names of people or events)
John Parker III (pronounced John Parker the third, not John Parker three) BA (Bachelor of Arts)
World War II MA (Master of Arts)
PhD (Doctor of Philosophy)
RN (Registered Nurse)
Days and Months, Latin Phrases, Addresses Directions, and Traditional State vs. Postal State Abbreviations
Periods
Months Days of the Week: Abbreviations of Addresses Latin Phrases Traditional State
Three Letters or More Abbreviations
(not frequently used
anymore)
Jan. (January) Mon. (Monday) Ave. (Avenue) i.e. (id est = in other Fla. (Florida)

Tues. (Tuesday) St. (Street) words) Mont. (Montana)
Thurs. (Thursday) e.g. (exempli gratia = for
example)
etc. (et cetera = and so
forth)
No Periods
Days of the Week: Two- or Three-Letter Abbreviations Directions US Postal Abbreviations
(all caps) (all caps)
Tu or Tue (Tuesday) NW (northwest) FL (Florida)
SE (southeast) MT (Montana)
Note: Three-letter abbreviations for days of the week can be written with or without a period at the end. Whether you decide
to use periods or not, just remember to be consistent in your writing.
Tue. and Wed.
Tue and Wed
Measurements
Most measurements and scientific abbreviations do not use periods, but standard United States measurements and time
abbreviations have a period at the end.
Periods
Standard US Measurements Time Abbreviations
in. (inch) sec. (second)
ft. (foot) h. or hr. (hour)
oz. (ounce)(The z in oz. comes from the Medieval Italian word onza.)
No Periods
Metric Measurements Math and Science Computer and Internet

106

ml (milliliter) mph (miles per hour) CPU (central processing unit)
km (kilometer) mpg (miles per gallon) URL (uniform resource locator)
cg (centigram) rpm (revolutions per minute) DVD (digital video disc)
Abbreviations in All Capitals

Abbreviations made up of the first letter of each word in a phrase, usually in all capitals, do not generally use periods, with
some exceptions here and there.
Periods
(Exception to the Above Rule)
The Abbreviation for District of Columbia
Washington, D.C.
(D.C. has periods even though it is pronounced letter by letter.)
No Periods
(The Norm)
Acronyms Abbreviations Pronounced Letter
by Letter
These are abbreviations pronounced as words instead of a string of letters. Some FBI (Federal Bureau
acronym abbreviations have actually become words themselves. of Investigation)
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) FYI (for your information)
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) MVP (most valuable player)
Abbreviations that Can Go Either Way

Some abbreviations are rapidly changing. Either form is generally accepted, but check with your teacher or style manual to
make sure.
Acceptable With or Without Periods
U.S.A. or USA
B.C., A.D., C.E., B.C.E. or BC, AD, CE, BCE
(B.C. or BC: Before Christ; A.D. or AD: Anno Domini; C.E. or CE: Common Era; B.C.E. or BCE: Before Common Era)
a.m., p.m. or AM, PM
If lowercase, use periods. If capitals, do not use periods.
(a.m. or AM: ante meridiem/before midday; p.m. or PM: post meridiem/after midday)
Abbreviations and End Punctuation

If you end a sentence with an abbreviation containing a period, do not put another period at the end of the sentence.
However, if a sentence ends in an exclamation mark or a question mark, include both the abbreviation's period and the end
mark.
His son's name is Jason Miller Jr. (abbreviation period only, no end period)
Is his son's name Jason Miller Jr.? (abbreviation period + ending question mark)
Commas in a Series
Definition: A comma separates elements in a sentence, such as items in a list or series, but it also shows that those
elements are connected to each other within the same sentence. A comma is never used as an end mark, and it is read
with a shorter pause than an end mark. One use of the comma is to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a
list or series. Commas go after each item except the last.
Note:
In British usage, there is no comma before the conjunction (such as and or or) before the last item in the series.
Hint: You may want to review Module 8, Lesson 1: Coordinate Conjunctions.
107

Words in a Series
You need to get out your pencil, paper, and textbook.
I will need tomatoes, spinach, and cheese for this recipe.
Phrases in a Series
Next summer I want to go kayaking in the ocean, hiking in the Appalachian Mountains, and surfing in Florida.
The puppy chased the kitten under the sofa, around the kitchen chairs, and up the stairs.
Clauses in a Series
We went to the mall, and we went to the movies, but we didn't go out to eat.
Misha wasn't sure if you were coming, you and Marcello were coming, or everyone was coming.
Note:
If conjunctions are used for emphasis to separate items in a series, commas are not used.
I felt like I had been poked and prodded and persecuted.
Commas with Adjectives
A series of adjectives that comes before a noun can be classified as coordinate or cumulative.
Hint:
Review Module 6, Lesson 4: Order of Adjectives.
Definition: Coordinate adjectives modify nouns in similar ways. They describe similar features. Most coordinate adjectives
are adjectives of opinion or evaluation. Commas must be used between coordinate adjectives.
That frightening, monstrous creature under the bridge is a troll.
Definition: Cumulative adjectives build upon each other and must be in a certain order. They are equally important and give
different types of information. Do not use commas between cumulative adjectives.
Two tall pillars were used to form the entrance to Stonehenge.
Traditional Explanation
The way to figure out whether adjectives are coordinate or cumulative is to put the conjunction and between the adjectives
or to see if they can be switched around. If the sentence still sounds natural when you add and or change the adjective
order, add a comma.
Coordinate adjectives:
That frightening and monstrous creature under the bridge is a troll.
That monstrous, frightening creature under the bridge is a troll.
These sentences both sound fine, so you can tell that these are coordinate adjectives of opinion.
Cumulative adjectives:
Two and tall pillars were used to form the entrance to Stonehenge.
Tall two pillars were used to form the entrance to Stonehenge.
These sentences both sound awkward. Because you cannot add and or change the adjective order, you know that these
are cumulative adjectives.
Add a Comma for Clarity

Sometimes a comma is inserted to clarify that two adjectives modify an adjective-noun combination.
The delicious, moist chocolate cake
The chocolate cake is delicious and moist. Chocolate cake is the adjective-noun combination (chocolate tells us what kind
of cake we're talking about). Delicious and moist are separate adjectives that describe chocolate cake.
The delicious moist chocolate cake
The moist chocolate cake is delicious. The adjective delicious is modifying the whole phrase moist chocolate cake. The
adjective moist has fused with chocolate cake.
108

Commas in Compound Sentences
A comma is generally used to separate two or more independent clauses in a compound sentence that is joined by
a coordinating or, occasionally, a correlative conjunction.
The children learned to ride their bicycles, and then they rode them in the park.
I want to see that new movie, but I am too late.
Sammi wants to get a new haircut, so we are going to the salon on Friday.
If you're not sure whether or not the sentence needs a comma, check to see if each half of the sentence makes sense by
itself. You can test whether each half makes sense by replacing the conjunction with a period. If each half does make sense
by itself, you need to add a comma before the conjunction. Compound subjects and compound predicates are not
separated by commas.
I visited my sister in London and had a wonderful time.

This sentence doesn't need a comma because the second half of the sentence can't stand alone: had a wonderful time isn't
a complete sentence because the subject is missing. This is an example of a compound predicate (visited my
sister + had a wonderful time), which doesn't require a comma.
I meant to return that book to you but forgot it on the kitchen table.
Just like the previous sentence, this one doesn't need a comma because forgot it on the kitchen table is missing the subject
and doesn't make sense by itself.

Commas in Complex Sentences
If a complex sentence begins with a dependent adverb clause, a comma is used to separate the two clauses.
Since we are already late, we don't have time to stop.
If you have found the page, please begin reading.
If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, no comma is used between the clauses.
We don't have time to stop since we are already late.
Please begin reading if you have found the page.
Hint:
You might also want to review Module 8, Lesson 5: Subordinating Conjunctions.

Commas with Introductory Elements
Some people use the salt shaker approach to commas: sprinkle them about, anywhere they think there might be a pause,
and hope, that they are useful. Some people listen for commas. Neither of these is the correct way to use commas. These
approaches only work in a few instances, and when they do, there is always a grammatical rule to back it up. (Note that the
commas in the first sentence were intentionally used incorrectly.)
A comma is often used after an introductory element at the beginning of a sentence. These elements can include
introductory interjections, prepositional phrases, absolute phrases, adverbs, and transitional expressions.
Introductory Interjections
Use a comma after introductory interjections that don't display a lot of emotion.
Yes, we should go soon.
No, I didn't bring any glue.
Well, I'm not sure that's a good idea.
Ugh, this backpack is heavy.
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Introductory Adverb Prepositional Phrases
Use a comma after an introductory adverb prepositional phrase unless it is very short (3-4 words) and is not likely to be
misunderstood.
Between the towering city buildings, the sky could be seen.
Use a comma because the introductory prepositional phrase is more than four words.
Before eating, Lauren put the pots in the sink to soak.
Use a comma to clarify that no one is eating Lauren.
In the morning we have to get up really early.
No comma is necessary because the introductory phrase is only three words.
Absolute Phrases
Use a comma after an absolute phrase at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the sentence.
The rain finally over, we left the shelter of the trees and walked on.
The puppy, its eyes finally closed, slept the rest of the car ride home.
Introductory Adverbs
Generally, use a comma after an adverb at the beginning of the sentence.
Quietly, we tiptoed past the bedroom door so that we wouldn't wake Dad.
Introductory Transitional Expressions

Use a comma after an introductory transitional expression, like a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, etc.) or
a transitional phrase (for example, as a matter of fact, in other words, etc.).
Next, we will analyze Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night.

In conclusion, I believe that the school should require uniforms.

Commas with Interruptions
Commas are used to set off elements that interrupt a sentence or that are not essential to a sentence.
Parenthetical and Transitional Expressions

Use commas around parenthetical and transitional expressions, including conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases, that
are in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
The contents of this chapter, from what I have seen, are a repetition of the last chapter.
I will, however, need to see your driver's license.
Celery, for example, contains fewer calories than what you burn eating and digesting it.
Certain transitional expressions do not always need a comma. If reading the sentence does not require a pause, no comma
is used.
Perhaps we will visit the castle after all.
Direct Address
Use a comma to separate a noun of direct address from the rest of the sentence.
Rashad, are you feeling alright?
Are you, Nicholas, paying attention?
Interrogative Tags
Use a comma to separate ending interrogative tags from the rest of the sentence.
You did read the book, didn't you?
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Sharp Contrasts
Use a comma or a pair of commas with elements expressing sharp contrast. These contrasts often begin with not, never,
and unlike.
Make sure you buy whole milk, not fat-free milk, or the recipe will not work.
My father, unlike my mother, loves to watch scary movies.
Most skateboarders, but not all of them, like to take risks.

Commas with Nonessential Elements
Use a comma (or a pair of commas) to set off elements that are nonessential (also called nonrestrictive). A phrase or clause
is nonessential if it can be removed without changing the main idea of the sentence; a nonessential element just adds a
relatively unimportant detail. Essential (or restrictive) elements, on the other hand, are not set off by commas because they
are too important to be removed from a sentence.
Participial Phrases
Nonessential participial phrases describe nouns, but the information they provide about those nouns is not very important.
Use a comma (or a pair of commas) to separate a nonessential participial phrase from the rest of the sentence.
Walking slowly, the tourists followed the guide through the museum.
The tourists, walking slowly, followed the guide through the museum.
If you remove the participial phrase walking slowly from either of these sentences, the main idea of the sentence (the
tourists followed the guide through the museum) doesn't change.
Hint:
A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is always nonessential.
Essential (or restrictive) participial phrases also describe nouns, but they tell us vital information about those nouns. Do not
use commas around essential participial phrases.
The tourists eating ice cream cones were not allowed into the museum until they finished eating.
Only the tourists eating ice cream cones were not allowed in. If you removed the phrase eating ice cream cones, the
meaning of the sentence would change—it would mean that none of the tourists was let in, which is very different from the
original sentence.
Adjective Phrases
Use commas to separate nonessential adjective phrases from the rest of the sentence. These phrases can
be prepositional or verbal.
My cell phone, in its blue case, seems to vanish into my backpack whenever it rings. (prepositional phrase)
We don't need to know that the cell phone is in a blue case. This is a nonessential detail.
My cell phone, ringing loudly, has vanished into my backpack. (participial phrase, which is a type of verbal.)
The cell phone would have vanished into your backpack regardless of whether it had been ringing or not, so ringing loudly is
a nonessential detail.
Do not use commas to separate essential adjective phrases from the rest of the sentence.
The television with the broken screen needs to be recycled.
The phrase with the broken screen specifies which television. It's not the new television that needs to be recycled; it's the
one with the broken screen.
The cell phone ringing loudly needs to be turned off.
Not just any phone needs to be turned off; it's the one that's ringing loudly.
Appositives
Use commas to separate nonessential appositives from the rest of the sentence.
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My Latin teacher, Mr. Virga, gives us homework every night.
We don't need to know your Latin teacher's name to understand that he gives you homework, so his name is a nonessential
appositive.
Do not use commas to separate essential appositives from the rest of the sentence.
My friend Elizabeth is one of the nicest people I know.
If you didn't tell us your friend's name, we wouldn't know which friend you were talking about, so her name is an essential
appositive.
Adjective Clauses
Use commas to set off nonessential adjective clauses. In American English many authors use which to start nonessential
clauses and that to start essential clauses.
Joey ordered frozen yogurt, which he thinks is healthier, instead of ice cream.
The main idea of this sentence is that Joey ordered frozen yogurt instead of ice cream, so it's possible to remove the
adjective clause without changing the meaning of the sentence.
It's not necessary to set off an essential adjective clause with commas.
The painting that my mom bought in France is still waiting to be framed.
Without the adjective clause, we are left wondering exactly which painting is waiting to be framed.
Use a comma (or a pair of commas) to set off elements that are nonessential (also called nonrestrictive). A phrase or clause
is nonessential if it can be removed without changing the main idea of the sentence; a nonessential element just adds a
relatively unimportant detail. Essential (or restrictive) elements, on the other hand, are not set off by commas because
theyare too important to be removed from a sentence.
Participial Phrases
Nonessential participial phrases describe nouns, but the information they provide about those nouns is not very important.
Use a comma (or a pair of commas) to separate a nonessential participial phrase from the rest of the sentence.
Walking slowly, the tourists followed the guide through the museum.
The tourists, walking slowly, followed the guide through the museum.
If you remove the participial phrase walking slowly from either of these sentences, the main idea of the sentence (the
tourists followed the guide through the museum) doesn't change.
Hint:
A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is always nonessential.
Essential (or restrictive) participial phrases also describe nouns, but they tell us vital information about those nouns. Do not
use commas around essential participial phrases.
The tourists eating ice cream cones were not allowed into the museum until they finished eating.
Only the tourists eating ice cream cones were not allowed in. If you removed the phrase eating ice cream cones, the
meaning of the sentence would change—it would mean that none of the tourists was let in, which is very different from the
original sentence.
Adjective Phrases
Use commas to separate nonessential adjective phrases from the rest of the sentence. These phrases can
be prepositional or verbal.
My cell phone, in its blue case, seems to vanish into my backpack whenever it rings. (prepositional phrase)
We don't need to know that the cell phone is in a blue case. This is a nonessential detail.
My cell phone, ringing loudly, has vanished into my backpack. (participial phrase, which is a type of verbal.)
The cell phone would have vanished into your backpack regardless of whether it had been ringing or not, so ringing loudly is
a nonessential detail.
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Do not use commas to separate essential adjective phrases from the rest of the sentence.
The television with the broken screen needs to be recycled.
The phrase with the broken screen specifies which television. It's not the new television that needs to be recycled; it's the
one with the broken screen.
Using Commas to Avoid the Absurd
Especially when using prepositional phrases and complex sentences, leaving out a comma can lead to confusion, or even
an absurd statement. Read these sentences without commas.
Even before spring leaves start to appear on the trees.

When does spring leave?
If you wash Jesse will dry.
Why are you washing Jesse?
While we were eating Audrey announced her big news.
We were eating Audrey?
Before you vacuum your sister needs to dust.
Sisters don't need vacuuming (usually!).
Now read the same sentences with commas. They make much more sense!
Even before spring, leaves start to appear on the trees.
If you wash, Jesse will dry.

While we were eating, Audrey announced her big news.
Before you vacuum, your sister needs to dust.

Comma Conventions
Many comma conventions are observed for the sake of clarity.
Dates
Commas are used in dates to set off the day of the week or the year from the rest of the date. A second comma is used
after the year to separate it from the rest of the sentence. If the year comes at the end of the sentence, the second comma
is not needed.
On the wintery morning of January 27, 1933, my father was born.

He was born January 27, 1933.
His last birthday was Wednesday, January 27, 2016.
If you use only the month and year, it's not necessary to use any commas.
January 1933 was a busy month for my grandmother.
Commas are not needed for dates written in the European format, in which the day comes first and the month second.
My father was born on 27 January 1933.
Addresses
When writing a city and state, the state is set off from the rest of the sentence by a pair of commas. If the state comes at the
end of the sentence, the second comma is not needed.
I was visiting Naples, Florida, last weekend.

Last weekend I was visiting Naples, Florida.
When writing an address all on one line or in a sentence, use a comma before the following elements: the apartment or
suite number, the city, and the state. It's not necessary to use a comma before the zip code.
Her address is 3425 Stone Street, Apt. 2A, Jacksonville, FL 39404.
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If using a person's name along with the address, place a comma after the name.
Jane Doe, 3425 Stone Street, Apt. 2A, Jacksonville, FL 39404
If the address is written on three lines, as on an envelope or at the top of a letter, no commas are needed between the lines.
A comma is still needed before the apartment or suite number and before the state.
Jane Doe
3425 Stone Street, Apt. 2A
Jacksonville, FL 39404
Sometimes the apartment or suite number is written on another line. If that is the case, the comma before the apartment
number is not necessary.
Jane Doe
3425 Stone Street
Apt. 2A
Jacksonville, FL 39404
Titles
If a person's academic or professional title follows the name, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by a pair of
commas. If the title comes at the end of the sentence, the second comma is not needed.
Jerry Mayor, MD, graduated from medical school twenty years ago.

Do you know Jerry Mayor, MD?
Do not use commas with titles that are part of a person's name.
Jerry Mayor Jr. is the son of Jerry Mayor Sr.
My son's name is Larry Miller II.
Numbers
In numbers more than four digits long, commas separate the digits into groups of three. In scientific writing, the comma is
not used in four digit numbers (thousands).
I have $4,500 in my bank account.
4500 ft2
In larger numbers, the comma is always necessary, regardless of whether the number appears in scientific writing or not.
3,500,000 mi.
Hint:
In order to figure out where to place commas in a large number, count backwards in groups of three digits, not
forwards.
Numbers used as street addresses, zip codes, telephone numbers, or years do not require commas.
29112 Cherry Tree Lane
Our zip code is 92775.
My father was born in 1965.
Letters
A comma is used to separate the greeting of an informal letter from the body. (A formal business letter requires a colon
instead.)
Dear Aunt Sue,
How have you been? ...
A comma is used to separate the closing of a letter from the signature.
... I hope to see you again soon.
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Sincerely,
Liza
In order to figure out where to place commas in a large number, count backwards in groups of three digits, not
forwards.
Numbers used as street addresses, zip codes, telephone numbers, or years do not require commas.
29112 Cherry Tree Lane
Our zip code is 92775.
My father was born in 1965.
Letters
A comma is used to separate the greeting of an informal letter from the body. (A formal business letter requires a colon
instead.)
Dear Aunt Sue,
How have you been? ...
A comma is used to separate the closing of a letter from the signature.
... I hope to see you again soon.
Sincerely,
Liza
Module 13, Punctuation: Quotation Marks, Lesson 1:

Quoting Someone's Exact Words
Definition: Quotation marks (") are used to show that an author is using someone else's exact words—they may be the
words of a person, a character, or a written source.
Use quotation marks only when quoting someone's exact words, either spoken or written. This is called a direct quotation.
"I prefer my cherries chocolate covered," joked Alyssa.
Jackie kept repeating, "Good dog, good dog!"
"How long will it take you?" asked Mom.
Placement of Quotation Marks

Place the opening quotation mark where the speaker's words start, and the closing quotation mark where the speaker's
words end.
"I have wanted to buy my own truck for a long time," said Jordan.
If a quotation is more than one sentence long, place the first quotation mark where the quote begins, and the second one at
the end of the last sentence. It's not necessary to put quotation marks around each individual sentence in the quote.
"I have been saving money for two years. I almost have enough for the down payment," Micah told him.
It's also important to remember that quotation marks close and then open again if the quote is interrupted.
"I guess I should start saving money, then," replied Jordan, "if I am ever going to buy one."
Definition: An indirect quotation is a sentence that reports what a speaker said or wrote, but it does not use the person's
exact words. Indirect quotations do not need quotation marks.The word that often indicates that the statement is an indirect
quotation.
Alyssa joked that she preferred her cherries covered with chocolate.
Jackie told her dog that she was a good dog.
Sometimes it may be difficult to tell whether a statement is a direct or indirect quotation, but the verb tense and word order
can give you some clues.
Indirect: Mom asked how long it would take us to get to the Grand Canyon.
Direct: Mom asked, "How long will it take us to get to the Grand Canyon?"

Quotation Marks with Dialogue
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Declarative Sentences
When capitalizing and punctuating dialogue containing declarative sentences, it is easiest to start by focusing on how you
would write the dialogue in sentence form. Then add narrative elements (such as Jaime said or Mandy asked), additional
punctuation (where necessary), and quotation marks.
Jailen said, "Scientists hope that someday people will live on Mars."
Adrian answered, "That sounds like science fiction to me."
Notice that the quotation's capitalization stays the same. In this case the end punctuation stays the same as well, but it may
change depending on where the narrative element falls in the sentence (keep reading to learn more).
 Capitalization
No matter whether the narrative element comes before, in the middle of, or after the quotation, the capitalization of the
quotation always stays the same. Do not capitalize the first word in the second half of a split quotation.

"Scientists hope that someday people will live on Mars," said Jailen.
"Scientists hope," said Jailen, "that someday people will live on Mars."
 Punctuation: narrative element first
If the narrative element comes first, it is always followed by a comma. The quotation will end with a period.
Adrian answered, "That sounds like science fiction to me."
 Punctuation: narrative element last
If the narrative element comes last, change the period at the end of the quotation to a comma. This is because you can't put
a period in the middle of a sentence. If you did, your reader would not understand that the narrative element is connected to
the quote. The narrative element will be followed by a period since it falls at the end of the sentence.
"Scientists hope that someday people will live on Mars," said Jailen.
"That sounds like science fiction to me," answered Adrian.
 Punctuation: split quotations (narrative element in the middle)
If the narrative element comes in the middle of the quotation, add one comma to the end of the first part of the quotation,
and another comma after the narrative element. The quotation will end with a period.
"Scientists hope," said Jailen, "that someday people will live on Mars."
"That sounds," answered Adrian, "like science fiction to me."
Note:
In American English, commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks, never outside. British English
follows different conventions that are not covered in this lesson.
Questions and Exclamations

Fred asked, "What is your name?"
Sam yelled over the roaring crowd, "My name is Sam!"
 Punctuation: narrative element first or split quotation

Unlike periods, question marks and exclamation marks never change to commas. That's because we need these marks to
indicate that the quotation is interrogative or exclamatory, not declarative. Question marks and exclamation marks go inside
the quotation marks when they are part of the original quotation. For split quotations, it's also necessary to add a comma
after the first part of the quotation and after the narrative element (just like you would with a declarative quotation).
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Narrative element first:
Fred asked, "What is your name?"

Sam yelled over the roaring crowd, "My name is Sam!"
Split quotation:
"What," Fred asked, "is your name?"

"My name," Sam yelled over the roaring crowd, "is Sam!"
 Punctuation: narrative element last
If the narrative element comes last, the question mark or exclamation mark at the end of the quotation does not change,
and no comma is necessary. Just add a period after the narrative element since it falls at the end of the sentence.
"What is your name?" Fred asked.

"My name is Sam!" Sam yelled over the roaring crowd.
Fragments
If you are quoting only part of what someone said, you do not need to add a comma before the quotation, and you do not
need to capitalize the first letter of the quotation.
Our teacher told us that Leonardo da Vinci was "one of the greatest minds of all time."

More on Quotation Marks with Dialogue
Questions or Exclamations with Quotations

If the author, not the speaker, is asking a question or exclaiming something, the question mark or exclamation mark
goes outside the quotation marks because it isn't part of the original quotation. It's not necessary to put any additional
punctuation, such as a period or comma, inside the quotation marks.
Did your mother say, "Yes, you can go"?
I can't believe she said, "Yes"!
Paragraphing Dialogue
Authors start a new paragraph each time the speaker changes in order to help the reader keep track of who is speaking.
"I can't believe you said that!" exclaimed Carlos as he walked home from school with his best friend, Peter.
"Of course I said it! I'll always stick up for you," Peter told him.
"Just like I'll always stick up for you."
"So why are you so surprised?"
Because of the indentions, you can tell that Carlos spoke, then Peter, then Carlos, then Peter again, without the author
having to state who spoke every single time.
Multi-Paragraph Dialogue
When quoting several paragraphs of dialogue that aren't interrupted by the author or another speaker, put an opening
quotation mark at the beginning of each paragraph and just one closing quotation mark at the end of the last paragraph.
Maci explained what happened. "We were afraid that our cat, Jet, had escaped because the front door had been left open.
We went up and down the street calling his name and asking people if they had seen a small black cat.
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"When it got dark, we went home. Jessie sat down on the couch and felt a lump under the blanket. She lifted up the edge of
the blanket, and there was Jet, sound asleep."
Quotes Within Quotes

If the author quotes a speaker who quotes another speaker, use double quotation marks around the first speakers words,
and single quotation marks around the second speaker's words. In other words, for a quote within the quote, use single
quotation marks.
Quoting one person: Our teacher told us, "This assignment is due Friday."
Quote within a quote: Tracy said, "Our teacher told us, 'This assignment is due Friday.'"
Emphasizing Words
It's best not to use quotation marks for emphasis or for "words used as words." Most style guides recommend
using italics instead.
Example: You used the word then too often in your essay.
Nicknames
Nicknames are generally enclosed in quotation marks.
Her name is Elizabeth, but she has always been called "Beth."
Using Words in Unconventional Ways

Sometimes people use quotation marks to indicate that a word is being used in an ironic, sarcastic, or unusual way.
I spent my "vacation" working hard.
This person probably spent his or her vacation time working, so the word vacation is being used ironically.
Translations
Quotation marks can be used when writing the translation of a word. The foreign word is usually written in italics.
Example: Although gelato translates to "ice cream," the two desserts are not exactly the same.
Prime and Double Prime Marks

Quotation marks used to show feet and inches are called prime (') and double prime (") marks.
5 feet, 10 inches ⇒ 5'10".
Note: The period always goes outside the double prime mark, not inside. In American English, this is the only time the
period goes outside a quotation mark.

Quotation Marks vs. Italics in Titles
When referring to a title, use italics (or underlining in handwriting) for longer works and quotation marks for shorter works.
Don't use either one for the title on a document you are writing yourself, such as an essay. You only need to use italics or
quotation marks when you are referring to a work.
Hint:
If you could buy the item by itself, use italics. If you have to buy a larger object in order to get what you want, use
quotes.
Italics Quotation Marks Examples
I read the fourth chapter, "Acrobatic Kites," in the book Best

Book Chapter Kite Building Ever.
Book-length play Poem Our class read the television play "The Monsters Are Due
Essay on Maple Street" before we tackled Hamlet.
Short story
Short (1-2 act) play
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Magazine or Newspaper Article The article "Four Fabulous Heroes" in last week's New York
Times was inspiring.
Television series Episode "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen" was the most watched
episode of M*A*S*H*.
Movie Scene (You would only refer I think I have watched The Sound of Music at least twenty
to a scene when referring to times.
the movie script itself, and We had to shoot the last scene, "The Goodbye," twenty-
only if that scene has an three times.
actual title.)
CD or album Song My favorite song is "Isn't She Lovely" from Stevie Wonder's
album Songs in the Key of Life.
Website Web page I found this information on Wikipedia on the page "William
Crookes."
Building N/A While we were in New York, we visited the Empire State
Building.
Vehicle N/A The space shuttle Discovery is now in Washington, D. C.
When referring to a title, use italics (or underlining in handwriting) for longer works and quotation marks for shorter works.
Don't use either one for the title on a document you are writing yourself, such as an essay. You only need to use italics or
quotation marks when you are referring to a work.
Hint:
If you could buy the item by itself, use italics. If you have to buy a larger object in order to get what you want, use
quotes.
Italics Quotation Marks Examples
I read the fourth chapter, "Acrobatic Kites," in the book Best

Book Chapter Kite Building Ever.
Book-length play Poem Our class read the television play "The Monsters Are Due
Essay on Maple Street" before we tackled Hamlet.
Short story
Short (1-2 act) play
Magazine or Newspaper Article The article "Four Fabulous Heroes" in last week's New York
Times was inspiring.
Television series Episode "Goodbye, Farewell and Amen" was the most watched
episode of M*A*S*H*.
Movie Scene (You would only refer I think I have watched The Sound of Music at least twenty
to a scene when referring to times.
the movie script itself, and We had to shoot the last scene, "The Goodbye," twenty-
only if that scene has an three times.
actual title.)
CD or album Song My favorite song is "Isn't She Lovely" from Stevie Wonder's
album Songs in the Key of Life.
Website Web page I found this information on Wikipedia on the page "William
Crookes."
Building N/A While we were in New York, we visited the Empire State
Building.
Vehicle N/A The space shuttle Discovery is now in Washington, D. C.
Module 14, Additional Punctuation, Lesson 1:
Contractions
Apostrophes are used to show missing letters in contractions, shortened words or numbers, or dialect.
Can + not = can't
Will + not = won't
I + have = I've
They + are = they're
It + is (or It + has) = it's
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of the clock = o'clock
running = runnin'
1993 = '93
Possessive Nouns
Apostrophes help a noun or indefinite pronoun show ownership by making it possessive.
The bone of the dog = the dog's bone
The house of Jonas = Jonas's house
The cries of the children = the children's cries
The trails of the jets = the jets' trails
The papers of everyone = everyone's papers
Note:
Possessive pronouns are already possessive, so they don't need an apostrophe.
The backpack of the boy = his backpack
Plural Numbers, Letters, and Abbreviations

In the past, apostrophes were used to make letters, numbers, abbreviations, and "words used as words" plural. In modern
style, apostrophes are used only for plural "words as words" and plural lowercase letters. It is also necessary to use italics in
addition to the apostrophe in these two situations. It is not necessary to use either italics or an apostrophe to make capital
letters or numbers plural.
 Letters and Numbers

"Mind your p's and q's" is now "Mind your p's and q's."
(Notice how the apostrophe and the s are not italicized.)
"Two A's" is now "two As."
1940's is now 1940s.
 Words as Words
Older style: Check the there's in your essay and make sure they shouldn't be their's
Modern style: Check the there's in your essay and make sure they shouldn't be their's.
(Notice how the apostrophe and the s are not italicized.)

Semicolons
Definition: The semicolon is a mark that looks like a period above a comma (;). It signals a more complete break than a
comma, but not as complete as a period break. It's a "halfway-in-between" mark. It's used to show that two sentences are
related in some way.
Joining Independent Clauses Without a Conjunction

When joining two independent clauses to make a compound sentence, a semicolon can be used instead of the comma and
conjunction. This only works if the relationship between the sentences is close and clear.
I brought my umbrella, but I left it in the car.
I brought my umbrella; I left it in the car.
Remember: Connecting two independent clauses with a comma is always incorrect and creates what's called a comma
splice. One way to fix a comma splice is to replace the comma with a semicolon. However, it's best to use semicolons
sparingly. Often it's better to use either a comma plus a conjunction or just a period.
Joining Independent Clauses that Contain Commas

If at least one of the independent clauses in a compound sentence contains commas of its own, it's usually better to use a
semicolon instead of a comma between clauses. Doing so helps avoid confusion. Just remember to remove the
conjunction, unless it's a transitional conjunction (you'll learn about how to use those in the next section).
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 Comma + conjunction
My cousin just had a baby, and I hope to go visit her sometime this summer.
 Semicolon with no conjunction
My cousin, who recently moved to London, England, just had a baby; I hope to go visit her sometime this summer.
Transitional Expressions
You've probably already learned how to use transitional expressions to connect two independent clauses. Usually the first
independent clause ends with a period, and the next clause starts with a transition plus a comma. Sometimes you can use a
semicolon instead of a period if you want to show a closer link between the two clauses. If you choose to use a semicolon,
the first letter of the transitional expression will be lowercase.
I have always liked bats. In fact, they are my favorite animals.
I have always liked bats; in fact, they are my favorite animals.
Hint:
There are other transitional expressions that can be used after a semicolon, such as however, moreover,
and therefore, among others.
Series with Commas vs. Series with Semicolons

If the items in a series have their own commas, the series commas become semicolons to make the sentence easier to
read.
 Series with commas
I bought a scarf in Paris, cheese in Cheddar, a painting in Toledo, and a pair of earrings in Munich.
 Series with semicolons
I bought a scarf in Paris, France; cheese in Cheddar, England; a painting in Toledo, Spain; and a pair of earrings in

Munich, Germany.

Colons
Definition: A colon is a punctuation mark that looks like a period above a period (:). It generally introduces a list, a definition,
a clarification, or additional details. It can also be used to emphasize, highlight, or draw attention to what follows it. The
statement that precedes a colon is always an independent clause, but what follows the colon can be either a dependent or
independent clause. (This is in stark contrast to the semicolon, which always connects two independent clauses.)
Introducing a Series
Colons are used after an independent clause that introduces a list or series.
Please buy these items: a screwdriver, a hammer, a measuring tape, and some nails.
Please proofread for the following: periods, commas, and colons.
Hint:
Some people think that a colon must precede all lists, but this is not true: a colon can only be used after an
independent clause. In the following sentences, you might be tempted to put a colon after your or got, but this isn't
correct because the clause preceding the list is not an independent clause:
When you leave, don't forget to bring home your shoes, bathing suit, and towel.
These stickers are for those who got As, those who did extra credit, and those who turned their projects in early.
For dramatic effect, authors sometimes reverse the order of the sentence by placing the series before the colon and the
independent clause after the colon.
Red, blue, and white: the decorations for the party were very patriotic.
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Appositives After Independent Clauses
Colons are used before appositives that follow an independent clause. A comma could also be used, but a colon is
stronger. Use a colon instead of a comma when you want to emphasize or call special attention to the appositive.
I only like two flavors of ice cream: chocolate and vanilla.
We visited a famous World Heritage Site: Stonehenge.
Introducing Quotations
Colons are used to formally introduce quotations. The formal introduction must be an independent clause. This is a great
way to add dramatic effect to a quotation, but use it sparingly.
Whenever we helped my mother in the kitchen, she always quoted her grandmother's favorite aphorism: "Many hands
make light work."
The coach's words stayed with his team: "I just want you to play your best."
Summaries or Explanations
A colon can be used to combine two independent clauses if the second clause summarizes or clarifies the first. The second
sentence can begin with either a lowercase or capital letter.
I got rained on the entire walk: I am soaked.
This is what I wrote on the board: Homework due tomorrow!
Conventional Uses
 After the greeting in a formal or business letter
Dear Sir or Madam:

I would like to address a recent issue with your company …
 In scripts to indicate dialogue

Sometimes you can express dialogue by using a name followed by a colon. Quotation marks are not necessary with this
style, which is typically used in scripts. With this style, the characters' names appear in all capitals.
MACI: I missed the party because I was sick.

JACKIE: I'm sorry to hear that. You missed a great party!
 Between hours and minutes in time
We will leave at 5:30 this evening.
 Between numbers to show ratios or proportions
The best proportion of students to teachers is 20:1.
 Between titles and subtitles of works
My favorite television show then was Star Trek: The Next Generation.
 Between city and publisher in bibliographic entries
New York: Best Books, 2012
 Between chapter and verse in biblical references
Grandma always quoted John 3:16.
Some style manuals recommend a period instead.
Grandma always quoted John 3.16.
 After warnings
Caution: Slippery when wet
Note: Use colons correctly
Warning: Poison
 In memos
To: My Boss
From: Me
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Hyphens
The Three Punctuation Marks in the Hyphen and Dash Family
The hyphen -
The en dash –
(the width of a capital N, twice the width of a hyphen)
The em dash —
(the width of a capital M, three times the width of a hyphen)
In the past, each of these marks was much easier to distinguish on a typewriter than on today's computers. Modern
computers generally change two hyphens with no spaces before, after, or between them to an em dash. Different operating
systems and word programs have different ways of typing these marks.
Definition: A hyphen is a short dash that breaks words apart or joins them together. A hyphen should not have a space
before or after it.
Hyphenated Compound Words

Some compound words require a hyphen. You will often have to look up a compound word in the dictionary to decide
whether it is written as one word, two words, or with a hyphen.
We will have a get-together next weekend to celebrate your birthday.
The game started out as an organized game of tag, but it ended up a free-for-all.
Hyphenated Last Names

Some women use a hyphen to join their maiden name (or unmarried name) with their husband's last name instead of taking
only their husband's last name. Sometimes a husband and wife keep their own last names and form their children's last
names by connecting both last names with a hyphen.
Julia Smith-Jacobson
Hyphenated Adjectives
Use a hyphen to connect two or more words that work together as one adjective before a noun. If the two words come after
the noun, they are generally not hyphenated unless they make up a compound word that you can find in the dictionary.
She wore a charcoal-gray rain jacket.
Her rain jacket was charcoal gray.
Suspended Hyphens
Suspended hyphens occur when hyphenated words are written without repeating one part.
I like vanilla-flavored ice cream.
You like vanilla-, chocolate-, and strawberry-flavored ice cream.
Hyphens to Clarify Meaning

Use a hyphen to connect adjectives when the meaning might be unclear.
Teresa preferred the red-embroidered lace dress.
The dress was embroidered with red thread.
Teresa preferred the red embroidered lace dress.
The red lace dress was embroidered.
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Numbers
Use a hyphen with numbers in the following situations:
 In compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
The majority of you scored between eighty-eight and ninety-nine percent on the test.

 In fractions
One-fourth of the students in the class have parents from another country.
 To separate elements of a date (you can also use slashes)
7-3-86 = July 3, 1986 in the US and March 7, 1986 in most other parts of the world.
 In game scores
They won the game 32-31.

Spelling out Words
Example:
Hippopotamus is spelled h-i-p-p-o-p-o-t-a-m-u-s.
Dividing Words at the End of a Line

If you are using justified margins, like newspaper columns, a word may start at the end of one line and finish on the next
line. When this happens, use a hyphen to divide the word between syllables. Most word programs just wrap the word to the
next line without considering where the word's syllable breaks are located. Use a dictionary if you are unsure where to
divide a word.
When you write for a newspaper, the margins are generally justified. That is, both margins form straight lines. The computer
will automatically add extra spaces between some words in order to keep the edges straight. Most word processing
programs today will automatically hyphenate words if needed.
Hint:
Generally, you should divide multi-syllable words between syllables, never leaving only one letter on the previous
line or fewer than three letters at the beginning of the next line.
Awkward Spelling
Use a hyphen in some words to distinguish them from similar words or to avoid awkward double or triple letters.
 Distinguishing two words
Re-cover the furniture vs. recover from an illness
Re-creation of an event vs. recreation activities for fun
 Avoiding double and triple letters
Anti-inflammatory
Re-elect
Cross-section
Cross-stitch
Shell-like
Still-life
Prefixes and Suffixes
A prefix is attached to the beginning of a word; a suffix is attached to the end of a word. There are many situations in which
it's necessary to use a hyphen with a prefix or suffix:
 With the prefixes all-, co-, ex- (when it means former), great-, and self-, and with the suffix -elect

All-seeing eye
Co-author
Ex-employee
Great-grandfather (A great grandfather is a grandfather who is great.)
Self-employed
President-elect
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 When using numbers and capital letters as prefixes
25-cent stamp
12-foot Christmas tree
G-rated
T-shirt
X-ray
 Some prefixes use hyphens only in certain situations.
antibacterial but anti-American
preoccupied but pre-1942

The Em Dash and En Dash
Note: If you've already completed Lesson 4, the very beginning of this lesson will be review.
The hyphen -
The en dash –
The em dash —
Definition: The em dash (sometimes just called a dash) is used to set off information from the rest of the sentence, and
mimics or copycats other more formal punctuation marks. It is often used in place of colons or semicolons. It is also
common to use a pair of em dashes to replace parentheses or a pair of commas. Using the em dash (or a pair of em
dashes) to replace other marks is not always appropriate. In formal writing, avoid using dashes unless they are really
necessary. The em dash is more dramatic than traditional punctuation but also more informal. Using em dashes can be an
excellent way to add emphasis to an idea (continue reading for more information). Remember not to overuse dashes: doing
so can cause confusion or make your writing sound choppy.
Note:
In American style it is not necessary to put a space on either side of the em dash, but British style does require a
space on either side. This lesson adheres to American style.
In Place of Parentheses
Use an em dash to set off parenthetical ideas that you want to emphasize.
Mr. Nelson (who lives next door to me) is our new teacher.
Mr. Nelson—who lives next door to me—is our new teacher.
In Place of Commas
 Parenthetical ideas can be set off by commas, but it can be helpful to use em dashes for emphasis.
My entire trip, from the delayed takeoff to the bumpy landing, was an experience I would rather forget.
My entire trip—from the delayed takeoff to the bumpy landing—was an experience I would rather forget.
 Use a pair of em dashes to set off an appositive that contains commas. Appositives are normally set off with
commas, but when there are commas within the appositive itself, using em dashes instead helps avoid confusion.
Caroline keeps a list of her food allergies, peanuts, shellfish, and soy, taped to her EpiPen in case of emergencies.
Caroline keeps a list of her food allergies—peanuts, shellfish, and soy—taped to her EpiPen in case of emergencies.
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In Place of a Colon
 Use an em dash to signal the start of a list. This is less formal than a colon and also more dramatic.
Jeremy has three big guard dogs: Kitten, Bunny, and Mouse.
Jeremy has three big guard dogs—Kitten, Bunny, and Mouse.
 Use an em dash to signal a restatement or contradiction.

After all my hard work, I received a B on the final—I had passed the class.
I was surprised that all the students remembered to bring their homework—all 24 of them.
I had originally decided to see the horror movie—but I saw the romantic comedy instead.
In Dialogue
Use an em dash in place of an ellipsis when someone is interrupted abruptly.
ENRIQUE: Then we went to see a castle on the—
SIENNA: Watch out! You almost ran into that pole.
When using quotation marks for the interrupted dialogue, the em dash goes inside.
"Then we went to see a castle on the—"
"Watch out! You almost ran into that pole."
A note about the en dash: Because the en dash is starting to be used less frequently, this lesson will not cover it in depth. It
is still used to denote number ranges (please read pp. 26–64; The meeting will be from 3:00–4:00) and in some
hyphenated compounds and two-word open compounds. If you would like to learn more about how to use the en dash,
please refer to the Chicago Manual of Style or the Associated Press Stylebook.
Note: If you've already completed Lesson 4, the very beginning of this lesson will be review.
The hyphen -
The en dash –
The em dash —
Definition: The em dash (sometimes just called a dash) is used to set off information from the rest of the sentence, and
mimics or copycats other more formal punctuation marks. It is often used in place of colons or semicolons. It is also
common to use a pair of em dashes to replace parentheses or a pair of commas. Using the em dash (or a pair of em
dashes) to replace other marks is not always appropriate. In formal writing, avoid using dashes unless they are really
necessary. The em dash is more dramatic than traditional punctuation but also more informal. Using em dashes can be an
excellent way to add emphasis to an idea (continue reading for more information). Remember not to overuse dashes: doing
so can cause confusion or make your writing sound choppy.
Note:
In American style it is not necessary to put a space on either side of the em dash, but British style does require a
space on either side. This lesson adheres to American style.
In Place of Parentheses
Use an em dash to set off parenthetical ideas that you want to emphasize.
Mr. Nelson (who lives next door to me) is our new teacher.
Mr. Nelson—who lives next door to me—is our new teacher.
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In Place of Commas
 Parenthetical ideas can be set off by commas, but it can be helpful to use em dashes for emphasis.
My entire trip, from the delayed takeoff to the bumpy landing, was an experience I would rather forget.
My entire trip—from the delayed takeoff to the bumpy landing—was an experience I would rather forget.
 Use a pair of em dashes to set off an appositive that contains commas. Appositives are normally set off with
commas, but when there are commas within the appositive itself, using em dashes instead helps avoid confusion.
Caroline keeps a list of her food allergies, peanuts, shellfish, and soy, taped to her EpiPen in case of emergencies.
Caroline keeps a list of her food allergies—peanuts, shellfish, and soy—taped to her EpiPen in case of emergencies.
In Place of a Colon
 Use an em dash to signal the start of a list. This is less formal than a colon and also more dramatic.
Jeremy has three big guard dogs: Kitten, Bunny, and Mouse.
Jeremy has three big guard dogs—Kitten, Bunny, and Mouse.
 Use an em dash to signal a restatement or contradiction.

After all my hard work, I received a B on the final—I had passed the class.
I was surprised that all the students remembered to bring their homework—all 24 of them.
I had originally decided to see the horror movie—but I saw the romantic comedy instead.
In Dialogue
Use an em dash in place of an ellipsis when someone is interrupted abruptly.
ENRIQUE: Then we went to see a castle on the—
SIENNA: Watch out! You almost ran into that pole.
When using quotation marks for the interrupted dialogue, the em dash goes inside.
"Then we went to see a castle on the—"
"Watch out! You almost ran into that pole."
A note about the en dash: Because the en dash is starting to be used less frequently, this lesson will not cover it in depth. It
is still used to denote number ranges (please read pp. 26–64; The meeting will be from 3:00–4:00) and in some
hyphenated compounds and two-word open compounds. If you would like to learn more about how to use the en dash,
please refer to the Chicago Manual of Style or the Associated Press Stylebook.

The Ellipsis
Definition: An ellipsis (plural ellipses) is a punctuation mark made up of three periods. It is used to show that words have
been left out or that a thought is unfinished. Most word processing programs treat the ellipsis as a special character with no
spaces in between the periods ( … ). It is worth noting that some style manuals show spaces between each period ( . . . ).
Either way, it is customary to have a space before and after the ellipsis.
Using Ellipses in Partial Quotations

 In the middle of a sentence
An ellipsis in the middle of a quotation indicates that part of the quotation has been omitted.
Samuel Adams once said, "It does not take a majority to prevail … but rather an irate, tireless minority, keen on setting
brushfires of freedom in the minds of men."
 At the end of a sentence

If a sentence has been left out after a complete sentence, place a period after the complete sentence. Then follow the
period with an ellipsis. You will have a total of four periods.
Ellis recited the poem: "Some say the world will end in fire, some say in ice. …"
No space is necessary after the last period in the ellipsis when it's at the end of the quotation. Also remember not to put a
space between the last word in the complete sentence and the first period.
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 At the beginning of a sentence
Use an ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence when you cut out the beginning of a quote. If the quote starts in the middle of
a sentence, remember not to start the quote with a capital letter.
Michael quoted George Washington: "… it is much easier to prevent an enemy from posting themselves than it is to
dislodge them after they have got possession."
Note that when using an ellipsis at the beginning of the quotation, it is not necessary to put a space before it.
Indicating Hesitation
"Um … I'm not sure where she is," Marcus replied when his mother asked him where his sister was.
Showing an Interruption
"As we were walking, we heard something. It sounded like a kitten that …"
"A kitten?"
"… was in trouble, so we looked around to see if we could find it."
When a Speaker's Thought Trails off

"We tried our best, but …"

Parentheses and Brackets
Definition: Parentheses ( ) enclose information and separate it from the main idea of the sentence or paragraph. They
should be used only when necessary. It's better in formal writing to rewrite sentences to avoid using parentheses and
brackets.
Note:
Parenthesis is the singular form of parentheses, but these marks are always used in pairs.
Parenthetical Elements
Use parentheses to set off ideas that function as asides in a sentence or paragraph. Parenthetical information can be
removed without altering the meaning of a sentence or paragraph. Parentheses are used in many situations:
 Explanations
Boudicca led the Iceni (an independent British people) against the Romans.
 Translations
We had erdbeerkuchen (strawberry cake) for dessert.
 Clarifications
My dog (an Akita) is the smallest of the giant breeds.
 Joking around
We set up our tent (we pretended we were in the wilderness) in the backyard.
 Talking to the reader
Joshua served a souffle that he had made himself. It was awful (but don't tell him I said that).
Punctuation with Parentheses

Punctuation with parentheses is very similar to punctuation with quotation marks.
 Periods
o Parenthetical sentence at the end of a sentence
If the information in the parentheses is a separate, complete sentence, the period at the end of the sentence goes inside the
parentheses.
We spent two hours at the zoo. (Most of us could have spent two hours watching the otters.)
Notice how the first sentence ended before the parenthetical expression started. This means that the sentence inside the
parentheses must start with a capital letter.
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o Parenthetical phrase at the end of a sentence
If you use a phrase (in other words, an incomplete sentence) in parentheses at the end of a sentence, the period
goes outside the parentheses.
We ordered three pepperoni pizzas (my favorite).
o Parenthetical sentence in the middle of a sentence

A complete parenthetical sentence in the middle of a sentence does not require a period. The first letter of the parenthetical
sentence is not capitalized because it is in the middle of the main sentence, not after it.
Our two hour final (it was our longest exam) included a three page essay.
 Commas
Commas generally go outside the parentheses.
The drought continued (64 days and counting), and many farmers' crops were destroyed.
 Question marks and exclamation marks
If the parenthetical comment itself is an exclamation or question, the exclamation or question mark goes inside the
parentheses.
Ana got a 100 (the only one in the class!) on her test. It was her 12th perfect score in a row. (Can you imagine?)
Conventions with Parentheses

 Numbers or letters in a list
Make sure you include (1) your cover sheet, (2) your essay, and (3) your bibliography.
 Time zones
Their hours are from 8 AM (EST) to 5 PM (EST).
 Area codes
His phone number is (321) 555-5555.
 Beginning and end dates
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote 38 plays.

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) actually lasted longer than one hundred years.
Definition: Brackets [ ] separate and enclose information. They are used less frequently than parentheses and are most
often used in relation to quotations.
Brackets with Quotations

Use brackets to enclose words that you have added or changed in a quotation. Also use brackets for explanations within a
quotation.
Danny's note read, "Thomas and Lucas left their homework at my house [italics added]."
The newspaper reported, "The enemies were captured, and [they] were imprisoned."
The teacher explained, "This test [the one they had taken the day before] showed that you really understood the material."
In the third example, the author—not the teacher—is explaining that the test was the day before.
Using [sic] in a Quotation

Use [sic] to show that an error in a quotation is from the original source.
Jennifer wrote, "My pupy [sic] is named Joe."

The Slash (Virgule)
Definition: A slash or virgule (/) in writing is the forward slash. It has several conventional uses. There are no spaces on
either side of the slash except when dividing lines of poetry.
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Poetry
If a poem is cited in paragraph form without line breaks, slashes are inserted between the lines. This should be limited to
four or five lines only. If you write out more than five lines of a poem, it's better to write them with line breaks.
The last stanza of Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem "Crossing the Bar" is "For though from out our bourne of Time and
Place / The flood may bear me far, / I hope to see my Pilot face to face / When I have crossed the bar."
Dates
Slashes can be used to divide elements of a date in informal writing.
Her daughter was born on 7/3/86.
This date stands for July 3, 1986 in the US and March 7, 1986 in most other parts of the world.
Fractions and Ratios

1/2 or 3/4 (Note: Most computers will change fractions to a smaller font.)
10 miles/hour = 10 miles per hour
And/or and Similar Combinations

Often a slash means and/or, but using a slash this way is not appropriate in formal writing. Most style manuals recommend
avoiding and/or, he/she, and his/her.
We received the June/July issue by the end of May.
The winner will receive a savings bond, but he/she will have to save it for at least six months before spending it.
I generally order the soup/salad combo at that restaurant.
Abbreviations
Use these abbreviations for informal writing only:
Care of = c/o (This is most often used as a postal abbreviation.)
With = w/
Without = w/o
Module 15, Troublesome Words 1, Lesson 1:

Lie, Lying, Lay, Lain vs. Lie, Lying, Lied, Lied
"Lie" is an intransitive verb meaning "to rest" or "to be at rest." Its forms are: lie, lying, lay, lain. Examples: 1) Lie down. 2)
Lying in the sun dries our skin. 3) The parcels lay on the table. 4) We have lain in the sun for thirty minutes.
"Lie" can also mean make an untrue statement. It is an intransitive verb whose forms are: 'lie' and lying (present), 'lied' (both
past and participle.) Examples: 1) Please don't lie to me. 2) He was punished for lying. 3) They lied to their parents. 4) They
have lied before.
Lesson 2:
Lie, Lying, Lay, Lain vs. Lay, Laying, Laid, Laid
As you learned in the last lesson, "lie" means to be at rest, or to recline in a horizontal position. Its forms are: lie (present),
lying (present/past progressive), lay (past), lain (participle). Examples: 1) Lie down. 2) Lying in the sun dries the skin. 3) The
parcels lay on the table. 4) We have lain in the sun for thirty minutes.
Unlike "lie," "lay" is a transitive verb, so it always takes an object. Remember that "lie" never takes an object because it is
intransitive. The forms of "lay" are lay, laying, laid, laid. Examples: 1) Lay the bricks here. 2) He was laying the bricks in
rows. 3) Yesterday he laid the bricks ten high. 4) He has laid all the bricks in the wall.
Note that the present tense of "lay" is the same as the past tense of "lie."

Its vs. It's, 'Tis
"Its" is the possessive of the pronoun "it." Note that there is no apostrophe. Example: Its appearance was misleading.
"It's" is a contraction meaning "it is." Example: It's a long way to Tipperary. "It's" can also be a contraction meaning "it has."
Example: It's been a long day.
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"'Tis" is also a contraction meaning "it is." Example: 'Tis seldom used in modern English.
"Its" is the possessive of the pronoun "it." Note that there is no apostrophe. Example: Its appearance was misleading.
"It's" is a contraction meaning "it is." Example: It's a long way to Tipperary. "It's" can also be a contraction meaning "it has."
Example: It's been a long day.
"'Tis" is also a contraction meaning "it is." Example: 'Tis seldom used in modern English.

Set vs. Sit
"Set" is, in most ordinary uses, a transitive verb needing an object. It means to put or place something in a certain position,
or to arrange. Its principal parts are: set, setting, set, set. Examples: 1) She set the table. 2) He set the watch.
"Sit" is, in ordinary usage, an intransitive verb. It means to rest somewhere (like a chair) in an upright position. Its principal
parts are: sit, sitting, sat, sat. Examples: He sits down. "Sit" can also be used to talk about where an object is located.
Example: The clock sits on the shelf. In a few instances "sit" is used as a transitive verb, such as in: He sat himself down.
Note:
When heavenly bodies sink below the horizon, they are referred to as "setting," not "sitting." Examples: 1) the sun
set at 6:00 p.m. 2) let's watch the setting sun.
Lesson 5:
Your vs. You're
You have probably encountered confusion between your and you're in many Internet posts. Sometimes people write
comments like "your so pretty in this picture" when they really mean "you're so pretty in this picture." So what's the
difference? Just remember—you're (with the apostrophe) is a contraction meaning you are, but your (no apostrophe)
indicates possession or ownership. Let's look at our first example in more detail:
Error Correction
Your so pretty in this You're so pretty in this

picture. picture.
You can see that whoever posted this comment should have used you're (you are), not your (possessive).
Hint:
If you can replace the word with you are, use the apostrophe.
You're the best! ⇒ You are the best!
Now let's look at a few examples of the possessive your:
Your dog is very friendly.
In this example, the person you are talking to owns the dog.
We admire your positive attitude.
The positive attitude "belongs" to the person, even though it's not something he or she actually owns.
Lesson 6:
Their, There, and They're
"Their" is the possessive form for the plural pronoun "they." Example: They used their money on video games.
The word "there" has several meanings. As an adverb it means in, at, or about that place. Example: Place the book there.
When used as a noun, "there" means that place. Example: Are you from there, too? When used as an interjection, "there"
expresses an exclamation of triumph or relief. Example: There! It is finished.
"They're" is a contraction meaning "they are." Example: They're going to the show.

To, Too, and Two
"To" is used as a preposition or part of an infinitive phrase. Examples: 1) We are going to the store. 2) Are you going to sing
a song?
"Too" is an adverb meaning also or to an excessive degree. Examples: 1) I am going too. 2) You are just too much.
"Two" is the number 2. Example: I have two dollars.
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You and I vs. You and Me
"You and I" are pronouns used as either the subject or the predicate in a sentence. Examples: 1) You and I are going. 2)
The winners are you and I.
"You and Me" are pronouns used as direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. Examples: 1) They have
chosen you and me. 2) The reward is for you and me.
"You and I" are pronouns used as either the subject or the predicate in a sentence. Examples: 1) You and I are going. 2)
The winners are you and I.
"You and Me" are pronouns used as direct objects, indirect objects, or objects of prepositions. Examples: 1) They have
chosen you and me. 2) The reward is for you and me.
Lesson 9:
Who vs. Whom
Some people think the main difference between who and whom is the way they sound, with whom being the more formal
way to say who. In reality, the distinction between them is grammatical. Even though who and whom are both pronouns,
they do completely different jobs in a sentence—who acts as the subject while whom acts as the object. Just remember to
use who to refer to the person who is propelling the action in a sentence; use whom when the person is having the action
done to them. You also use whom, never who, as the object of a preposition.
Who Whom1
Subject pronoun Direct or indirect object pronoun
Never use as the object of a Must use with prepositions

preposition
Let's look at some examples:

Students who study hard usually earn excellent grades.
The pronoun, who, is referring back to the subject, students. (Who earns excellent grades? The students do.) Because
the pronoun is referring to a subject, it would be incorrect to use the object pronoun whom.
Earning excellent grades also depends on whom you study with.
This sentence has two clauses, but for the purposes of this lesson we'll focus only on the second one, whom you study
with. In this clause, whom is the object of the preposition with, so it would be incorrect to use the subject pronoun who.
Hint:
You can replace who with other subject pronouns (he, she, I, we, they, etc.) and whom with other object pronouns
(him, her, me, us, them, etc.).
The comedian who is on TV right now is the funniest guy I've ever seen.
⇒ He is on TV.
Who is the subject of the verb is, so you can replace who with he.
My cousins are the family members whom I see most often.
⇒ I see them.
Whom is the direct object of the verb see, so you can replace whom with them. You'll notice that the placement
of whom is different from that of other object pronouns—whom generally comes before the subject and verb
while other object pronouns like them come after the subject and verb. For that reason, it might not be obvious
at first glance that you can replace whom with another object pronoun (you would never say them I see).
A Couple of Sticky Situations

There are certain sentence types that make it difficult to decide whether to use who or whom.
 Object of One Clause, Subject of Another

This situation involves two verbs with a pronoun between them:
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It was pitch dark, and I couldn't see who was coming down the hall.
Notice how who seems to "stick" to both verbs—it looks like the object of the first verb and the subject of the second. So
which pronoun do you choose, who or whom? There's a simple answer—subjects speak louder than objects because they
propel the action in a sentence, so always "stick" with the subject pronoun who.
 Preposition Separated from its Object

Take a look at this example of traditional formal English:
For whom are those flowers?
Chances are you've never heard anyone ask a question that way. When we talk, the preposition "unsticks" from the
pronoun and moves all the way down to the end of the sentence:
Whom are those flowers for?
Still sound strange? That's because most people would say Who are those flowers for? but it's really better to
use whom because it's the object of the preposition for.
It's easy to tell when you're dealing with an object-preposition separation because you can
replace whom with him, her, me, us, them, etc.
Question: Whom are those flowers for?
Whom is the object of the preposition for.
Answer: The flowers are for her.
Now, in the answer, her has become the object of the preposition for.
Note:
Traditionally, it is incorrect to end a sentence with a preposition, but when we talk it happens naturally. Many
teachers still prefer their students not to end sentences with prepositions, but this rule has become more relaxed in
recent years.
Hint:
You won't always be able to rely on the way sentences sound when completing this exercise! There are several
common sentences and questions that may deceive you because most people say them incorrectly.
1. For more information on who and whom, see Lesson 5: Interrogative Pronouns and Lesson 7: Relative Pronouns in
"Module 2, Pronouns."

All Ready vs. Already
"All ready" refers to a state of readiness. Example: They were all ready to go. In the case of a singular person, the "all" in
"all ready" can be dropped to just say, "Are you ready?"
"Already" means prior to some specified time. Example: They were already packed and ready to go when he arrived.
Lesson 11:
All Together vs. Altogether
"All Together" means in concert or in unison. Example: They sang all together.
"Altogether" means wholly, completely, or absolutely. Example: This is altogether strange.
Lesson 12:
All Ways vs. Always
"All ways" or "all the ways" means every manner possible. Example: She was in all ways very humble.
"Always" means at all times. Example: She was always humble.
Lesson 13:
Everyone vs. Every One
The terms everyone and every one may look the same, but they are used in different contexts. Everyone, as one word, is
a singular pronoun that refers to a group of people. It's synonymous with its sister pronoun, everybody. Remember, even
though a group is made up of several members, everyone is always singular because you refer to those members as a
single group. Everyone is used only for people, never animals or objects.
133

Everyone I know is coming to the pool party on Saturday.
Multiple people are coming to the party, but they are being treated as a single group.
These cookies are for everyone.
The cookies are for a group.
Every one, as two words, is a phrase that refers to the individuals that make up a group, not to the group as a whole. It is
synonymous with the phrases every single one and each one. You can also use it for emphasis to give your sentence a little
more "oomph." Just like everyone, every one is always singular. However, unlike everyone, every one can refer to anything,
including people, animals, and objects.
I think every one of these cakes is delicious.
This sentence emphasizes that each individual cake in the group is delicious. You could simply say "These cakes are
delicious," but it wouldn't have the same effect.
Every one of them is coming to the party.
This sentence also uses every one for emphasis. It's not just everyone who's coming to the party—it's every single
person in the group.
Hint:
Here's a little trick to help you remember the difference between everyone and every one:
When every and one join together (everyone), you are focusing on the group as a whole—the two words work
together as a single unit.
Everyone laughed. (The group laughed.)
When every and one stand alone (every one), you are emphasizing individuals—the two words work separately.
Every one of them laughed. (Each person laughed.)
Still not sure about how to tell the difference? Use the following tips to help you figure it out.
Tip 1: When deciding whether to use everyone or every one, ask yourself two questions:
1. Am I talking about the group as a whole or pointing out individuals within the group?
2. Am I trying to emphasize something?
Sometimes these questions might be difficult to answer, but often a sentence's wording will provide you with hints about
which term to choose. Sentences with everyone sound more general while sentences with every one sound a little more
specific. Take a look at the following examples:
Everyone went to the party.
Every one of them went to the party.
I have lots of friends, and every one went to the party.
The first sentence basically means they all went, and communicates that the group acted in unison. Notice how the
sentence sounds general, with no additional details. On the other hand, the second and third sentences mean each one
went. Also, if you take another look at the third sentence, you'll see how every one emphasizes that each and every friend
went to the party.
Tip 2: Use this chart as a shortcut.
Everyone Every one
Substitute with everybody Substitute with each one or every single one
Group as a whole Individuals in a group
Used in general, non-specific Used in emphatic* or more detailed statements

statements
Refers only to people Refers to people, animals, or objects
Remember, both everyone and every one are always singular.

134

*Emphatic (adj.): used to describe a word or statement that is emphasizing something.
Tip 3: Say the sentence aloud.

Everyone is pronounced with more emphasis on every (EVERY one), but every one places more emphasis on one (every
ONE). Also, because every one is used to add emphasis to a statement, it actually sounds like two separate words if you
listen closely.
Lesson 14:
Award vs. Reward
"Award" means to bestow an honor or object by a considered decision. Example: The principal gave academic awards to
the top students.
"Reward" is something given in return for something done, either good or evil. Example: He was rewarded with cookies.
Lesson 15:
Anger, Angry vs. Mad
Note:
It is common in informal everyday expressions for the word "mad" to be used for "angry." This lesson covers the
explicit and formal meaning of the words.
"Anger" (Angry) means a strong displeasure and antagonism directed toward the cause of a possible wrong or injustice;
wrath; ire. Example: I am angry.
Madness (Mad) means a suffering from or manifesting severe mental disorder; insane; lunatic; psychotic; crazy. Example:
Madness is a severe mental disorder.
Lesson 16:
Can vs. May
In formal speech writing, "can" implies the ability to do something. Example: I can throw a ball. "May" implies a need for
permission. Example: May I throw a ball? In informal speech and writing, "can" is now acceptable in the sense of "may."
Example: Can I leave now? At the formal level the distinction between "can" and "may" is still observed.
Lesson 17:
Fewer vs. Less
If you've been to the grocery store lately, you've probably noticed a sign at checkout that says "15 items or less." You'll learn
in this lesson that the sign should say "15 items or fewer." The reason is straightforward—when talking about a quantity you
can count with numbers, use fewer, but for an amount you can't count, use less. Below are some examples:
There are fewer students here today than there were yesterday.
Use fewer because you can count the number of students. Maybe there were 30 students in class yesterday and only 25
today.
The teacher assigned less homework today than he did yesterday.
Use less because the word homework is not countable. It's not possible to make homework plural—homeworks is not a
word. You wouldn't say I have three homeworks tonight ... and that actually leads us into this lesson's hint:
Hint:
Usually, if you can add s to the end of the noun to make it plural, use fewer, not less. Just be mindful of exactly
what you're trying to communicate; sometimes you can use either less or fewer, but the word you choose will
change the meaning of the sentence:
You gave him less pie than you gave me.
Yes, it's true that you can add s to the word pie to make it plural. However, this sentence is talking about
the amount of pie, not how many pies, so use less.
Last year's pie-eating contest champion ate fewer pies this year than last.
This sentence tells us that there is more than one pie. Maybe last year he ate 10 pies, but this year he could
only choke down 8. Because you can count the number of pies, use fewer.
Be careful when discussing time, measurements, or money. These often seem countable, but in reality they refer to an
amount, so use less, not fewer.
135

Our business pulled in less than $100,000 last year.
You'll be able to finish the race in less than 10 minutes.
Lesson 18:
Lose vs. Loose
The word lose, with one o, is a verb that means you have lost something that belongs to you. It can also mean to
reduce or lessen.
My little sister always loses her toys.
Vitamins lose their potency when they are left out on the table.
Spelling Hint 1: When you say the word lose aloud, you pronounce the s like a z.
Spelling Hint 2: Think about the words lose and lost. Both words have the same meaning (when you lose something,
it's lost), and both are spelled with only one o.
The word loose, with two o's, means that something is not tight, or that it's coming apart.
He loosened the reins on his horse.
My shoelaces always come loose during gym class.
Spelling Hint 1: Unlike lose, the word loose is pronounced the way it looks, with the s making a regular s sound.
Spelling Hint 2: Remember the phrase loose as a goose. Both loose and goose are spelled with two o's.
More Helpful Hints

Note that these two words can fulfill different grammatical roles. The verb lose can be turned into a noun by adding a
different ending (you'll see which one as you complete the exercise below, but we don't want to give away any answers
here!). The word loose can be used as a verb, an adjective, or even an adverb, depending on the ending you choose.
The words lose and loose are used in many idiomatic expressions (that's a fancy term for slang). This basically means that
their conventional definitions can be stretched a bit, so you may have to think outside the box for a few of the questions
below.

Accept vs. ExceptAccept"
means to receive. Example: I accept your invitation.
"Except" means to omit or to exempt. Example: Everyone except Bill will attend.
Accept" means to receive. Example: I accept your invitation.
"Except" means to omit or to exempt. Example: Everyone except Bill will attend.
Lesson 2:
Affect vs. Effect"Affect" may be a verb or a noun, but for the purposes of this lesson, treat each instance of "affect" as a verb
meaning "to influence or to change." Examples: 1) Illness affects his patience. 2) She attempted to affect a caring attitude.
"Effect" may be a verb or a noun. As a verb it means to bring about. Example: We will effect the changes we want. As a
noun it means result of a cause. Example: What effect will this bring?
Lesson 3:
Advice vs. Advise
"Advice" is a noun meaning a suggestion or recommendation. Example: What is your advice?
"Advise" is a verb meaning to recommend. Example: I have been advised to attend.
Lesson 4:
Between vs. Among, Amongst
"Between" shows connection with two persons or things and may refer to space or time. Example: There was an alley
between the buildings.
"Among" and "amongst" show connection with more than two persons or things. Sometimes people use "between" when
they want to show a connection with more than two things, but this is not correct. Example: They stood among the trees.
Lesson 5:
Bad vs. Badly
136

"Bad" is an adjective meaning sick, in pain, unpleasant, or immoral. It is always used with nouns and linking verbs, and it
can never be used with action verbs. (For a review of linking verbs, see Module 3, Lesson 3). Example: I feel bad.
"Badly" is an adverb that is used with all other verbs. You use it when you want to say that someone is not good at
something or that someone did a bad job. It should not be used as an adjective and is never used with linking verbs.
Example: He drives badly.
Lesson 6:
Breath vs. Breathe
"Breath" is the noun pronounced to rhyme with death. Example: I lost my breath.
"Breathe" is the verb pronounced as to rhyme with sheathe. Example: Breathe deeply.
Lesson 7:
Bring, Take, Fetch, and Carry
"Bring" implies moving or conveying something from a distant place or person to a nearer place or person. Example: Bring
me a drink.
"Take" implies motion away from speaker to a person or place. Example: Please take me to your leader.
Some easy ways to remember the differences between "bring" and "take" are: You bring something here, and you take
something there. You bring something toward a person, and you take something away from a person.
"Carry" implies the conveying of something from one place to another. Example: Please carry this to the car.
"Fetch" implies a two-way trip that is to go for something and bring it back. Example: Rover, fetch the
Lesson 8:
Capital vs. Capitol
"Capital" as a noun can mean either the seat of government or wealth and resources. As an adjective it means first or
excellent. Sometimes it is used to mean punishable by death (a capital offense). Example: Cheyenne is the capital of
Wyoming.
"Capitol" is a noun meaning the building in which a state legislature convenes; a statehouse. Example: The Wyoming capitol
building is in Cheyenne. Also in referring to the official building of the U.S. Congress in Washington D.C., the word is
capitalized as part of the proper noun: Capitol Building.
Lesson 9:
Complement vs. Compliment
"Complement" means that which completes. It can also be a complete number or set of people or things. Example: Those
shoes complement that outfit.
"Compliment" means an expression of admiration or approval given freely as a courtesy. Example: Her compliment on the
outfit was appreciated. Sometimes the adjective "complimentary" also means free. Example: The hotel provided a
complimentary breakfast.
Lesson 10:
Emigrate vs. Immigrate
To "emigrate" is to leave one's country for residence in another. Example: I emigrated from my home country.
To "immigrate" is to come into a country of which one is not a native. Example: The person arrived in the new country as an
immigrant.
Lesson 11:
Farther vs. Further
"Farther" usually implies the idea of physical distance. Example: San Francisco is farther away than San Diego.
"Further" usually implies the idea of greater abstract degrees. In other words, it is used to talk about concepts such as time
and progress, among others. Example: His dreams were further in the future.
Lesson 12:
137

Council vs. Counsel
A "Council" is an assembly or group that meets for deliberation. It can only be used as a noun. Example: A council of
teachers considered his case.
"Counsel" is a noun that means advice or deliberating together. Example: He accepted the counsel of his mother. Note that
"counsel" can also be used as a verb, as in "I am counseling my friend," while "council" can only be used as a noun.
Lesson 13:
Principal vs. Principle
"Principal" as an adjective means main, chief, leading. As a noun, "principal" means a leader, a head, or a sum placed at
interest. Examples: 1) The bus was his principal means of transportation. 2) The principal of the school was new.
"Principle" means a rule of action, a moral standard, or a fundamental truth. Example: The principle of the statement was
understood by all.
Lesson 14:
Whether vs. Weather
"Whether" is a conjunction meaning in either case. Example: Tell me whether you are considering our plan.
"Weather" is a noun meaning a prevailing condition or atmosphere: mental or moral climate. Example: Stormy weather is
coming.
Lesson 15:
Allay vs. Alley vs. Ally
"Allay" is a verb meaning to reduce the intensity, lay to rest, or pacify and calm. Example: His mother attempted to allay his
fears.
"Alley" is a noun meaning a narrow passageway. Example: There is an alley behind the buildings.
"Ally" is a verb or noun meaning to connect by some relationship usually showing helpfulness or kinship. Example: The
United States is a close ally of England
Lesson 16:
Allude vs. Elude
"Allude" is a verb meaning to make an indirect or passing reference. Example: The speaker alluded to his fame.
"Elude" is a verb meaning to evade or escape from something. Example: The soldier attempted to elude the enemy.
Lesson 17:
Allusion vs. Illusion
"Allusion" is the noun derived from the verb "allude," which is to make an indirect or passing reference to something.
Example: She made allusions about her wealth.
"Illusion" is the action of deceiving the eye or mind by what is unreal or false. Example: The magician created the illusion of
flowing water.
Lesson 18:
All-round vs. All Around
"All-round" is an adjective meaning versatile or general. Example: He is an all-round mechanic.
"All around" has the meaning of being all over a given area. Example: Fir trees were all around the cabin.
Lesson 19:
Alternate vs. Alternative
"Alternate" (as a verb) means to follow one another by turns. Example: Please alternate the colored pages.
"Alternate" (as a noun) means a substitute or second for another person. Example: I am the alternate committee member.
"Alternative" means a choice between two things. Example: We have only two alternatives.
Lesson 20:
Apprehend vs. Comprehend
"Apprehend" means to take into custody or grasp mentally. While "apprehend" sometimes means "understand," it is best to
use "comprehend" because it's easier for most people to understand. For the purposes of this exercise, always use
138

"comprehend" for "understand." The noun form, "apprehension," means a foreboding or dread of something. Example:
Please apprehend the criminal.
"Comprehend" means to grasp mentally or understand fully. Example: Do you comprehend this material? The adjective
"comprehensive" means all-inclusive or having a wide range. Example: Final exams are usually comprehensive because
they include questions on all the material covered in a semester.
Lesson 21:
Born vs. Borne
"Born" is an adjective that means brought forth as by birth. It can also describe someone who has a natural talent for
something. Example: She is a born musician. Common patterns use "born" as a past participle verb form, as in: She was
born on the Fourth of July.
"Borne" is the past participle of the verb "bear" (bear, bore, borne) meaning to support, to carry, to hold in mind, to suffer.
Example: The fluffy seeds were borne by the wind.
Lesson 22:
Censor vs. Censure
"Censor" as a noun means any official examiner of books, plays, etc., empowered to suppress them if they are found to be
politically or morally objectionable. Example: Is there a censor for our library? "Censor" can also be used as a verb meaning
examine or suppress. Example: Many movies have to be censored before they are put on TV.
"Censure" means the expression of disapproval or blame, strong criticism, reprimand. Example: Will we be censured for our
article?
Lesson 23:
Notable vs. Notorious, Notoriety
"Notable" and "noted" are used chiefly of persons or things that are remarkable or distinguished for favorable reasons.
Examples: 1) The notable remark will be remembered for a long time. 2) The noted author spoke at a local club.
"Notorious" is now almost always used to mean of ill repute. In other words, if someone is known for doing something bad,
he or she is "notorious." Example: The notorious outlaw was hunted by the law.
"Notoriety," likewise, means unfavorable publicity or distinction. Example: She did not want any more notoriety.
Lesson 24:
Persecute vs. Prosecute
"Persecute" means to subject a person or group to persistent ill treatment. Example: People tend to persecute teenagers for
their different styles.
"Prosecute" means to pursue, carry out, or bring a lawsuit against a person or group. Example: The court will prosecute
anyone who breaks the law.
Lesson 25:
Continual, Continuous, and Consecutive
"Continual" means happening again and again at short intervals as "continual reminders." Example: The loud trucks were a
continual problem.
"Continuous" means uninterrupted, whether of time or space, as in "continuous misery," "continuous rain," or "continuous
range of mountains." Example: The stormy weather was continuous.
"Consecutive" means occurring one after the other, as in "consecutive days of the week." Example: Are we to attend on
consecutive days?
Lesson 26:
Sight vs. Site, Cite
139

"Sight" used as noun means vision or the act of seeing. Example: Sight is one of our senses. "Sight" used as a verb means
to take aim or to spot something that is difficult or unusual to see, or make an observation. Example: Sight along the barrel
of the gun.
"Cite" is a verb meaning to quote as authority, to mention in a report, or to summon to appear in court. Example: Please cite
the applicable law.
"Site" is a noun meaning a place where an event has occurred, or a place where something is located, a place set apart for
some specific use. Example: It was a large school site.
Lesson 27:
Stationary vs. Stationery
"Stationary" means fixed in one place. Example: The cabinet in the kitchen was stationary.
"Stationery" means writing supplies. Example: The stationery had a flower motif.
140

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Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 1:

Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

man river dog

Mrs. Paris book

doctor mountain sports

Maddie home Ferrari

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 2:

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 3:

Definition: Singular means only one. Plural means more than one.

Add s to form the plural. cat ⇒ cats

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 4:

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

These nouns always add es: potato,

Here are the preferred spellings of some

Words from foreign languages, Simply add s. taco ⇒ tacos

 Memorize the short list of words that must end in es.

These nouns always add es: potato,

Here are the preferred spellings of some

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Words from foreign languages, Simply add s. taco ⇒ tacos

 Memorize the short list of words that must end in es.

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 5:

one foot ⇒ two feet

one tooth ⇒ two teeth

one man ⇒ two men

amoeba ⇒ alumnus ⇒ analysis ⇒ analyses criterion ⇒ criteria

antenna ⇒ cactus ⇒ cacti axis ⇒ axes phenomenon ⇒

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

alumna ⇒ alumnae fungus ⇒ fungi diagnosis ⇒ diagnoses die ⇒ dice

nucleus ⇒ nuclei hypothesis ⇒ hypotheses

octopus ⇒ octopi parenthesis ⇒

Note: This is not a complete list.

Why does algebra use so many x's and y's?

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 6:

Compound nouns can be written three ways:

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 7:

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Module 1, Nouns, Lesson 8:

Dogs' sisters' cars'

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Module 2, Pronouns, Lesson 1:

What would you think if you heard something like this?

Subject Object Possessive

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

1st Person I we me us my, mine our, ours

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Module 2, Pronouns, Lesson 2:

Subject Object Possessive

I we me us my, mine our, ours

you you you you your, yours your, yours

Definition: A subject pronoun (also called a nominative pronoun) is used as the subject of a sentence or as a subject

Hint: Subject Pronoun as a Subject Complement (Renaming the Subject)

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

My pencil fell on the floor, and his pencil ended up on her desk.

Module 2, Pronouns, Lesson 3:

Common Error #1: Using Object Pronouns in Place of Subject Pronouns

Jesse and me went to school. Jesse and I went to school.

Common Error #2: Using Subject Pronouns in Place of Object Pronouns

He met Jeremy and I. He met Jeremy and me.

Cingletree Learning, LLC (Compiled by Instructress Saimona M. Guyo, LPT, MaEd

Pronouns Before Nouns

Us writers enjoy writing fiction. We writers enjoy writing fiction.