CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

CE416_Lecture 02
DESIGN CONTROLS
AND CRITERIA

DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

 This subject discusses those characteristics of
vehicles, drivers, pedestrians, and traffic that
act as criteria for the design of various
highway and street functional classes.

 DESIGN VEHICLES
 DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
 HIGHWAY CAPACITY

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DESIGN VEHICLES
h

L1 W

L2

DESIGN VEHICLES

 Key controls in geometric highway design are the physical

characteristics and the proportions of vehicles of various
sizes using the highway.
 It is appropriate to examine all vehicle types, establish
general class groupings, and select vehicles of
representative size within each class for design use.
 These selected vehicles, with representative weight,
dimensions, and operating characteristics, used to establish
highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of
designated classes, are known as design vehicles.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DESIGN VEHICLES

 For purposes of geometric design, each design vehicle has

larger physical dimensions and a larger minimum turning
radius than most vehicles in its class.
 Four general classes of design vehicles have been
established, including:
1. passenger cars
2. buses
3. trucks
4. recreational vehicles.

DESIGN VEHICLES

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DESIGN VEHICLES

DESIGN VEHICLES

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DESIGN
VEHICLES
Minimum turning paths
for typical design
vehicles.

Passenger Car Design Vehicle

DESIGN
VEHICLES

The principal dimensions

affecting design are:
• Minimum centerline
turning radius (CTR)
• Out-to-out track width,
• Wheelbase
• Path of the inner rear tire.

Double-Trailer Combination (WB-20D [WB-67D])

Design Vehicle

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DESIGN VEHICLES
Important definitions of vehicle dimensions and movements:

 Turning radius: The circular arc formed by the turning path radius of the
front outside tire of a vehicle.
 CTR: The turning radius of the centerline of the front axle of a vehicle.
 Off tracking: The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a
tractor/semitrailer as it negotiates a turn.
 Swept path width: The amount of roadway width that a truck covers in
negotiating a turn and is equal to the amount of off tracking plus the width
of the tractor unit.
 Steering angle: The maximum angle of turn built into the steering
mechanism of the front wheels of a vehicle. This maximum angle controls
the minimum turning radius of the vehicle.
 Tractor/trailer angle: The angle between adjoining units of a
tractor/semitrailer when the combination unit is placed into a turn; this angle
is measured between the longitudinal axes of the tractor and trailer as the
vehicle turns.

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DRIVER PERFORMANCE
• An appreciation of driver
performance is essential to
proper highway design and
operation.
• The suitability of a design
rests as much on how safely
and efficiently drivers are able
to use the highway as on any
other criterion.
• When drivers use a highway designed to be compatible with their
capabilities and limitations, their performance is aided.
• When a design is incompatible with the capabilities of drivers, the chance
for driver errors increase, and crashes or inefficient operation may result.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Information about driver performance that
is useful to highway engineers in
designing and operating highways.
 Understanding drivers in
terms of their
performance—how they
interact with the highway
and its information system
and why they make
errors.

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DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Older Drivers and Older Pedestrians

• Older drivers and older pedestrians are a

significant and rapidly growing segment of the highway
user population with a variety of age-related
diminished capabilities.
• Older road users deserve mobility and they should be
accommodated in the design of highway facilities to
the extent practical.
• Older drivers have special needs that should be
considered in highway design and traffic control. For
example, for every decade after age 25, drivers need
twice the brightness at night to receive visual
information. Hence, by age 75, some drivers may
need 32 times the brightness they did at age 25.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 The Driving Task

• The driving task depends on drivers receiving and

using information correctly.
• The information received by drivers as they travel is
compared with the information they already possess.
Decisions are then made by drivers based on the
information available to them and appropriate control
actions are taken.
• Driving encompasses a number of discrete and
interrelated activities. When grouped by performance,
the components of the driving task fall into three
levels:
 Control
 Guidance
 navigation
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DRIVER PERFORMANCE

 The Driving Task

• Simple steering and speed control are

at the basic level of the scale(control).
• Road following and path following in
response to road and traffic conditions
are at midlevel of the scale
(guidance).
• At the more complex level of the scale
are trip planning and route following
(navigation).

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 The Driving Task

• The driving task may be complex and demanding, and

several individual activities may need to be performed
simultaneously, with smooth and efficient processing
and integration of information.
• Driving often occurs at high speeds, under time
pressure, in unfamiliar locations, and under adverse
environmental conditions. The driving task may at
other times be so simple and undemanding that a
driver becomes inattentive.
• A key to effective driver performance in this broad
range of driving situations is error-free information
handling.

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DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 The Driving Task

• Driver errors result from many driver, vehicle,

roadway, and traffic factors.
• Some driver errors occur because drivers may not
always recognize what actions are appropriate in
particular roadway traffic situations.
• Driver errors may also result from complexity of
decisions, profusion of information, or inadequate time
to respond.
• Control and guidance errors by drivers may also
contribute directly to crashes.
• Navigational errors by drivers cause delay, contribute
to inefficient operations, andmay lead indirectly to
crashes.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 The Guidance Task
 highway design and traffic operations have the greatest
effect on guidance.
 An appreciation of the guidance component of the driving
task is needed by the highway designer to aid driver
performance.
 Lane Placement and Road Following: decisions, including
steering and speed control judgments, are basic to vehicle
guidance.
 Car following: is the process by which drivers guide their
vehicles when following another vehicle.
 Passing Maneuvers: The driver decision to initiate,
continue, or complete a passing maneuver is even more
complex than the decisions involved in lane placement or
car following.
 Other guidance activities: include merging, lane changing,
avoidance of pedestrians, and response to traffic control
devices. 19

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 The Information System
Each element that provides information to drivers is part of
the information system of the highway.
• Formal sources of information are the traffic control devices
specifically designed to display information to drivers.
• Informal sources include such elements as roadway and
roadside design features, pavement joints, tree lines, and
traffic.
 Information Handling
 Drivers use many of their senses to gather information.
 Most information is received visually by drivers from their
view of the roadway alignment, markings, and signs.
 However, drivers also detect changes in vehicle handling
through instinct. They do so, for example, by feeling road
surface texture through vibrations in the steering wheel
and hearing emergency vehicle sirens.
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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Information Handling
Throughout the driving task, drivers perform several functions
almost simultaneously.
 They look at information sources, make numerous
decisions, and perform appropriate control actions.
 Because drivers can only attend to one visual information
source at a time, they integrate the various information
inputs and maintain an awareness of the changing
environment through an attention-sharing process.
 Drivers sample visual information obtained in short-
duration glances, shifting their attention from one source to
another.
 They make some decisions immediately, and delay others,
through reliance on judgment, estimation, and prediction
to fill in gaps in available information.

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DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Reaction Time

 Information takes time to process.

 Drivers’ reaction times increase as a function of decision
complexity and the amount of information to be processed.
 The longer the reaction time, the greater the chance for
error.
 Reaction time averages about 0.6 s, with a few drivers
taking as long as 2 s. With unexpected events, reaction
times increased by 35 percent.
 For a simple, unexpected decision and action, some drivers
may take as long as 2.7 s to respond.
 A complex decision with several alternatives may take
several seconds longer than a simple decision.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Reaction Time

Figure 2-27 85th-percentile Figure 2-26 median-case

drivers. drivers,

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DRIVER PERFORMANCE
 Reaction Time

 Long processing times decrease the time available to

attend to other tasks and increase the chance for error.

 Highway designs should take reaction times into account.

 It should be recognized that drivers vary in their

responses to particular events and take longer to
respond when decisions are complex or events are
unexpected.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Speed

 speed Vs velocity

scalar vector
• Spot Speed
• Journey Speed

V=d/t
• Average Speed
• Posted speed
time • Operating speed
distance
• Running speed
• Design speed
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 Posted speed:
 speed limit

 Operating speed:
 free flow (spot speed)

 Running speed:
 length of highway section ÷ running time

 Design speed:
 selected speed used to determine geometric
design features

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Speed
 Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green
Book as: ...the maximum safe speed that
can be maintained over a specified
section of highway when conditions are
so favorable that the design features of
the highway govern.

 Design Speed should:

1) “…be consistent with the speed the driver is
likely to expect.”
2) “. . .fit the travel desires and habits of nearly
all drivers.”
 Not posted speed and not operating speed (but
ALWAYS higher than both)

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Design Speed Considerations

 Functional classification of the highway
 Character of the terrain
 Density and character of adjacent land
uses
 Traffic volumes expected to use the
highway
 Economic and environmental
considerations

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Speed in Green Book

(suggested minimum design speed)

Rural Local Roads

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4th Ed.

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Design Speed in Green Book

(suggested minimum design speed)

Rural Collectors

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (The Green Book). Washington, DC.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001 4th Ed.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Speed in Green Book

(suggested minimum design speed)

Rural Arterials
 60 – 120 kph
 Depends on …
 Terrain
 Driver expectancy

 Alignment (reconstruction)

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Design Speed in Green Book

(suggested minimum design speed)

Urban
 Locals 30-50 kph
 Collectors 50 kph+
 Arterials 50-100 kph

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

110-130 110
100-110 100-110
80-100 80-100
Values represent the
minimum acceptable
design speeds for
the various
100-110 50-100
conditions of terrain
60-100 50-80 and traffic volumes
associated with new
50-80 50-80
or reconstructed
highway facilities

50-80 50-60
30-60 30-60
30-50 30-50

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International

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Traffic

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Traffic Definitions
 Volume:
 number of vehicles, pedestrians,
etc. passing a point during a specific
period of time
 for vehicles, usually expressed as
veh/hour (vph) or veh/hour/lane
(vphpl)

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

 Demand:
 number of vehicles, pedestrians, etc. that desire to
travel between locations during a specific period
 Frequently higher than volume during certain peak
times
 Trips are diverted or not made when there are
constraints in the system
 difficult to measure actual demand because capacity
constrains the demand

 Capacity:
 maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point
during a specific period
 A characteristic of the roadway or facility

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Characteristics of Traffic Flow

 Highly variable
• Time of day
• Day of week
• Season
• Road characteristics
• Direction

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Traffic Typically Peaks twice per day

7000

congestion
6000

Highway capacity
Flow in vehicles per hour

5000

4000
Peak 2
3000 Peak 1

2000

1000

Time of Day

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Volume Studies
 AADT: Annual average daily traffic (counted
for 365 days)
 ADT: average daily traffic (counted for > 1
day and < 365)
 PHV: peak hour volume
 Classification counts: fleet mix

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Estimating AADT

 Annual Average Daily Traffic

 Use count station information
 Extrapolate to non-count locations
 Used to adjust ADT for
• Seasons
• Daily variation

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AADT Data Help to:

 Estimate highway revenues
 Establish overall volume trends
 Establish annual accident rates
 Analyze benefits of road improvements

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Volume
 Usually hourly volume
 Which hour?
 Average hourly volume – inadequate design
 Maximum peak hour – not economical
 Hourly volume used for design should not be
exceeded very often or by very much
 Usually use 30th highest hourly volume of the
year
 On rural roads 30 HHV is ~ 15% of ADT
 Percentage tends to be constant year to year

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Traffic Demand
 Design Hourly Volume (DHV) – future hourly
volume (both directions) used for design -
typically 30th HHV (highest hourly volume)
in the design year
 Why 30th HHV?
 Breakpoint of 2-28
 Compromise: too high is wasteful, too
low poor operation
 Approximately median weekly peak hour
volume

(30th HHV exceed 29 times in year)

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Traffic Demand (cont.)

Relationship

HHV/ADT (K-factor)
between HHV
and percent of
ADT in peak
hour (referred
to as K-factor)

Number of hours in one year with hourly volume

greater than that shown
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Design Hourly Volume DHV

DHV is a representation of peak hour traffic,
usually for the future, or horizon year

K-factor represents proportion of AADT that

occurs in the 30th HHV

K-factor = __DHV x 100

AADT
K = 8 to 12% urban, 12 to 18% rural

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Hourly Volume (Example)

If AADT is 3500 vpd and the 30th highest hourly

volume for the year is 420 vph what is the
K-factor for that facility?

K-factor = __DHV x 100

AADT
K-factor = __420 x 100 = 12
3500

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Question: What’s the impact of choosing

different K factor for design?
If AADT is 3500 vpd, how will the design volume
differ for K-factor = 8% vs. 12%?

DHV = K-factor x AADT

100
DHVk=8% = 8 x 3500 = 280 vph
100
DHVk=12% = 12 x 3500 = 420 vph (diff of 140 veh)
100

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Traffic Demand (cont.)

• D = directional distribution = one way volume in
peak direction (expressed as a percentage of
two-way traffic) Rural 55 to 80%

• Can also adjust for

how traffic is
distributed between
lanes (e.g., 3 lanes,
highest/outside
lane may be 40%
of total directional
flow)

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Directional Distribution (example)

If traffic is directionally split 60/40, what is directional
distribution of traffic for previous example (Design
hourly volume = 420 veh/hr)?

Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV) =

0.6 x 420 = 252 veh/hr
Notice we use 0.6 not 0.4!!

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Traffic Demand (cont.)

• T = percentage of heavy vehicles
during design hour (Iowa interstate
35% plus)
• Affects capacity, ability to pass on
two-lane rural roads, etc.
• Larger, occupy more space
• Should determine % during design
hour (truck patterns may not be same
as passenger vehicles)

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Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

PHF = peak-hour volume
4(peak 15-min volume)

Flow is not uniform throughout an hour

HCM considers operating conditions
during most congested 15-minute
period of the hour to determine service
level for the hour as a whole

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Peak Hour Factor

Hourly volume
PHF =
Peak 15 min flow rate
375 veh/hr
Volume PHF = = 0.625
per 600 veh/hr
minute

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5 v=150

v=150 v=75

15 30 45 60
minutes

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DHV = Peak-Hour Volume

PHF
Example
Peak hour volume from previous = 375 vph
PHF = 0.625
DHV = 375 = 600 vph
0.625
Note: the traffic you design for is the busiest 15
minutes during the peak hour … another way
to think of it is 150 vehicles per 15 minutes =
600 vehicles per 60 minutes

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Traffic Example

Consider a rural highway with a projected
20-year AADT of 40,000 vpd. For the type
of highway and region in question, it is
known that peak-hour traffic currently is
approximately 20% of the AADT, and that
the peak direction generally carries 65%
of the peak-hour traffic.
Assuming an annual traffic growth of 8%.
What is the DDHV?
What is the current AADT?

Design Traffic Example

Solution

An approximate DDHV could be estimated as

DDHV = AADT.K.D

K is the percentage of the AADT that occurs in the

peak hour = 20%
D is the directional distribution percentage. = 65%

Therefore,

DDHV = 40,000*0.20*0.65 = 5200 vph

.

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

Design Traffic Example

Solution

What is the current AADT? Assuming an

annual traffic growth of 8%.
Future AADT (after 20 years) = 40,000 vpd
(given)
AADTF = 40,000 vpd
i = 8% (annual traffic growth)
n = 20 years (design period)
AADTF = AADTC (1+i)n

Design Traffic Example

Solution

AADTF = 40,000 vpd

i = 8% (annual traffic growth)
n = 20 years (design period)
AADTF = AADTC (1+i)n

AADTF
AADTC=
(1+i)n

40,000
AADTC= = 8581.928 vpd
(1+0.08)20

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CE416-Fall 2015 Lecture 02: Design Controls

HW #1
Download at CE416 Group page:

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Tobe submitted by 15.10.2015

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