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Water quality
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards
of its usage.[1] [2] It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance,
generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to
monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and condition of
drinking water. Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and oftentimes determines supply
options.[3]

Contents
Standards
Categories
Human consumption
Industrial and domestic use
Environmental water quality
Sampling and measurement
Sample collection A rosette sampler is used for
Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies collecting water samples in deep
Chemical analysis water, such as the Great Lakes or
Real-time monitoring oceans, for water quality testing.

Drinking water indicators

Environmental indicators
Physical indicators
Chemical indicators
Biological indicators
Standards and reports
International
National specifications for ambient water and drinking water
European Union
India
South Africa
United Kingdom
United States
See also
References
External links

Standards
In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions based on how the water will be used.[4] In the case of natural
water bodies, agencies also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to a region's
environmental conditions, whereby water composition is influenced by the surrounding geological features, sediments, and rock types, topography,
hydrology, and climate.[5] Environmental scientists and aqueous geochemists work to interpret the parameters and environmental conditions that
impact the water quality of a region, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers
work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.

Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex
subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology, geology, and anthropogenic activities of a region. Industrial and
commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural
areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.

Categories
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated
for potability, industrial/domestic use, or restoration (of an environment/ecosystem, generally for health of human/aquatic life).

Human consumption

Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts
and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants.
Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water
bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).[6]

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water
systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:
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primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health;[7][8]

secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance.[9]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water. [10] Drinking water, including bottled
water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not
necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.

In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal water systems to remove contaminants from the source
water (surface water or groundwater) before it is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other recipients. Water drawn directly from a
stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality in terms of potability.

Industrial and domestic use

Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence
of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) that interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in
water heaters or boilers.[11] Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.[12] For certain
populations, hard water may be preferable to soft water because health problems have been associated with calcium deficiencies and with excess
sodium.[13] The necessity for additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on the population in question because people generally satisfy
their recommended amounts through food.[14]

Environmental water quality

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans.[15] Water quality standards for surface waters
vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended
human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can
present a health hazard[16] for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming,
fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife,
which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. According to the EPA, water quality
laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a
minimum, retention of current quality standards.[17]
Sign in Sandymount, Ireland, Urban runoff discharging
There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre- describing water quality, giving levels to coastal waters
industrial conditions.[18] Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of of faecal coliform E. coli and
particular uses of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some Enterococcus faecalis.
water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to
the designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization,
clearcutting in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In
these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of
populations of endangered species and protecting human health.

Sampling and measurement

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of
water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site
and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP),
turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Sample collection

More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected,
preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of water sampling introduces two
significant problems:

The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be representative of the water source of interest.
Water sources vary with time and with location. The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from
day to night or in response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and animals.[19]
The measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water boundary with overlying atmosphere
and underlying or confining soil. The sampler must determine if a single time and location meets the needs An automated sampling station
of the investigation, or if the water use of interest can be satisfactorily assessed by averaged values of installed along the East Branch
sampling over time and location, or if critical maxima and minima require individual measurements over a Milwaukee River, New Fane,
range of times, locations or events. The sample collection procedure must assure correct weighting of Wisconsin. The cover of the 24-
individual sampling times and locations where averaging is appropriate. [20]:39–40 Where critical maximum or bottle autosampler (center) is
minimum values exist, statistical methods must be applied to observed variation to determine an adequate partially raised, showing the sample
[21] bottles inside. The autosampler was
number of samples to assess the probability of exceeding those critical values.
programmed to collect samples at
The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to establish time intervals, or proportionate to
chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings – the sample container. Sample containers must be made of flow over a specified period. The
materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured; and pre-cleaning of sample containers is data logger (white cabinet) recorded
important. The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any residue on that container, temperature, specific conductance,
and chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the sample container and remain there when and dissolved oxygen levels.
the water is poured out for analysis.[20]:4 Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any
pumps, piping, or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container. Water
collected from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water will
collect at the top of the container. Atmospheric gas above the water may also dissolve into the water sample. Other chemical reaction equilibria
may change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the
bottom of the sample container, or a solid phase may form from biological growth or chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within the water
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sample may biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations
may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern during measurement of chemicals assumed
to be significant at very low concentrations.[19]

Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to
slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this
merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them.[20]:43–45 A useful procedure for determining
influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two
artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. One sample container is filled with water known from
previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a "blank", is
opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported
to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample collection or holding procedures
Filtering a manually collected water
introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial sample is collected with the
sample (grab sample) for analysis
sample of interest, but then "spiked" with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time
of collection. The blank (negative control) and spiked sample (positive control) are carried with the sample of
interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or
losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis.[22]

Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies

After events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief
operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that
are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery.[23] The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large
numbers of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation.[24]

After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned, there are widespread views on the best
course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water quality parameters that
need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine
residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total dissolved solids. There are many decontamination
Testing water in the Gulf of Mexico
methods.[25][26]
after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre-
disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the Colombo-based International Water
Management Institute (IWMI) monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one
and a half years after the event.[27] IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially
endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[28]

Chemical analysis

The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their
form. Elemental analysis for oxygen, as an example, would indicate a concentration of 890 g/L (grams per litre)
of water sample because oxygen (O) has 89% mass of the water molecule (H2O). The method selected to
measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other
elements. The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and
water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Water analysis for heavy metals must
consider soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain measurable A gas chromatograph-
amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people mass spectrometer measures
drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample container pesticides and other organic
may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before pollutants
acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter.[29] The complexities of differentiating
similar organic molecules are even more challenging.

Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be
expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted and results released by government agencies.
However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment.[30] Tools
available to the general public include on-site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and biological
assessment procedures.

Real-time monitoring
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy is
Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, since the late 20th century there has
used to measure mercury and other
been increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water provided by municipal systems. Many water
heavy metals
utilities have developed systems to collect real-time data about source water quality. In the early 21st century, a
variety of sensors and remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring water pH, turbidity,
dissolved oxygen and other parameters.[31] Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for
monitoring ambient water quality in riverine, estuarine and coastal water bodies.[32][33]

Drinking water indicators

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

Alkalinity
Color of water
pH
Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.)

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Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia; see
Bacteriological water analysis
Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
Radon
Heavy metals
Pharmaceuticals
Hormone analogs An electrical conductivity meter is
used to measure total dissolved
solids
Environmental indicators

Physical indicators
Water temperature Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Specific conductance or electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity Odour of water
Total suspended solids (TSS) Color of water
Transparency or turbidity Taste of water

Chemical indicators
pH Heavy metals
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Nitrate
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Orthophosphates
Dissolved oxygen (DO) Pesticides
Total hardness (TH) Surfactants

Biological indicators
Ephemeroptera Coliform bacteria
Plecoptera Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow)
Mollusca Americamysis bahia (Mysid shrimp)
Trichoptera sea urchin
Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used family of measurements for freshwater is the presence and
abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) (of benthic macroinvertebrates whose common
names are, respectively, mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a region, the
greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better the water quality. Organisations in the United States, such as EPA. offer guidance on
developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders. Many US wastewater dischargers (e.g.,
factories, power plants, refineries, mines, municipal sewage treatment plants) are required to conduct periodic whole effluent toxicity (WET)
tests.[34][35]

Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general
reading of water quality. One example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program of Iowa, which includes an EPT indicator key.[36]

Bivalve molluscs are largely used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments.
Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of
contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where
they are sampled or placed. A typical project is the U.S. Mussel Watch Programme,[37] but today they are used worldwide.

The Southern African Scoring System (SASS) method is a biological water quality monitoring system based on the presence of benthic
macroinvertebrates (EPT). The SASS aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over the past 30 years and is now on the fifth version (SASS5)
which has been specifically modified in accordance with international standards, namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol.[38] The SASS5 method is used
by the South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health Assessment, which feeds the national River Health
Programme and the national Rivers Database.

Standards and reports

International
The World Health Organization (WHO) published guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) in 2011.[39]
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published regulation of water quality in the section of ICS 13.060,[40] ranging from
water sampling, drinking water, industrial class water, sewage, and examination of water for chemical, physical or biological properties. ICS
91.140.60 covers the standards of water supply systems.[41]

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National specifications for ambient water and drinking water

European Union

The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives:

Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment (91/271/EEC) of 21 May 1991 concerning discharges of municipal and some industrial wastewaters;
The Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) of 3 November 1998 concerning potable water quality;
Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of 23 October 2000 concerning water resources management.

India
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Standards for Drinking Water.

South Africa

Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types (e.g. domestic, industrial) in the 1996 Water Quality
Guidelines.[42] Drinking water quality is subject to the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification.[43]

United Kingdom

In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000."[44]

United States

In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body
(e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use).[45] The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories,
and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and
305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA.[46] These reports are completed by the
governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency. EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its
list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state.[47] The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general
report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition.[48] The CWA
requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document
that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters.
Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the
pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.[49]

Drinking water standards, which are applicable to public water systems, are issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act.[8]

See also
Aquatic toxicology Water quality modelling
Stiff diagram, a graphical representation of chemical analyses Water resource management
Stormwater Water testing
Ultrapure water Water treatment

Environment portal Water portal

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7 September 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
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o.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/in
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40. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). "13.060: Water
quality" (http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogu
e_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=13&ICS2=060). Geneva, Switzerland.
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e?ICS1=91&ICS2=140&ICS3=60&&published=on). Retrieved 4 July
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Water Data and Tools. EPA. 18 August 2016.

External links
International organizations

Drinking water quality guidelines (https://www.who.int/activities/drinking-water-quality-guidelines) – World Health Organization

Global Freshwater Quality Database (GEMStat) (http://www.gemstat.org) – United Nations environment programme

Europe

Water policy in the European Union (https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/news.html)

South Africa

River Eco-status Monitoring Programme (http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/) - Republic of South Africa

United States

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/public/water_quality.html) – Drinking water
quality and testing
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (https://www.nal.usda.gov/waic/water-quality) – information on water quality and agriculture
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (https://www.epa.gov/waterdata) – Water Data and Tools
U.S. Geological Survey (http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa) – National Water Quality Assessment Program
U.S. National Water Quality Monitoring Council (NWQMC) (https://acwi.gov/monitoring/) – Partnership of federal and state agencies
American Water Resources Association (http://www.awra.org/) – Professional association

Other organizations

eWater Cooperative Research Centre (http://www.ewater.com.au/) (eWater Ltd) – Australian Government funded initiative supporting water
management decision support tools

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