 A prism is a transparent optical element

MODULE 4: Effect of Temperature with flat and polished surfaces that disperses
to Speed of Sound light.

KEY IDEAS

 Sounds are caused by vibrations, referring to the back

and forth movement of
objects.
 Sound energy travels in the form of sound waves.
These waves are examples of longitudinal waves
where the vibrations are parallel to the direction of the
wave.
 Sound waves travel fastest in solids and slowest in
gases.
 Sound travels faster within more elastic objects like
steel
 Density is an intrinsic property that is determined by
the amount of mass per area of space or volume of the
material, making the sound wave travel slower in
 The frequency of light wave refers to the number of
denser objects
waves that move past a
certain point in one second. Frequency is generally
measured in Hertz, the units
Speed of Sound in Air: of cycles per second
The speed of sound in dry air, which is at 0 0C, is  Wave frequency is related to wave energy. The more
around 331 m/s. This speed, however, gets faster energy in the wave,
when the temperature is increased with the presence the higher its frequency. The lower the frequency
of water vapor. In warmer air, or air with moisture, is, the less energy in the
molecules move faster and bump into each other more wave.
 When it comes to light waves, violet has the highest
often, so sound can travel faster. The speed of sound
energy while red has
increases by 0.60 m/s with every increase of 1C0. the lowest energy.
This can be expressed as:  Related to energy and frequency is the wavelength, or
the distance between corresponding points on
subsequent waves. You can measure wavelength from
peak to peak, trough to trough or between two
consecutive corresponding points of waves.
 The shortest wavelength is violet, and the longest
wavelength is red.

 Reflection is usually described as the turning back of

the wave as it hits a barrier. The echo is an example of
a reflected sound.
 Reverberation, on the other hand, refers to multiple
reflections or echoes in a certain place.
 sound reflection is echo sounding. This is used by
scientists to map the seafloor and to determine the
depth of the ocean or sea.
 The refraction of sound waves involves a change in
the direction of waves as they pass from one medium
to another. Sound waves travel slower in cooler air
than in warmer air.
 Refraction is the bending of light when it travels
MODULE 5: Colors of Light from one medium to another.

 The colors in white light are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue indigo and violet. We highlight here
the arrangement of colors of light as ROYGBIV
when dispersion happens.
 Dispersion is a kind of refraction which
provided us colors of light. This
phenomenon is observed when white light
passes through a prism.
 When light crosses the boundary of two media of
different optical density, a change in speed takes
place.
 The optical density is the measurement of a
component’s ability to slow the transmission of light.
This change in speed is manifested by the bending of
the light ray.
 A known indicator of the optical density of a material
is the index of refraction of the material (n). The
index of refraction of a material is a quantity that
 compares the speed of light in a material to its speed
in a vacuum.
 The incoming ray is called the incident ray from
medium 1 and the outgoing
ray is the refracted ray in medium 2, and the
associated angles are the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction.
MODULE 6: Heat and Temperature
Question: What happens to the temperature of the water when
heated?
 Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of
an object.
 Kinetic molecular theory tells us that all matter has
molecules or atoms which are constantly moving;
thus, they have kinetic energy. The faster these
molecules move, the more kinetic energy they have.
The more kinetic energy, the higher is the temperature
of an object.
 Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of molecules. When molecules move
faster, they have higher
temperatures while when molecules move slower,
they have lower temperatures.
Question: How do you determine the temperature of an object?
Can you use your senses to determine the temperature?
 Our senses give us an inaccurate measure of hotness
or coldness of an object, making
them not reliable indicators of temperature. Thus, we
need a thermometer to
measure temperature.
 A thermometer is a sealed glass tube containing
mercury and with an imprinted
 temperature scale. The mercury expands or contracts,
causing it to move up or down when there are changes
in the temperature.
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand II, invented the
most common type of thermometer, liquid-in glass
thermometer, in 1650.
Question: What is heat?
 Heat is produced from molecules of matter that
continuously vibrate. Heat is an energy form that
transfers from a body of higher temperature to another
body of lower temperature. Once heat is transferred or
released, it affects the internal energy
of the body.
 Internal energy is the total energy in a body; thus, it
includes the potential energy and the kinetic energy of
the molecules or atoms in an object.
 Joule (J) is the SI unit of heat. Another common unit
of heat is calorie, defined
as the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of one gram of water by 1ºC at a pressure
of 1 atm.
Phase Change:
 When the temperature of substances changes, its
molecular structure and movement also change, which
results to phase change.
 When liquids release heat, the water molecules begin
to move at a slower pace. The space between the
molecules become compact. The process of changing
liquids to solids is called solidification or freezing.
 When water boils, evaporation takes place. Heat is
absorbed, and water is converted into steam or water
vapor. The amount of heat needed for a liquid to
evaporate depends on the boiling point of the liquid.
 When water vapor releases heat, its gas state changes
to the liquid state through
condensation, which accounts for the formation of
clouds in the water cycle.
 In addition, sublimation is the process of
transforming a substance from the solid
phase directly to the gas state without passing the
liquid phase and requires
additional energy.
 On the other hand, deposition is the process of
transforming a substance from gas to solid without
passing the liquid phase and requires a release of
energy. During any of these phase changes, energy is
either given off or taken in.
Thermal Expansion:
 The amount of expansion and contraction depends on
the kind of material, and cannot be seen by the naked
 eye. When temperature changes, thermal expansion in
solids happens, causing a change in their length,
width, height, area, and volume.
 Molecules or atoms of materials vibrate constantly.
Heating these materials causes the particles to vibrate
faster, fill in more spaces, and move to empty spaces
resulting in the materials to expand or increase in size.
 On the other hand, when the temperature is reduced,
the particles vibrate slower and move closer to each
other.
 Generally, materials expand when the temperature is
increased, or contract when the temperature is
reduced. This is what happens to the mercury inside
the glass tube of thermometers. The mercury expands
at a different rate than the tube; thus, as the
temperature increases, it rises and drops when
temperature decreases
 Thermal expansion also happens in liquids and gases.
When the temperature is increased, fluids expand. On
the other hand, when the temperature is reduced, the
fluids contract.
 This concept of expansion and contraction in fluids is
not applicable to water. It behaves differently from
other liquids. Whether increased or reduced from 4ºC,
water expands. This is why water is densest at 4ºC.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat:
 The heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat
necessary to raise its
temperature by 1ºC.
MODULE 7: Basic Electricity
 To attain a sustained flow of charge in a conductor, an
electrical set up must maintain a difference in potential
while charge flows from one end to the other.
 Electric current is simply the flow of electric charges in
a conducting wire.
 These charges are free electrons that would only flow in
conducting wires, usually made of metals, connected to a
voltage source.
 When there is flow of electric charges, an electric current
is present
 Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charges
from one point to another in a circuit.
 Electric current is measured in Amperes (A).
 One ampere is a rate of flow equal to 1 coulomb of charge
per second.
 Mathematically, electrical current is given by
I = 𝑞/𝑡
where:
I = current in Amperes (A)
q = charge in coulombs (C)
t = time in seconds (s)
 The standard unit of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is
the electric charge of 6.25 billion electrons.
So, if a wire carries 5 amperes, 5 coulombs of charges
flow through the wire each second. This means that there
are 31.25 billion electrons flowing from one point of a
circuit to another.
 A sustained current in conducting wire requires a suitable
pumping device; meaning, charges will flow only when
they are pushed or driven.
 The work needed 6 per unit charge to move between two
points is called voltage (V), expressed in unit volt (V).
 Voltage (V) is what makes a current move.
Mathematically voltage is given by,
V = 𝑊/𝑞
where:
V = voltage in volts (V)
W = work in Joule (J)
 q = charge in coulomb (C)  An electronic device that is designed to resist the flow of
 A common automobile battery, as shown in figure 1, will current is known as a resistor, shown in figure 3 with its
provide a voltage of 12 volts to a circuit connected across equivalent electrical symbol in figure 4.
its terminals. Then 12 joules of energy are supplied to
each coulomb of charge that is made to flow in the circuit.
Remember, voltage does not go anywhere, it only
drives the charges to move.

 A resistor can also be a light bulb, as shown in figure 5

with its equivalent electrical symbol in figure 6, that will
convert the energy that was moving the electrons into heat
and light.

 The relationship among voltage, current, and resistance is

 Figure 2 shows the equivalent electrical symbol of 12-volt summarized by Ohm’s law. Ohm discovered that at
automobile battery. You notice that it has 6 pairs of short constant resistance, current in a circuit is directly
and long lines that represent negative and positive proportional to the voltage established across the circuit
terminals respectively. Each pair corresponds 2 volts. as graphically represented in figure 7.

 Batteries and generators are the primary sources of

voltage in an electric circuit. How much current exists in  For given values of resistance, current and voltage in
a circuit depends not only on the voltage but also on the figure 8, current will double if voltage is doubled at
electrical resistance of the conductor. constant resistance as shown in figure 9. This means that
the greater the voltage, the greater the current. If the
 Electrical resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of
resistance of a circuit is doubled, the current would be
current by the conducting wire. The electrical resistance
reduced to one-half when voltage is held constant. This
of the wire depends on its thickness, length, and
means that the greater the resistance, the smaller the
conductivity.
current (figure 10).
1. Thickness - Thick wires have less resistance than
thin wires because thick wires have greater cross-
sectional area for the electron to flow than thin
wires.
2. Length - Longer wires have more resistance than
shorter wires because longer wires have longer path
for the current to flow.
3. Conductivity - Copper wires have less resistance than
steel wires of the same size because copper has
higher conductivity than steel. Conductivity is the
property of matter that allows current to flow. The
higher the conductivity of material the more current
can freely flow.
* Electrical resistance also depends on temperature.
At higher temperature, atoms are violently vibrating
that can result to greater collision, creating more
resistance against the flow of current.
 Electrical resistance is measured in ohms (Ω), named
after Georg Simon Ohm.
 __________________________________________________
MODULE 8: Electrical Circuit

Basics of Electric Circuit

 A closed loop through which current can flow is called an
electric circuit.
 For a continuous flow of electrons, there must be a
complete circuit with no gaps.
 The flow of electron starts from the negative terminal of a
battery where there are abundant negative charges, to the
load, to the electrical switch, and back to the positive
terminal where there are deficient negative charges.
Ohm’s Law
 Here in the Philippines, most electric circuits at home
have a voltage of 220 volts.
 In a simple circuit, voltage is directly proportional to  The amount of current a circuit carries depends on the
current. Its proportionality constant is R = Resistance. number and power of electrical devices connected to the
circuit.
V=IR
 Home circuits have maximum service drop current of 60
A. But for safety purposes what is supplied for every
Where:
voltage source is from 15 to 30 A.
V = voltage expressed in volt (V)
I = Current expressed in Ampere (A) Components of Electric Circuit
R = Resistance expressed in ohm (Ω)  All electric circuits have at least three components: a
voltage source, conducting wires, and loads. They may
___________________________________________________
have other parts as well, such as switches.
Example 1 Find the resistance in kΩ of a single motor horn if it
 Voltage source is a device that maintains a constant
has a voltage of 6 V and current of 2 mA. amount of voltage. Common voltage sources used at
home are battery, generator, wall socket, and electric
Given: Voltage (V) = 6 V; outlet.
Current (I) = 2 mA x (1A/1000mA) = 0.002A  Conducting wires are special kind of conductors where
current can pass through easily. There is a corresponding
Required: Resistance (R) safe amount of current that can pass through for every
size, thickness, or cross-sectional area of conducting wire.
Solution: So, it is important to consider the dimension of wire to be
used when connecting a load or number of loads in a
Ohm’s Law: V = I R
circuit.
R = 𝑉/𝐼  Electrical switch is a device that can control the entrance
= 6V/0.002 of current. When it is on, the circuit is closed, then
= 3000 Ω X (1k Ω/1000 Ω) current can pass through. When it is off, the circuit is
R=3kΩ open, and current cannot pass through.
___________________________________________________  Electrical load is an electrical device that converts
Example 2 If a circuit has a resistance of 44 Ω and a current of electrical energy to heat like in the case of electric iron,
and to light and heat like in the case of a light bulb.
5 A, what is its voltage?
__________________________________________________
Two Types of Circuit Connections: Series
Given: Resistance (R) = 44 Ω
Current (I) = 5 A
Circuit and Parallel Circuit
Series Circuit
Required: Voltage (V)
 A circuit that consists of one loop is called a series
Solution: circuit.
Ohm’s Law V = I R
V = 44 Ω x 5
V = 220 V
___________________________________________________
Example 3 What will happen to the current if the resistance is
tripled? State the relationship of current and resistance based on
your answer.
V=IR
So originally 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅
If R is tripled then, 𝐼 = 𝑉/3𝑅
I = 1𝑉/3𝑅
Therefore, when resistance is tripled, the current is
reduced by one third. The result shows that when  If a series circuit is interrupted at any point in its single
resistance is increased at constant voltage, the loop, no current can flow through the circuit and no loads
current is reduced. in the circuit will work.
 Series circuits are commonly used in Christmas lights.
Properties of a Series Circuit
1. The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of all
resistances in the circuit. Total resistance is always greater than
the individual resistances in a series circuit.
2. The voltage source is equal to the sum of all voltage in each
load in a circuit.
3. The current is constant across each load.
4. It is difficult to identify the damaged bulb in the circuit.
____________________________________________
Parallel Circuit
 A circuit that has two or more loops is called a parallel
circuit.
 A simple parallel circuit diagram of two loops is shown in
figure 4.

 Figure 3 shows an example of an electric circuit diagram

in series connection.

There are three loads in the circuit with corresponding

resistances: R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Using the
properties of series connection, the total resistance (Rt) is
equal to the sum of R1, R2 and R3 or Rt = R1 + R2 + R3.
The total resistance is greater than R1, R2 and R3 or Rt >
R1, Rt > R2, Rt > R3. Each load has different voltage V1
for R1, V2 for R2 and V3 for R3. But the voltage source
(Vs) is equal to the sum of V1, V2 and V3 or Vs = V1 +  If one loop is interrupted, the current can still flow
V2 + V3. Since current is equal across each load, through the other loop.
therefore, It = I1=I2=I3.  A common example of parallel circuit is the connection of
electrical wirings at home.

Properties of a Parallel Circuit

1. The reciprocal of the total resistance in a parallel circuit is
the sum of the reciprocal of all resistances in the circuit. Total
resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in the
circuit.
2. There is only one voltage which is equal to a voltage source.
3. The total current is equal to the sum of all currents in each
load in a parallel circuit.
 Figure 4 shows an example of an electric circuit diagram
in parallel connection.

There are two loads in the circuit with corresponding

resistances, R1 and R2 respectively. Using the properties
of parallel connection, the total resistance Fig. 4 Parallel
connection with two light bulbs 11 (Rt) is always less
than the smallest resistance in the circuit. Each load has
different current I1 for R1 and I2 for R2. But the total
current (It) is equal to the sum of I1 and I2 or It = I1 + I2.
Since voltage is equal across each load, therefore, Vs =
V1=V2.

Since It = 𝑉𝑠/𝑅𝑡 , in a series circuit, the more load is added, the

total resistance increases at constant current. The load with
higher resistance has greater amount of voltage across it,
causing the load to convert more electrical energy to light and
heat.

Advantages of Using Series Connection

1. A series connection does not overheat easily.
2. In a series circuit, there is the only one path for the current to
flow from the voltage source to the different loads.
3. Since series circuit is less likely to overheat, there is no need
to use expensive, thick wires.

Disadvantages of Using Series Connection

1. If one of the light bulbs is damaged or removed in a series
connection, all other light bulbs in the circuit will not light too.
2. The addition of more light bulbs in series circuit causes a Advantages of Using Parallel Connection
decrease in the brightness of the bulbs. 1. All loads in parallel connection are directly connected to the
3. The loads in a series circuit are difficult to control voltage source.
individually.
2. In a parallel circuit, even if one of the light bulbs is damaged,
all other light bulbs will still function since the flow of current
is not entirely interrupted.
3. Individual load in a parallel circuit is easy to control. Each
load has a connecting wire for the current to flow, and each
may have its own switch.
4. All light bulbs and appliances at home are connected in
parallel.

Disadvantages of Using Parallel Connection

1. Overloading may happen if appliances are simultaneously
used at home. Consequently, overheating of wires takes place
which may lead to fire.
2. A parallel connection is difficult to install, maintain, and
repair since large volume of conducting wires is needed.
3. It requires the use of several conducting wires of varying
sizes.