Engineering Materials:

Composites
Abraham Cano
21.Dec.2020
 Outline
Composite Materials
•4.1 Introduction
•4.2 Materials reinforcement

•4.3 Materials for matrixes

•4.4 Mechanical response of uniaxial composites

•4.5 Electrical and thermal properties of composites

•4.6 Configurations of composites

•4.7 Failure in composites

•4.8 Recycling composites

•4.9 Composites for construction

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 4.1 Introduction

What are composite materials?

Are formed at least by two (or more) constituents, which
have different physical/chemical properties. Usually a
matrix and a filler. The individual components are usually
distinguishable.
Why to create composites?
Often to create synergy among constituents. To obtain a
material with different properties from the original
sources.

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 4.1 Introduction

Common Examples of composite materials

A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents that are combined
at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is called the reinforcing phase
and the one in which it is embedded is called the matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form
of fibers, particles or flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally continuous." Kaw, Autar
K. Mechanics of Composite Materials.Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis, 2006. Print. Page 2.

Alloys are not composites; however they can be

used as matrixes

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 4.1 Introduction
Hierarchical levels in the
Euplectella sponge skeleton

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 4.1 Introduction

Common Examples of composite materials

William D. Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction, 7th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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 4.2 Materials Reinforcement / 4.6 Configuration

Types of composite materials

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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Ceramic Matrix Composites

• Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), a subgroup of
composite materials, consist of ceramic fibres
embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic
fibre reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material.
• Matrix & fibres: any ceramic material.
• Made through vapour phase infiltration or deposition
techniques: chemical vapour infiltration (CVI), liquid
phase infiltration (LVI), and melt infiltration (MI).
• CVI: fabricate alumina-alumina CMCs
• LVI: to densify powder-metal skeletons.
• MI & RMI: Advanced ceramics. With RMI, the liquid or
vapour phase reacts to form a new phase or ceramic Interfacial interactions are important
material. to achieve proper load transfer and
• Carbon fibre@carbon matrixes or silicon carbide fibre desired performance.
@ SiC matrixes, for high temperature and ballistic
applications. Other fillers: Silicon carbide (SiC), silicon
platelets, tungsten particles, chromium particles,
alumina fibres, silicides, and aluminides. Matrix:
zirconium carbide, hafnium carbine, tantalum carbide,
alumina, zirconia, and glass ceramics.
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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Ceramic Matrix Composites

• CMC materials were designed to overcome the major disadvantages such as low fracture
toughness, brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance, faced by the traditional
technical ceramics.
• CMC are used in applications that require high strength, high temperature resistance,
armor or ballistic properties, and erosion or wear resistance.
• Examples: jet engines, rocket engines, internal combustion engines (automobiles), gas
turbines, process equipment, furnaces, refractory components, nuclear components,
spacecraft re-entry shielding, welding nozzles and tools, and brazing fixtures. Ceramic
matrix composites are also used in the replacement of superalloys.

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4.3 Materials for Matrixes

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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Metal Matrix Composites

• Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at least
two constituent parts – a metal and another material or a different metal. The
metal or alloy matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength
and wear. Where three or more constituent parts are present, it is called a
hybrid composite. In structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a
lighter metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high temperature
applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.

For applications that require fire resistance,

operation in a wide range of temperatures,
moisture rejection, electrical and thermal
conductivity, resistance to radiation
damage. MMCs do not suffer from
outgassing.

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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Metal Matrix Composites

• Typical MMC's manufacturing is basically divided into three types: solid, liquid, and vapour.
Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibres are some of the materials that can be
embedded in a metallic matrix material.

S. K. Thandalam, S. Ramanathan, S. Sundarrajan.

J. Mater. Res. Technol. 4 (2015) 333-347

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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes - MMCs

A gas-pressure infiltration system developed by

University of Alicante, Spain

M. Caccia et al. Wetting and Navier-Stokes Equation — The Manufacture of

Composite Materials. Chapter 5. INTECH Open, 2015 13
 4.3 Materials for Matrixes - MMCs

A squeeze-casting system by University of Alicante, Spain

M. Caccia et al. Wetting and Navier-Stokes Equation — The Manufacture of

Composite Materials. Chapter 5. INTECH Open, 2015 14
 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Materials for Matrixes

• Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) can be divided into three sub-types:
thermoset, thermoplastic, and rubber. A polymer is a macromolecule
composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical
bonds. PMCs consist of a polymer matrix combined with a fibrous
reinforcing dispersed phase. They are cheaper with easier fabrication
methods. PMCs are less dense than metals or ceramics, can resist
atmospheric and other forms of corrosion, and exhibit superior
resistance to the conduction of electrical current (insulating polymers).

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 4.3 Materials for Matrixes

Polymer composite materials

• GFRP. Fibreglass reinforced polymers
• CFRP. Carbon fibre reinforced polymers
• KFRP. Kevlar fibre reinforced polymers; Kevlar has a high density of
covalent bonding oriented along the fibres.
• Loaded polymers: mixtured with glass dust or silica.
• Wood: natural composite made of the amorphous lignine and celullose
fibres.

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Mechanical Properties
• Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or
the tendency of an object to deform along an axis
when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it
is defined as the ratio of tensile
stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to simply
as the elastic modulus.

• The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G)

describes an object's tendency to shear (the
deformation of shape at constant volume)
when acted upon by opposing forces; it is
defined as shear stress over shear strain.

• The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric

elasticity, or the tendency of an object to
deform in all directions when uniformly
loaded in all directions; it is defined
as volumetric stress over volumetric strain,
and is the inverse of compressibility. The bulk
modulus is an extension of Young's modulus
to three dimensions.
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 4.4 Mechanical response

Figure 3.5 Young’s modulus values for several materials (Ashby Vol. 1)

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 Shear modulus Bulk modulus

Young’s modulus

http://periodictable.com

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Mechanical Properties of Composites

Elastomers have
LOW Young’s modulus

Ahsby’s book (vol2) 20

 Elastic Moduli
4.4 Mechanical response
Young’s modulus
Material Shear modulus S Bulk modulus B
(tension–compression)Y
Aluminum 70 25 75
Bone – tension 16 80 8
Bone – compression 9
Brass 90 35 75
Brick 15
Concrete 20
Glass 70 20 30
Granite 45 20 45
Hair (human) 10
Hardwood 15 10
Iron, cast 100 40 90
Lead 16 5 50
Marble 60 20 70
Nylon 5
Polystyrene 3
Silk 6
Spider thread 3
Steel 210 80 130
Tendon 1
Acetone 0.7
Ethanol 0.9
Glycerin 4.5
Mercury 25
Water 2.2
http://archive.cnx.org/contents/6b3389a2-8dfd-44fa-a674-b2a1d4b3cbe6@1/derived-copy-of-elasticity-stress-and-strain
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 4.4 Mechanical response

Young’s Modulus in fibre composites

• Along the direction of the fibers:

• Across:
;

Where Vf is the fibre’s volume fraction

m – matrix
f - fibre

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Fiber composites - Modulus

Anisotropy

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Young’s Modulus

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Young’s modulus for chemical bonds

Theoretical Calculations
• Calculations on isolated, gas-phase molecules at 0 K;
semiempirical methods AM1 parametrization, ab initio
HartreeFock calculations with 3-21G*, 6-31G* basis sets,
and density functional B3LYP/6-31G* calculations using
Spartan. Hartree-Fock calculations may provide more
accurate bond length results than B3LYP. Calculations will
depend on the type and length of chemical structure:
inorganic or organic: ionic crystals, aminoacids,
nanotubes, etc.

Thomas Elder. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 3619-3627

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 Quantum Chemical Determination of Young’s Modulus of
Lignin. Calculations on a â-O-4¢ Model Compound
26

Thomas Elder. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 3619-3627

4.4 Mechanical response
 4.4 Mechanical response

Theoretical moduli in SWNTs

Elastic Properties of SWNTS

TABLE I. Experimental vs theoretical elastic

constants (Gpa) and elastic moduli (GPa/Ev) and
Poisson ratio for graphite

V. N. Popov, V. E. Van Doren, M. Balkanski. Phys. Rev. B 61 No. 4 (2000) 3078-3084

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 4.4 Mechanical response

Theoretical moduli in SWNTs

O.-K. Park, H. Choi, H. Jeong, Y. Jung, J. Yu, J.K. Lee, J.Y. Hwang, S.M. Kim, Y.
Jeong, C.R. Park, M. Endo, B.-C. Ku, High-modulus and strength carbon
nanotube fibers using molecular cross-linking, Carbon (2017),
doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2017.03.079.
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 4.4 Mechanical response

Experimental moduli in Carbon Nanotubes – Kataura Plots

• Kataura plots at different

wavelengths and tube
diameters. Energy gap can
be related to Young’s
modulus
• Such a plot gives the
resonance profile for the (n,
m)-specific SWNTs that have
the specified RBM
frequency
• Radial Breathing Mode in
SWNTs, DWNTs, TWNTs

http://www.photon.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~maruyama/kataura/kataura.html
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 4.4 Mechanical response

Experimental moduli in Carbon Nanostructures – Kataura Plots

• Dependance of RBM freq on SWNT diameter. Hooke (strain proportional

to stress) and Newton (2nd) laws + potential (internal) energy in an
elastic medium. k ω = (k/M)^0.5, where k is given by YV/R^2,
variation in nanotube radius (δR) can
be related to a one-dimensional strain
e along the radial direction r, which
stretches the graphene sheet in the
circumferential direction
• Spring constant: k ω = (k/M)^0.5, where k is given by YV/R^2

V – volume

M - mass of the cylinder

ρ = M/V – density

dt – tube diameter

A = 227 cm-1 nm, describes elastic behaviour of an isolated SWNT

(Y/ρ)^0.5 is the sound velocity for the longitudinal acoustic mode, νL = 21.4 km/s

n,m – chirality of nanotubes

Ado Jorio, Riichiro Saito, Gene Dresselhaus and

Mildred S. Dresselhaus. Raman Spectroscopy
in Graphene Related Systems, pp 218
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 4.4 Mechanical response

Experimental moduli in Carbon Nanostructures – Kataura Plots

(general case)

Ado Jorio, Riichiro Saito, Gene Dresselhaus and

Mildred S. Dresselhaus. Raman Spectroscopy
in Graphene Related Systems, pp 218 31
Stress In MWCNTs 4.4 Mechanical response

A B 561.4 nm

C
(a) SEM image of a carbon nanocone. (b)
Raman spectral image of a carbon
nanocone, built from the intensity of the G
band as a function of sample location. The
green pointers locate places where the G
band frequency was measured and used to
build the strain map drawn by the colored
squared symbols in (c), which colors
indicate the variations in ωG. The lower
the frequency (reddish points), the higher
the local strain.
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 4.7 Failure

Fibrous composites
• Failure: progressive, not
sudden.
• If fibres are aligned along the
direction of the load, stiffness
and strength, are roughly an
average of those of the matrix
and the fibres, weighted by
their volumen fractions.
• Upon fracture, fibres may pull-
out from the matrix (depending
on interactions)
• Long fibres are more efficient
than short ones
• Extrussion and molding How to make fibre composites (know how)
processes help to align fibres Where to use the different types of composites (market)
Properties

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 4.7 Failure

Failures

(Tensión)
(matriz
cede)

(Deformación)

Composites fail in compression by

kinking, at a load which is lower than
that for failure in tension

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 4.7 Failure

I. M. Daniel. Failure of Composite Materials. Strain (2007) 43, 4–12 35

 4.7 Failure

Tensile Tests on Individual Multi-Walled Boron Nitride Nanotubes

Xianlong Wei et al. Adv. Mater. 2010, 22, 4895–4899

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 4.7 Failure

Failure by chemical changes

• Hydroxyapatite is a material that conducts protons as low
as 200 ° C. This property could be used in the production of
an intermediate fuel cell. Operating between 200 °C to 300
° C would provide the advantages of the high and low
temperature fuel cell
http://www.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr09/keith/index.htm

Calcium HAP
10 Ca(OH)2 + 6 H3PO4 → Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 + 18 H2O http://blog.drwile.com/?p=3656
Calcium deficient HAP (component of bones and teeth)
9.6 Ca(NO3)2 + 6 (NH4)2HPO4 → Ca9.6(PO4)5.6(HPO4)0.4(OH)1.6

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• Main electrical properties: Volume resistivity, dielectric constant,
dielectric dissipation factor and dielectric loss factor. Effect of frequency
of the AC electric field, fibre content, fibre length, and surface
treatment are also studied.
• Use of composites as dielectrics due to non-conductive properties of
matrix and filler. Epoxides, polyesters, as part of insulating materials;
fibre reinforced composites for aircraft, automobile, chemical, medical
and electrical industries: switches, panels, insulators), terminals,
connectors, industrial and house hold plugs,printed circuit boards.
• Examples: phenol formaldehyde resin (as a matrix); pineapple fibre
reinforced polyethylene; sisal fibre reinforced low density polyethylene
composite, dielectric constant decreases with increase of fibre length
and AC frequency and with decrease in hydrophilicity, caused by
treatment with alkali, steric acid, peroxide, acetylation and
permanganate.
• Volume resistivity of composite decreases with frequency and fibre
loading.

D. Pathania and D. Singh. Int. J. Theoretical & Appl. Sci. 1 (2009) 34-37 38
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• Polymer interfaces work as charge carrier generation sites, also affecting
transport and storage.
• The physical structure of polymer composites in the solid or viscoelastic
state is also important when studying the dielectric behaviour.
• Electrical resistivity depends on moisture content, presence of
crystalline or amorphous domains, impurities, chemical composition,
structure, microfibre angle. Increasing moisture increases conductivity
in celullose fibres. Heat treatment and an increase in environmental
temperature decrease moisture content.
• Increase of dielectric constant with temperature is due to greater
freedom of movement of dipole molecular chain at high temperature.

D. Pathania and D. Singh. Int. J. Theoretical & Appl. Sci. 1 (2009) 34-37 39
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• The dielectric constant is also affected by orientation of the fibres; 90 °
oriented fibres tend to decrease it more than 0 ° degree oriented fibres,
probably due to increased surface area but also to rupture of electrical
percolation routes.
• If the filler has a higher dielectric constant than the matrix, the
dielectric constant of the composite is higher.
• Decrease of the dielectric constant with increasing frequency is due to
molecular mismatch. The rotational motion of polar molecules cannot
attain equilibrium with the AC varying field.

D. Pathania and D. Singh. Int. J. Theoretical & Appl. Sci. 1 (2009) 34-37 40
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• The dielectric constant increases with temperature due to greater
freedom of movement of dipole molecular chain at high temperature.
• The greater molecular dipole moment, the higher the dielectric
constant.
• The dielectric constant of polymeric materials depends on interfacial,
dipole, electronic and atomic polarization.

D. Pathania and D. Singh. Int. J. Theoretical & Appl. Sci. 1 (2009) 34-37 41
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• Volume resistivity (r):

• Dielectric dissipation factor:

D. Pathania and D. Singh. Int. J. Theoretical & Appl. Sci. 1 (2009) 34-37 42
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

• Percolation routes in non-conductive matrixes allow electrical and

thermal conduction. Study case: carbon nanotubes in polymer matrix.
• Factors that will affect percolation: type of CNTs, load (wt %), orientation,
chirality (for SWNTs), doping (nitrogen, phosphor).
• Percolation threshold: 0.01 – 1 wt % loading
• Chemical functionalization increases compatibility with the polymer
matrix thus promoting percolation
• Applying an electric field induces aligned SWCNT percolative columns
between electrodes. AC current more effective than DC by one order of
magnitude.

W. Bauhofer, J. Z. Kovacs. Compos. Sci. Technol. 69 (2009) 1486-1498 43

 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

(a) Room temperature electrical conductivity of poly(phenylene-ethynylene) PPE-

SWNTs/polystyrene composite vs the SWNT weight loading. Dashed lines represent
the approximate conductivity lower bound required for several electrical
applications. (b) RT conductivity of the PPE-SWNTs/ polystyrene composite as a
function of the reduced mass fraction of SWNTs.

W. Bauhofer, J. Z. Kovacs. Compos. Sci. Technol. 69 (2009) 1486-1498 44

Electrical Properties of Composites
(a) Thermal conductivity vs temperature for the pristine epoxy and
epoxy with 1 wt % SWNT loading. (b) Enhancement in the thermal
conductivity vs temperature for composites loaded with 1 wt %
SWNT and VGCF. The SWNT epoxy has a larger enhancement at all
temperatures

M. J. Biercuk et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, (2002) 2767 45

Electrical Properties of Composites

The specific conductivity of composites as function of

CNT weight percent.

P. Pisitsak, R. Magaraphan, S. C. Jana. J. Nanomat. (2012) 642080 (10pp)

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Composites

As-synthesized MWNTs

Nanocomposite (0.001 wt% CNTs) fracture surface

J.K.W. Sandler et al. Polymer 44 (2003) 5893–5899

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Thermal properties

Relationship to heat capacity

Newton pendulum of thermal conductivity

Crystalline material

Polymers

N. Burger et al. Prog. Polym. Sci. 61 (2016) 1 – 28

48
 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Thermal properties

Crystalline material

Polymers

A CNT surrounded by polymer

matrix. Phonon scattering wil
be promoted at defects, edges.

N. Burger et al. Prog. Polym. Sci. 61 (2016) 1 – 28

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Thermal properties
• Thermal conductivity – Debye equation

• Heat flow rate

• Related to the heat capacity of the material

By definition, the heat capacity is the amount of heat
that a material can store as a function of its volume or
the amount of heat required to increase its
temperature by 1◦C.

We can normalize by mass to characterize the material.

Relationship to heat capacity

N. Burger et al. Prog. Polym. Sci. 61 (2016) 1 – 28

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Additional References
• Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 2nd edition. Marc Meyers and Krishan Chawla. Cambridge University Press 2009

• Engineering Materials 2. An introduction to microstructures, processing and design. 2006, Michael Ashby, david R. H. Jones. Elsevier 2006.

• Images:
• https://farm5.static.flickr.com/4093/4769148711_40f8e74c35_b.jpg
• http://prensalibrepueblosoriginarios.blogspot.mx/2012/07/sistema-de-construccion-con-tierra.html
• https://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free-stock-photo-pebble-concrete-texture-image26559015
• http://www.addicted2decorating.com/mdf-vs-plywood-differences-pros-and-cons-and-when-to-use-what.html
• http://simulatemore.mscsoftware.com/lightweight-high-performance-composites-what-is-a-composite-material/
• http://www.kokch.kts.ru/me/t9/SIA_9_Composites.pdf
• http://wiki.dtonline.org/index.php/Young%27s_Modulus
• http://archive.cnx.org/contents/6b3389a2-8dfd-44fa-a674-b2a1d4b3cbe6@1/derived-copy-of-elasticity-stress-and-strain
• http://zoologyandstuff.tumblr.com/post/102701934841/euplectella-aspergillum-phylum-porifera-common
• https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/glass-sponge-euplectella-sp-0
• http://classes.mst.edu/civeng120/lessons/composite/materials/index.html
• https://blog.carbonfibergear.com/carbon-fiber-skis-from-audi/
• http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=9814
• http://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/materials_chemicals_adhesives/ceramics_glass_materials/ceramic_matrix_composites
• https://pics-about-space.com/columbia-astronaut-remains?p=2#
• http://www.cyd.conacyt.gob.mx/240/Articulos/MaterialesCompuestos/MaterialesCompuestos4.html
• http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/metal-matrix-composites-used-to-lighten-military-brake-drums
• http://www.tainstruments.com/applications-library-search/
• Wikipedia

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Solvents

http://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2012/04/27/pola
r-protic-polar-aprotic-nonpolar-all-about-solvents/

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 4.5 Electrical & Thermal Properties

Electrical Properties of Solvents

http://www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2012/04/27/pola
r-protic-polar-aprotic-nonpolar-all-about-solvents/
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