Electrical Fundamentals

Benefits of IEC-61850
 Reduced configuration costs from common
naming / addressing and automatic point configuration
 and retrieval.
 Equipment migrations occur with minimal
impact on applications.
 Application changes have minimal effect
on devices, network or other applications

50 setting - 1.3 times Though Fault Current = 1.3 x

Through Fault Current   (Note- 1.3 times for CT error,
Relay actuation, etc. etc.)

( Though
Fault Current in Transformer is calculated in the Secondary based on THE
'BOLTED SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT'  IN THE TRANSFORMER SECONDARY AND
THEN TRANSFER  THIS SECONDARY SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT IN
TO TRANSFORMER PRIMARY)  
=
 Fault MVA= (Transformer MVA / Transformer % Impedance). Assuming infinite
source Impedance.

 Through Fault current in the secondary =  Fault MVA / 1.732 / Secondary

Voltage,

 Fault current in the Primary = Transfer the Secondary Fault current in to

Primary,

 51 Setting -   IDMT CURVE OF THE 51 ELEMENT NEEDS TO BE

COORDINATED WITH IDMT CHARACTERISTIC OF THE DOWNSTREAM
SWITCHGEAR INCOMER CIRCUIT BREAKER.

 STANDBY E / Fault Relay NEEDS TO BE COORDINATED WITH some Time

Delay with respect to  IDMT CHARACTERISTIC OF THE DOWNSTREAM
SWITCHGEAR INCOMER CIRCUIT BREAKER.

 Differential Setting - Differential is a UNIT Protection. It is

usually Set at 10 % of Rated current, if there is more than
10 % difference between current entering and current
 leaving through two sets of differential CTs.  (Note- 10 %
for CT error, Relay actuation, etc. etc. )

 Motor Stalling Protection- Stalling Protection means if

Gearbox is Jammed, then it is equivalent to Blocked Rotor
Testing.

NOTE: - Transformer Differential shall be BIASED TYPE ONLY. Normally,

HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL is not used for Differential
Protection. HIGH IMPEDANCE is used only for Transformer REF

Protection .
 The first requirement is that all CTs should meet the MINIMUM
knee point voltage formula. For electronic relays that has an
additional "k" factor

Vkp >= k 2 Ifmax (Rct + Rl)

where k can be higher than 10 for some manufacturers (if they tell you what it is at all)

But the question is whether different Vkp, both above min Vkp is OK
The principle of Hi Z circulating current REF is that we want all CTs to perform exactly the same at all currents.
Hence they are class PX specified with a Turns Ratio instead of a Current Ratio.
Next is the Vkp
Next is the Excitation Current.

If the RATIO of Vkp/Ie is the same for these CTs then the slope of their excitation curves will
be very much the same and hence they will perform exactly the same at all currents
But if one has double the Vkp but half the Ie, then the slope of that compared to the other CT is 4 times and hence there is a big
differential in performance which may lead to instability for through faults.

SAFOP (Electrical Safety and Operability Study)

-Comprises three components:    

1. SAFAN - (Safety Analysis) identification of hazards to personnel in the vicinity

of electrical systems. – Electrical Equipment Flashover / Hazard.
2. SYSOP (System Operability) critical assessment of electrical network and
plant design- Hardware / Control System failure.
3. OPTAN (Operational Task Analysis) analysis of operator actions to determine
areas of potential operator error- Human Error.
HAZID, SAFOP, LOPA, Risk assessments, Risk analyses, ALARP
studies, According to the following standards;
: - IEC 61511, NORSOK Z-013, NORSOK S-001,DNV RP
F107, H101, ISO 31000.

ELECTRICAL QUERIES:-
1.
What is the PMS Scanning Time and
Response Time :-
(Response time < 100ms). Fast Load Shedding when
power supply sources are lost (Response time <
100ms). Normally, it is 80 Ms + 40 Ms= 120 ms.

2. In Transient Stability System Study, If there

is Under voltage in one of the switchboards-
60 % under voltage for 80
millisecond ( i.e. 4 cycles), what
is the interpretation ? How can
we overcome this situation?
During System Disturbances (i.e.  Load Shedding due to Generator-Trip/
_3-psase Fault / Load Rejection), there will be under voltage in one of
the switchboards- 60 % under voltage for 80 millisecond.  We need to
set the Timer accordingly to overcome this under voltage dip during
transient condition. This is part of Transient Stability Study.

3. Shell DEP specifies for Low Voltage

System shall be rated 630 Volt in lieu of
400 Volt Switchboard, what is the specific
Advantage we will have :-
Less ARC Flash Energy. Hence, in terms of Safety, it
is safer. More Advantage- Fault Level is less with
low Starting Current for Motors.
 1. In protection system, where we will use ANSI-67 Relay :-

In case of upstream 11 kV switchgear in Offshore:-, if Bus-coupler

is closed and two incomers are closed, this is application of
Directional Relay, which will trip One Incomer nearest to the Fault,
before other remote incomer is tripped.

Reason is :- Both Incomers shall feed the fault, and the remotest
Incomer-relay  will back-feed the Fault, hence we should trip the
only one incomer nearest to the Fault, before the remote incomer is
tripped, with Bus coupler being closed, if there exists Bus-Coupler.

4. What are the Main Functions of PMS:-  

I. Monitoring and Control of all Incomer and Outgoing Feeder Breakers.

II. Load Shedding- Under frequency based Load Shedding:-Dynamic Load
Shedding, Proactive Load Shedding.
III. Load Sharing – Reactive Power Thru’ AVR, Active Power through
Governor, upon which PMS will be acting upon.
IV. On line Spinning Reserve Calculation. Calculation on, if Sufficient
Power is available to Start the Motor Starting KVA, or, to load a
Transformer.
V. AVR Raise / Lower, OLTC Raise / Lower.
ABB PMS system gives the following:-

 Fast load shedding when power supply sources are lost (response time < 100ms)
 Slow load shedding during overload (peak saving)
 Active and reactive power control
 Synchronization
 Re-acceleration and re-starting
 Generator and turbine control with integration of excitation and governor controller
 Transformer and tap changer control
 Circuit breaker control with integration of protection relays
  SCADA functionality including:
- Time tagged events (1 ms accuracy)
- Intelligent alarm filtering
- Consistency analysis
- Disturbance data analysis
5. What are the Disadvantages / Advantages of High
Impedance and Low Impedance Bus-bar Protection Relay
in EHV system: -

High Impedance has more Stability than Low Impedance Relay. But,
CT switching / CT mismatch problems, which is not there in case of
low Impedance Relays.

6. Why it is called High Impedance: -

The high impedance type differential protection is stable for all types of
faults outside the zone of protection. The stabilization is obtained by a
resistor in the differential circuit.
In SPAE 010 and SPAE 011 the stabilizing resistor is included in the
relay and is in series with the measuring transformer . This gives the
name of the protection system, i.e. a high impedance type protection.

It gives High Impedance to External Through Faults, so that it remains

stable during External Through Faults, through Stabilizing Resistors.

What SHELL-DEP specifies for High Impedance/ Low Impedance Relay:-

If there exists CT mismatching in  Bus-bar Protection Relay, what is the

best Solution Bus-bar Protection Relay :- Low Impedance Bus-Bur
Protection Relay,  CT switching is not there in the system, CT accuracy
Class does not matter.

What is the difference in the Interpretation of FRLS and Fire Resistant Cable?

IEC 331 and IEC-332:- Low Oxygen index

 Fire Resistant: - Low Oxygen index may allow having flames, but
will not allow cables to continue with FIRE. This is more Stringent,
used for Major Life Saving Electrically Driven Emergency Loads i.e.
EDG Sets, Fire Water Pumps, LUB –Oil Pumps, etc.

FRLS: - IEC-331 – It will retard the Flames, but may continue to be damaged under fire,
but low smokes – which can be suffocating to choke the operators.

7.  Can we Mix and Match T3 motors and T6 class Motors: -

T6 is more Stringent; T3-200 Deg.C is less
Stringent. T6 can be interchanged at the
location of T3, as T6 is more Stringent in
terms of Surface Temperatures, but, not
the other way round.

8. What is the International Standard for SAFOP / E-Hazop?

:-

IEC 61882 - HAZOP and Operability Studies (HAZOP studies) – Application Guide,

 NORSOK Z-013, NORSOK S-001

 DNV RP F107, H101.

eHAZOP, often referred to as SAFOP or an Electrical Safety Review (ESR) , is a series

of studies that can be used during the various phases of a Power Electrical
Engineering Project. These studies are applied to assist in achieving objectives that
include:

 Optimizing the reliability, security, safety and operability of the

design to best meet plant/facility objectives
 Identifying major hazards to different personnel in construction,
commissioning and operation of high voltage installations
 Facilitate organizational learning by providing a structured process
to embed prior learnings and experiences in the design

9.  If in a workshop, there is any Electrical Shock in any

Motors , What Type of Drawing you will ask for
Investigation:- Is it GA drawing ?;-
 If there is RCD with 30 mA setting, this needs to be checked.
 STEP and Touch Potential to be measured.
 GA drawing of the Equipment to be Examined.
 Hazardous Area Classification Drawings.
 10. If there is 2.2 MW Hydrocarbon Compressors /
Pumps: - EX-P motor to be used.

11.  If there is GRID connection, what type

of Specific Relay we should use for
SYNCHRONIZING with GRID: -

 Pole slip protection should be used for generators in parallel

with a power grid. This protection is provided to protect the
generator against loss of stability during system power swings.

 For Grid Fault :- Directional O/C and Directional Earth Fault, so

That NO Grid Disturbance cannot travel in reverse direction to
your own Power Generation and Power Distribution System.
 For Stability :-POLE SLIP Relay-ANSI -78 protection ( for
Generator Rotor Angle-Stability) :_ Either POLE SLIP Relay should
be used for generators operating in an islanded group (rated
over 50 MW) or Genrators in parallel with a power grid.

 During synchronization, it might be possible to have the

synchroscope rotating in the Slow direction (anti-clockwise) and
then close the breaker. Under this condition, the generator would
then be drawing a small amount of current from the grid instead of
supplying a small amount of current to the grid (which occurs when
the breaker is closed with the synchroscope rotates in the Fast
(clockwise) direction).

I have seen some prime mover control systems (and exciter

regulator control systems and synchronizers) that try to increase
load slightly as soon as the generator breaker is closed.
Note - The first click is the Synch Check relays picking up and should occur as the synch scope
needle is approaching the 11 o'clock position (approximately). The second click is the Auto
Synch breaker close relay picking up and should occur just before the 12 o'clock position. The
third click is the Auto Synch breaker close relay dropping out and should occur at or just very
slight after the 12 o'clock position. And the fourth click is the Synch Check relay dropping out
and should occur at about the 12:30 o'clock position .

Note: - Loss of Mains Protection: - Loss of Mains (LoM) Protection is designed to sense when
the generator, and any local loads, have become disconnected from the main grid system that
is to say, when an island has been created.

Normal forms of Loss of Mains protection for G59 sized systems are:
1. Rate of Change of Frequency – usually referred to by the terms RoCoF or dF/dT
2. Voltage Vector Shift – usually referred to by the term dV.

NOTE :_ ROCOF is normally not used nowadays due to low

Reliability.
When an island occurs, there is usually an imbalance between the generator output and local
captive load. The generator will therefore speed up or slow down. This causes a change of
frequency. The change of frequency can be detected by a Rate of Change of Frequency relay
(RoCoF or dF/dT). Settings of the relay required depend upon the relative size of generation,
captive load and system inertia. The first two items are difficult to quantify. A typical setting is
0.15 Hz/second. Another possibility is that there is a mechanical synch check relay in series
with the Mark V breaker close contacts that isn't closing as fast as the Mark V--which is another
way of saying, there's another permissive/contact in the generator breaker closing circuit that
isn't "making up" (closing). You might try manually slowing the turbine by clicking on LOAD
LOWER.

12. What is the Worst Condition in Short-Circuit :-

 Short circuit ratings will be based on the maximum contribution

from one GTG with Parallel EDG/
 Or, Max. Contribution from all Generators running together.
 Single Ended Substation:-Switchboard single ended operation
taking account of the maximum motor contribution with bus-ties
closed.

1. What are the Typical Deliverable List in FEED :-

 Basis Of Design (BOD), KEY SLD, Each SUBSTATION SLD.

 Electrical Load List with Diversity Factors (Preliminary) with
Continuous Loads, Intermitted Loads, Essential loads, Vital Loads,
Diversity Factors depending on the operating duty of the individual
loads.
 Cable Sizing Philosophy.
  PMS Operation Philosophy.
 Protection Philosophy.
 All Equipment Specification and Data Sheet.
 Protection and Metering Diagram for Each of the Voltage Levels.
 ATS scheme Diagrams for LV and MV switchboards.
 Electrical Power Cable Layout.
 Power Generating Operation philosophy.
 Plant Operation Philosophy.
 LV.MV, HV cable Sizing for various feeder and motor feeders.
 Substation Equipment layouts for Individual Substations.
 Earthing, Lighting. Lightning layout for various areas.
 Bid Evaluation for each of the Electrical Packages including EHV/
HV/ MV/LV Substation Packages, PMS, etc.
 FEED Class-3 Cost Estimates + 10 % based on above

13. Why VSD operated Motor Feeders can not have Transformer-Differential
protection:

Reason is that there will be always Vector Imbalance between VSD

Transformer Primary and VSD Transformer two Secondary Circuits,
which are PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS?

14. What is your best Achievement in WORK FRONT :-

Working with the Electrical peers, staff and vendors, assessing their
performance, influencing them to achieve laid down standards, and
meet the Project agreed schedule. Identify, share and apply best
practices.
 Emergency Evacuation Process- in OFFSHORE

Emergency Evacuation Process- in OFFSHORE-

Gas leakage - In the event of Gas leakage in OFFSHORE PLATFORM, FIRE and GAS Detection System
signals to ESD ( Emergency Shutdown System) and ESD ( Note- ESD is always in FAIL_SAFE MODE)
sends the Trip Signal to Trip Coil of all the operating Breakers and Trips the System.

After 24 hours (or, while there is no GAS LEAKAGE, as identified), operators come back to the platform and
do the following jobs:-

In Emergency DG Panel, there is a provision of ESD

bypass switch. By operating ESD bypass switch, we can
bypass -ESD operated Tripping Command and reset all
the Substation Breakers.

Then Start the Fuel Oil Pump, GTG LUB Oil Pumps,
Instrument Air compressors and all other GTG Auxiliary
Loads and Essential loads, plus Living Quarters +
Drinking Water Supply as itemized in the Essential Load
list .

PMS

PMS- A microprocessor based Power Management System (PMS) will be

provided. The functionality of the PMS system shall incorporate the
following:

 Monitoring and control of the main generation and distribution system.

 Synchronizing.
 Automatic load sharing.
 Load shedding.

The PMS will be purchased from a proprietary supplier with a proven track record of
supplying PMS software and hardware packages . The PMS will be housed
within the Power Management Panel (PMP) located in the HV Switch room.
Generator Isochronous Mode – Constant Speed /
Frequency. It is pragmatic enough to keep 04 GTGs in
Droop mode, and one GTG in Isochronous Mode.

Note- If all 05 nos. GTGs are in Isochronous mode, all of the GTGs will be
dancing with the load changes.

ALL GTGs are to be kept under Base Load with 4% Droop;

with one GTG unit is Isochronous Mode – with Constant Speed /
Frequency mode.

This is to avoid all generators dancing with the Frequency. Ultimately,

PMS will take over the control on Generator.

While load increases on Generator, frequency will drop and get reduced to
47 Hz. say.

Then PMS will control both of the AVR (voltage control) and Governor
(frequency Control) and shift its operating characteristics corresponding to
its present existing load to bring down the droop in to 4 % and thereby
stabilizing the system smoothly.

Note - WE SET DROOP, but, we do not set FREQUENCY.

ALL GTGs are to be kept with 4% Droop, with one GTG

unit is Isochronous Mode.
Droop mode operation:-
Generally I must admit that I am a big fan of droop mode operation, advantages being as you described them.
Many tend to appreciate the isochronous mode due to its advantages in returning to nominal frequency .

There are several ways around this, in order to get the best out of two worlds. How to implement them is of
course highly dependant several issues.

One can for example use temporary droop control with a correctional control loop for returning to nominal
frequency. One can also implement a Power Management System (PMS) which is basically a superior control
system coordinating turbine control and load shedding.

REACCELERATION SCHEME for Motors

Reacceleration Scheme is always implemented in a batch of Group Motors.

1. REACCELERATION SCHEME for Motors as a temporary consequence of LOAD

SHEDDING (Under voltage).
Or,
2. REACCELERATION SCHEME for Motors as a temporary consequence of any
fault in the system, but cleared by protection system.

1. Case- 1 - While LOAD SHEDDING takes place, that means LOAD had increased
earlier beyond Generation Capacity. (Say, Generation Capacity-30 MW).

Now load demand is 35 MW, then 5 MW loads are to be SHED, then thru’ PMS /
df /dt ROCOF motor protection relays, additional 5 MW loads need to be shed.

While Load has increased, frequency has dropped drastically prompting to

Automatic LOAD SHEDDING.

Since, frequency has dropped; speed of the Prime Mover controlled via
Governor (as well as Generator Speed) is being dropped drastically.
Hence, sudden Voltage Drop will be there in the system during the Initial Phase
of LOAD SHEDDING.

 In 11 kV systems ( Generator AVR - HV motors will be specified

for direct on-line starting with 80% rated voltage at motor
terminals, recovering to 95% volts within 2secs for the remainder
of the acceleration period to account for main generator AVR
action ).
 Till such time there will be Temporary Voltage Drop in the system.

2. Case- II - Say, there is a fault in 11 kV bus bar and then Bus- section will be isolated and fault
is being cleared.

However, during this fault (until it gets cleared - up to 60-80 millisecond) , till such time
there will be Temporary Voltage Drop in the system.
 Electrical Queries- valid and good one

1. For Re-acceleration scheme application, what exactly additional device/ component is required?

Answer - - Is it two sets of Timers plus “Capacitors across Contactors”?

Note- Nowadays, same is achieved thru’ SOFTWARE along with HARDWARE back -up relays.

2. What is the corresponding standard to IEC-60079? What does it call for?

Answer - NFPA- 70.

3. Function of Static Switch in UPS? -

Answer - -- Transferring the Loads in to another Parallel UPS / Manual By-pass one.

4. VSD application for very large synchronous motor, motor derating required only due to harmonics, or, not?
If yes, why?

Answer - -- SIEMENS (PERFECT HARMONY DRIVE drives), do not derate the Motors due to Harmonics.
Siemens produce Typical Sinusoidal Waves.

Only we can take one higher FRAME SIZE than the standard Frame size due to dv/ dt.

(i.e. this is due to the possibility of high voltage stress due to dv/ dt, which may be resulting insulation failure
of the windings).

5. Advantage of Profibus? -

Answer - Profibus is another protocol Language like MODBUS.

All relays are interconnected in DCU (DATA CONCENTRATOR Units) and all DCUs are connected to DCS
(Distributed Control System).

In terms of Profibus: - DCS (Distributed Control System) is the Master. DCU (DATA CONCENTRATOR Units are
the slave.

Relays con not communicate to Profibus Directly.

You can control Entire Substation through Only One Profibus.

Note-

1. Relays cannot communicate to Profibus directly. Hence, it has to communicate via DATA
CONCENTRATOR UNITS and then VIA Profibus communicate to DCS level .

In terms of Profibus: - DCS (Distributed Control System) is the Master. DCU (DATA CONCENTRATOR
Units are the slave.

6. HV Circuit breaker tripped on Overload, what may be the probable reason as per check-lists is

concerned? -
Answer - OVERLOAD takes place in motors.

There are three Types of Feeders -

 Transformer FEEDER (overload may be there in Transformer loading, 110 % for one minute is
already there in the design). Note- Magnetic Inrush will be taken care via 50-Instantaneous
Element.
 Outgoing feeders to Switchgear (w/ o Transformer) - Feeder from one Breaker to another
Incomer Breaker in the same Voltage Levels.
 Motor Feeders- Overload can exist in case of Compressors / Pumps / ID & FD Fans, etc.
TRANSFORMER - HIGH SET ELEMENT

• SET AT 130% OF THE TRANSFORMER MAXIMUM THROUGH

FAULT CURRENT
• THIS ASSUMES THE RELAY INCORPORATES A FACILITY
KNOWN AS ‘LOW TRANSIENT OVERREACH’
• THIS FACILITY IS NORMAL ON ELECTRONIC RELAY TYPES
BUT NOT ALWAYS PROVIDED ON RELAYS OF THE
ELECTROMECHANICAL TYPE
• LOW TRANSIENT OVERREACH IS THE ABILITY TO IGNORE
THE DC COMPONENT IN THE INITIAL SHORT CIRCUIT
WAVEFORM ALLOWING THE RELAY TO BE SET BASED ON
THE AC COMPONENT ALONE

Discrimination by Time/Current
• Combined Inverse and definite time delay relay
• Known as I.D.M.T. curve
• Grades well with damage curves & HRC Fuses
• Available as Induction disc or Electronic relays
• Curves are mathematically defined in BS142 / IEC255
HAZARDOUS AREA DEFINITIONS AS PER NFPA-70

TABLE 505.9(C)(2)(4) Types of Protection Designation

Designation Technique Zone*
d db e eb ia ib Flameproof enclosure Flameproof 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 Unclassified**
ic [ia] [ib] [ic] enclosure Increased safety Unclassified** Unclassified**
m ma mb nA Increased safety Intrinsic safety 101222222111111
nAc nC nCc Intrinsic safety Intrinsic safety 2211
nR nRc o ob Associated apparatus Associated
px pxb py pyb apparatus Associated apparatus
pz pzc q qb Encapsulation Encapsulation
Encapsulation Nonsparking
equipment Nonsparking equipment
Sparking equipment in which the
contacts are suitably protected
other than by restricted breathing
enclosure Sparking equipment in
which the contacts are suitably
protected other than by restricted
breathing enclosure Restricted
breathing enclosure Restricted
breathing enclosure Oil
immersion Oil immersion
Pressurization Pressurization
Pressurization Pressurization
Pressurization Pressurization
Powder filled Powder filled

*Does not address use where a combination of techniques is used. **Associated

apparatus is permitted to be installed in a hazardous (classified) location if suitably
protected using another type of protec-tion.

1. Increased Safety “e.” Type of protection applied to electrical equipment that does not produce arcs or
sparks in normal service and under specified abnormal conditions, in which additional measures
are applied so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive temperatures and
of the occurrence of arcs and sparks.
2. Type of Protection “n.” Type of protection where electrical
equipment, in normal operation, is not capable of igniting
a surrounding explosive gas atmosphere and a fault
capable of causing ignition is not likely to occur.

3. Intrinsic Safety “i.” Type of protection where any spark or

thermal effect is incapable of causing ignition of a mixture
of flammable or combustible material in air under prescribed
test conditions.

4. Unclassified Locations. Locations determined to be neither

Class I, Division 1; Class I, Division 2; Class I, Zone 0;
Zone 1; Zone 2; Class II, Division 1; Class II, Division 2;
Class III, Division 1; Class III, Division 2; or any combination thereof.

5. Intrinsic Safety “i.” Type of protection where any spark or

Thermal effect is incapable of causing ignition of a mixture
of flammable or combustible material in air under prescribed
test conditions.

Informational Note No. 1: See ANSI/UL 913-1997, Intrinsically

Safe Apparatus and Associated Apparatus for Use in
Class I, II, and III, Hazardous Locations; ANSI/ISA-60079-
11 (12.02.01)-2009, Explosive Atmospheres, Part 11:
Equipment protection by intrinsic safety “i”; and ANSI/UL
60079-11, Explosive Atmospheres, Part 11: Equipment protection
by intrinsic safety “i.”

Informational Note No. 2: Intrinsic safety is designated

type of protection “ia” for use in Zone 0 locations. Intrinsic
safety is designated type of protection “ib” for use in Zone 1
locations. Intrinsic safety is designated type of protection
“ic” for use in Zone 2 locations.
Informational Note No. 3: Intrinsically safe associated apparatus,
designated by [ia], [ib], or [ic], is connected to intrinsically
safe apparatus (“ia,” “ib,” or “ic,” respectively)
but is located outside the hazardous (classified) location unless
also protected by another type of protection (such as
flameproof).

6. Oil Immersion “o.” Type of protection where electrical equipment is immersed in a protective
liquid in such a way that an explosive atmosphere that may be above the liquid or outside the
enclosure cannot be ignited. Informational Note: See ANSI/ISA-60079-6 (12.00.05)- 2009,
Explosive Atmospheres, Part 6: Equipment protection
by oil immersion “o”; and ANSI/UL 60079-6, Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas
Atmospheres — Part 6: Oil-Immersion “o.”

7. Powder Filling “q.” Type of protection where electrical

parts capable of igniting an explosive atmosphere are fixed
in position and completely surrounded by filling material
(glass or quartz powder) to prevent the ignition of an external
 explosive atmosphere.
Informational Note: See ANSI/ISA-60079-5 (12.00.04)-
2009, Explosive Atmospheres, Part 5: Equipment protection
by powder filling “q”; and ANSI/UL 60079-5, Electrical
Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres — Part 5: Powder
Filling “q.”

8. Pressurization “p.” Type of protection for electrical equipment

that uses the technique of guarding against the ingress of the
external atmosphere, which may be explosive, into an enclosure
by maintaining a protective gas therein at a pressure above that of
the external atmosphere.

Group IIC. Atmospheres containing acetylene, hydrogen, or flammable gas, flammable liquid–produced vapor,
or, combustible liquid–produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode, having either a maximum
experimental safe gap (MESG) value less than or equal to 0.50 mm or minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio)
less than or equal to 0.45. [497:3.3.5.2.1].

Informational Note: Group IIC is equivalent to a combination of Class I, Group A, and Class I, Group B, as
described in 500.6(A)(1) and (A)(2).

(B) Group IIB. Atmospheres containing acetaldehyde,

ethylene, or flammable gas, flammable liquid–produced
vapor, or combustible liquid–produced vapor mixed with air
that may burn or explode, having either maximum experimental
safe gap (MESG) values greater than 0.50 mm and
less than or equal to 0.90 mm or minimum igniting current
ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.45 and less than or equal to
0.80. [497:3.3.5.2.2]
Informational Note: Group IIB is equivalent to Class I,
Group C, as described in 500.6(A)(3).

(C) Group IIA. Atmospheres containing acetone, ammonia,

ethyl alcohol, gasoline, methane, propane, or flammable
gas, flammable liquid–produced vapor, or combustible liquid–
produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode,
having either a maximum experimental safe gap
(MESG) value greater than 0.90 mm or minimum igniting
current ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.80. [497:3.3.5.2.3]
Informational Note: Group IIA is equivalent to Class I,
Group D as described in 500.6(A)(4).
TABLE 505.9(C)(2)(4) Types of Protection Designation
Designation Technique Zone*
d Flameproof enclosure 1
db Flameproof enclosure 1
e Increased safety 1
eb Increased safety 1
ia Intrinsic safety 0
ib Intrinsic safety 1
ic Intrinsic safety 2
[ia] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
[ib] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
[ic] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
m Encapsulation 1
ma Encapsulation 0
mb Encapsulation 1
nA Nonsparking equipment 2
nAc Nonsparking equipment 2
nC Sparking equipment in which
the contacts are suitably
protected other than by
restricted breathing enclosure
2
nCc Sparking equipment in which
the contacts are suitably
protected other than by
restricted breathing enclosure
2
nR Restricted breathing enclosure 2
nRc Restricted breathing enclosure 2
o Oil immersion 1
ob Oil immersion 1
px Pressurization 1
pxb Pressurization 1
py Pressurization 1
pyb Pressurization 1
pz Pressurization 2
pzc Pressurization 2
q Powder filled 1
qb Powder filled 1
*Does not address use where a combination of techniques is used.
**Associated apparatus is permitted to be installed in a hazardous
(classified) location if suitably protected using another type of protection

Informational Note No. 1: An example of the required marking for intrinsically safe apparatus for installation in
Class I, Zone 0 is “Class I, Zone 0, AEx ia IIC T6.”

An explanation of the marking that is required is shown in Informational

Note Figure 505.9(C)(2). Area classification Symbol for equipment built to American Standards.
Type(s) of protection designation, Temperature classification
Example: Class I Zone 0 AEx ia IIC T6.

Gas classification group (not required for protection techniques indicated in 505.6, Informational Note No. 2).

INFORMATIONAL NOTE FIGURE 505.9(C)(2) Zone, Equipment Marking.

Exception No. 1: Associated apparatus NOT suitable for installation in a hazardous (classified) location shall be
required to be marked only with (3), (4), and (5), but BOTH the symbol AEx (3) and the symbol for the type of
protection (4) shall be enclosed within the same square brackets, for
example, [AEx ia] IIC.

Exception No. 2: Simple apparatus as defined in 504.2

shall not be required to have a marked operating temperature
or temperature class.
Electrical equipment of types of protection “e,” “m,”
“ma,” “mb,” “px,” “py,” “pz,” or “q” shall be marked Group
II. Electrical equipment of types of protection “d,” “ia,” “ib,”

TABLE 505.9(C)(2)(4) Types of Protection Designation

Designation Technique Zone*
d Flameproof enclosure 1
db Flameproof enclosure 1
e Increased safety 1
eb Increased safety 1
ia Intrinsic safety 0
ib Intrinsic safety 1
ic Intrinsic safety 2
[ia] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
[ib] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
[ic] Associated apparatus Unclassified**
m Encapsulation 1
ma Encapsulation 0
mb Encapsulation 1
nA Nonsparking equipment 2
nAc Nonsparking equipment 2
nC Sparking equipment in which
the contacts are suitably
protected other than by
restricted breathing enclosure
2
nCc Sparking equipment in which
the contacts are suitably
protected other than by
restricted breathing enclosure
2
nR Restricted breathing enclosure 2
nRc Restricted breathing enclosure 2
o Oil immersion 1
ob Oil immersion 1
px Pressurization 1
pxb Pressurization 1
py Pressurization 1
pyb Pressurization 1
pz Pressurization 2
pzc Pressurization 2
q Powder filled 1
qb Powder filled 1
*Does not address use where a combination of techniques is used.
**Associated apparatus is permitted to be installed in a hazardous
(classified) location if suitably protected using another type of protection.
Informational Note No. 2: An example of the required
marking for intrinsically safe associated apparatus mounted
in a flameproof enclosure for installation in Class I, Zone 1
is “Class I, Zone 1 AEx d[ia] IIC T4.”
Informational Note No. 3: An example of the required
marking for intrinsically safe associated apparatus NOT for
installation in a hazardous (classified) location is “[AEx ia]
IIC.”
Informational Note No. 4: The EPL (or equipment protection
level) may appear in the product marking. EPLs are
designated as G for gas, D for dust, or M for mining and are
then followed by a letter (a, b, or c) to give the user a better
understanding as to whether the equipment provides either
(a) a “very high,” (b) a “high,” or (c) an “enhanced” level of
protection against ignition of an explosive atmosphere. For
example, an AEx d IIC T4 motor (which is suitable by protection
concept for application in Zone 1) may additionally
be marked with an EPL of “Gb” to indicate that it was provided
with a high level of protection, such as AEx d IIC T4
Gb.
Informational Note No. 5: Equipment installed outside a
Zone 0 location, electrically connected to equipment located
inside a Zone 0 location, may be marked Class I, Zone 0/1.
The “/” indicates that equipment contains a separation element
and can be installed at the boundary between a Zone 0
and a.
OBSERVATIONS / SUGGESTIONS ON THE PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY

1. Clause 4.2 second paragraph – Recommend to please add to the following specific Protection feature available in 132
kV GIS Schemes-

Based on the two discrete pressure switch set points in the GIS breaker compartment, the loss of SF6 will
initiate two stage alarms, while in the event of second stage alarm the GIS safety protection system will block
the opening of the breaker ensuring to prevent damage to the switchgear and injury to the operating personnel
(if any, in the switch room). Subsequently, Circuit Breaker Fail philosophy after a preset time-delay and also bus-
differential will activate tripping of all the breakers connected to the particular bus bars (front / rear,
whichever in selection) feeding to the faulty stuck-up breaker and also open up the bus-coupler, if closed.
Thus, in the event of very fast and severe SF6 leakage from any of the bus bar, while SF6 gas pressure Ist stage low
alarm is unattended by the operator, breaker tripping shall be blocked for safety of the equipment and personnel.

2. Clause 5.4 – Variable Grading Margin needs to added as below-

 Sufficient discrimination margin exists between upstream protective devices to allow for relay and CT
errors. The grading interval between inverse time relays and downstream fuses is considered 150-160 m.
Sec. for 3 phase fault based on formula: t' = 0.4t + 150 msec., t = nominal operating time of fuse, which
should be less than 10 msec. (in current limit mode).

 Inverse time relays have been allowed to have operating times down to 150 msec .

 Grading between fuses in series has been confirmed from manufacturer's data whereby the total operating I2t of
the smaller fuse is less than the pre-arcing I2t of the larger fuse. Closer grading than given by a 2:1 ratio between
larger and smaller fuses has generally not been permitted.

 Phase overcurrent protection on the primary side of step-down transformers has been set to pick up in the range
105% - 115% of transformer rated current in order to provide overload protection. The transformers are assumed
to be on full-load (i.e. 100% rated load) and it is recommended that they are not run overloaded.

 Time grading discrimination margin between two Over current relays and also between Over current
relays and other devices shall be as per following :-

Relay To Relay / MCCB / Fuse -

Inverse Time - 250 msec.

Instantaneous - 150 msec.

Low Set Short Circuit Protection - - 150 msec.

High Set Short Circuit Protection- Not considered in order

discriminating with downstream fuses.

MCCB Overload Protection -500 msec.

  Current Grading discrimination Margin-

Relay to Relay -1% of Upstream CT.

Relay to Fuse -5 % of CT.

 Discrimination (Earth Fault) :

Relay to Relay - 150 msec.

Operating Current of upstream device ≥ - 2 x Operating Current of downstream device.

Operating Time of upstream device ≥ - Operating Time of downstream device.

Dedicated Earth Fault protection with 0.5 Sec. operating time

has been provided at 690 V outgoing circuits for motors above
30 KW (whereas motor feeders up to 30 kW are being
provided with Overcurrent Protection only).

For the 400 Volt, distribution Boards, RCD is

provided with earth fault protection for all

outgoing 3 phase and single-phase loads (i.e.

socket outlets).
3. Note- Critical Clearance Time needs to be addressed ( i.e. this has to safely maintain well

above the fault clearing times of that particular switchgear voltage level, after all grading

margin being calculated upwards starting from the most furthest downstream devices).

4. Clause. 6.2 – Main Generator – Loss Of Field Protection (40) and Out Of Step Protection (78) – Need to be
revisited in line with IEEE.

5. Clause 6.7 – Induction Motor Protection

 Motor Under voltage Protection is part of Multifunction relays. This feature may not be required.
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection- Pl add / edit as per the following

During Single Phasing in the motor circuit, unbalanced current generate

Negative Phase sequence (which is Double-Frequency Rotor current) and
thereby causing huge heat losses due to high amount of core losses (i.e.
hysteresis & eddy current losses).
6. Clause 6.8 – Variable Speed Drive protection
Converter Unit Transformer and Variable Speed Drive motor protection- following needs to be addressed.

ASD driven motors and converter unit transformer protection do not have Unit
protections like Differential and REF Protection.
All typical feeder IDMT over current and feeder IDMT earth fault protection
elements shall be the main protection scheme, to cover up the Over current &
Earth Fault protection of the motor and transformer windings.

7. Clause 6.6 - recommend to please add to the following specific Protection feature
Low impedance Bus-bar zone protection -Following major features are adhered to, while selecting the Bus-bar zone
protection -
 Differential scheme shall have cross over zones with bus coupler, Generator & transformer feeders etc.
The Bus Differential scheme has been so engineered that no portion of the switchgear is left out of
the differential zone including the outgoing breakers.
 Each breaker connected to that particular bus should trip on actuation of its Bus Differential Protection.

8. Clause- 6.2- Voltage Restraint (/ Controlled) Over current Protection- please edit/elaborate this feature as below-
The generator is always capable of carrying an overload of 10% of rated current for 1 hour duration (subject to
Manufacturer‘s recommendation) in any 12 hour period at rated voltage, frequency and power factor
without exceeding stated temperature rise. Normal overload fault results voltage is constantly stable; but,
current is slightly increased due to overloading. Over correct / short circuit fault results voltage slightly dropping
in to 80 - 90 % of rated voltage and current (I) is slightly increased.
At the time of short Circuit / over current, after few cycles during fault, generator reactance raising high,
resulting only two- three times (2-3Ifl) over current. Generator protection-conventional IDMT O/C relay
cannot discriminate between the faulty over current condition resulting substantial voltage drop and the
healthy full load condition. Then Generator PT (which is in turn connected to 51V) sees this fault as fault
with very low voltage. Voltage Restraint feature in Generator Over current Protection will shift the Relay
Curve from IDMT relay to 51-V curve, which can provide the smallest possible tripping time in the event of
severe fault. Hence, voltage restraint over current is provided so that we can discriminate between normal
overload and over current.

9. General Comment- Please add Under Voltage protection philosophy as applicable (to verify if below scheme is
applicable / not-).

All Bus incomer breakers shall be provided with the “Under Voltage Tripping Scheme”.
In the event of bus faults, circuit should be wired up thru’ master trip relays to inhibit the bus transfer, so
that system does not feed to the faulty section of the buses.
In the event of any under voltage fault from any of the incomer side, trip command of respective protection
relays shall actuate master trip lockout relay-86. This scheme has been specifically implemented to achieve
auto changeover of the bus coupler.
In the same fashion, in case of any type of transformer faults, trip command should actuate master trip Lockout
relays.
In the event of bus faults, circuit should be wired up thru’ master trip relays to inhibit the bus transfer, so
that system does not feed to the faulty section of the buses. This specific philosophy will prevent from any
sort of back feed to the fault in the faulty incomer side / faulty bus side.
The complete under voltage tripping scheme provided for the distribution system at various voltage levels
shall be time graded. Under voltage protection co-ordination of power distribution shall preferably be such
that the time delay at the highest voltage level is minimal and the time delay at subsequent lower voltage
levels is suitably increased in steps.
This is to facilitate to have the minimum manual operational intervention in the power distribution system.
 To achieve reliability in the scheme and to prevent its mal-operation, contacts derived from under voltage
condition of at least two phases shall be used. It is desirable to block under voltage trip scheme to prevent
mal-operation of the scheme due to incomer PT fuse failure condition.

LV SWITCHGEAR DESIGN

The flexibility of the LV SWITCHGEAR design enables:

 Withdrawable and fixed functional units

 Up to 24 functional units per cubicle
 Single front or back to back construction
 Form 4 Construction up to Type 7
 Modular design permits the simplest and safest cubicle reconfiguration on site
 Fully insulated main and fully segregated riser busbar systems eliminating the possibility of busbar faults
 Designed and tested to meet the requirements of IEC 1641 relating to Internal Arc Faults
 Seismic, Shock and Vibration tested to withstand the most onerous environmental conditions
 Fully compliant with EC Directives LV and EMC.
 Front or rear access.

1. IEC 62271-1- High-voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 1: Common

specifications.

2. IEC 61439-1- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part 1:

General rules, IEC 61439-2- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear
assemblies –Part 2: Power switchgear and control gear assemblies.
3. ARC Containment in Switchgear – IEC-61641- Type-1 ……. Type-2 ………..
Type …….7.

4. ARC FLASH - NFPA 70E .

IEEE Std. 80 Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding

IEEE Std. 141 Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution of

Industrial Plants

IEEE Std. 142 Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems
5. SOLAS- Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
Note-Neutral earthing / grounding equipment should comprise a resistor with a minimum 10 -second fault
rating selected to reduce the fault current to the full load rating of the power source transformer.

2). Systems employing reactor earths are uncommon but have been used in some countries or under special
circumstances. One special circumstance is if a 'Petersen  Coil' is used to avoid a circuit trip due to a transient
earth fault e.g. lightning induced flashover in overhead lines. Such special circumstances are unlikely in
industrial installations.

If reactance earthing/grounding is considered, its use should be tested against the cost/benefit compared with
resistance earthing/grounding. Special attention should be taken of the possible tuning effects between the
earthing/grounding reactor and the power system.

SELECTION OF BATTERY-

1.0 Summary on Battery Comparison

Following is the broad outline for selection of Recombination type of battery depending upon its
peripheral ambient condition-
4.1 APPLICATION ON DUTY CYCLE OF OPERATION

NICAD type of battery can accept DEEP DISCHRGES. This is used for EMERGENCY
GENRATOR, UPS where, SHORT DURATION HIGH CURRENT requirement is there for Motor
Starting for Rolling the Main Starter Motors for Emergency Generator. On the other hand, LEAD
ACID battery is mainly suitable for SHALLOW DISCHARGES.
4.2 ULTRA LOW-MAINTENANCE AND GAS GENERATION

GAS GENERATION AND MAINTENANCE is very low / negligible for both of the types.
For NICAD Negligible Topping–UP can be required after 12 to 20 Years of Installation
(dependent on the level of charge voltage).
( Note – Gas generation may be sufficient if NI CD cells are boost charged, but charge limits
should be selected to provide an optimization between GAS GENERATION and Required
BOOST charging time ).
Where as in case of VRLA, No BOOST CHARGING IS ALLOWED.

4.3 LIFE EXPECTANCY

Life Expectancy of NICAD is approx. 25 Years; where as Life Expectancy of LEAD ACID is
approx. 10-15 years. This shows that NICD has exceptional long life. NICD cells do not suffer
from sudden death failure due to internal corrosion, normally associated with VRLA Type
batteries.
( Note – Experience has shown that VRLA life expectancies can be considerably less if they are
not handled / stored / maintained /charged correctly. All of these issues are a risk during
construction commissioning phases of the projects).

4.4 IDEAL OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGE

Ideal operating temperature for NICAD is 5 DEG.C to 35 DEG.C, where as ideal operating
temperature range for Lead Acid is 15 DEG.C to 20 DEG.C. This shows that NICD has much
more wider operating Temperature Range.
4.5 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE

Maximum temperature tolerance is up to 50 deg.c for NICAD (recombination type).

Where for LEAD ACID, the maximum temperature tolerance is up to 30-35 DEG.C and its life
expectancy gets dramatically to the tune of 6-10 years reduced if temperature is raised to
above 30 DEG.C. Recharge during storage is quite critical for these cells, which are
temperature dependant.
4.6 RELATIVE SPACE REQUIREMENT

Relative Space Requirement for NiCd is 1.5-1.8 times more than for LEAD ACID.
Relative volume and weight indicator of NiCd battery is always higher than those figures of
LEAD ACID. Hence, we always need more space in case of NiCd compared to same rating of
Lead Acid type of batteries.

4.7 RELATIVE COST

NICAD is very expensive (normally 2.3 Times- 3.00 Times) compared to same Rating of Lead
Acid Recombination Types.
However, in any life-cycle cost comparison, the cost of change–out (REPLACEMENT) of cells
should be taken in to account, with VRLA cells needing replacing at least 2-3 times over the
normal course of a project lifespan (15 Years). Particularly in offshore environment, the
replacement cost can be significantly high.
2.0 CONCLUSION

Based on the relative advantages of the different types of batteries, it can be recommended
that, for OFFSHORE installations, no single type of battery is best suited to all applications and
circumstances.
Two types of batteries, either NICD, or, Lead Acid may be used based depending upon the
applications / Owner’s requirement / LOW CAPEX / LOW OPEX / Space minimisation, etc.

NICD batteries shall be used for following critical applications wherever higher reliability is the
main criteria to ensure the trouble free plant operation and to minimize the production
downtime-
1. DC power supply to all Switchgear Breaker Tripping and Closing Control Circuits,
2. Engine Starting for Vital Equipment (Diesel Engine Driven Fire Water Pumps, Emergency
Loads of Blackstart Generators). - To be excluded from this note.
3. FIRE and GAS systems
4. Public Address (PA) System Power Supply.
5. Process Control application.
6. Starting Motors of Essential Diesel Generators. - To be excluded from this note.

As overall guidelines, NiCd batteries, due to their higher reliability, longer life time but
higher initial cost, are economically justifiable in more critical applications, as
explained above.
On the other hand, Lead acid cells are better suited to less critical application as
stated below, wherever their shorter life time and lower reliability are acceptable
features –

1. Engine Starting (for relatively noncritical machine loads.) However, there is no non-critical
engine start application for offshore.
2. TURBINE AUXILIARIES. (NOTE- Normally, Turbine Auxiliaries are fed from engine gas,
sometimes a DC requirement for RUNDOWN PUMPS).

SUGGESTION - REMARK WITH CORRECTION NOTE - I would limit the application section to
the system we normally design in detail for the below system- i.e.
1. UPS systems– Instrument, Telecom, Fire and Gas System, Process Control Application
System – with 30 minutes battery back-up time.
2. DC supply Units – Switchgear Systems normally with 02 hour battery back-up time,
3. Navigation Aids Supply Units- For Navigation Lights.

ENGINE SUPPLY SYSTEM IS PART OF THE PACKAGE DESIGN. SUGGEST A SEPARATE

DESCRIPTIVE SECTION AND SEPARATE CONCLUSION FOR ENGINE START
APPLICATION.
For larger DC systems, where battery type is not specified by the Project, the Supplier
shall submit a comparison of lifecycle costs versus capital cost over the design life
of the equipment to allow the battery selection to be made.

Note-

 It is frequently difficult to achieve single voltages on all contacts on a particular relay but if differing
voltages are required they should be kept to a minimum and the provision of additional warning labels
should be considered.

 Control signals between purchasers equipment, e.g. motor starters, contactors and package units, for
starting and stopping drives, permissive, indicating lamps etc., should be volt-free contacts, with a
minimum rating of 110 V, 1 A non-inductive.
 MAIN PROBLEMS IN MAINTENANCE
LV / MV Switchgear Maintenance Problems

1) Because of the Floor Design, LV / MV breakers Truck -- Rack In Rack out problems are not
smooth. . However, during construction, if Floor Design can be taken good care of, then Rack
In Rack outs - Not at all problems.

2) Circuit Breaker Coil- Burnt- Coil can be replaced. - Not at all problems.

3) Provide THERMOGRAPHY via INFRARED Cameras to BUSBAR JOINTS, Motors .

4) Provide MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS (MCSA).

5) MAIN PROBLEMS IN MAINTENANCE-

MAIN POWER ELECTRONICS DEIVCES - (for which even after imparting training to the personnel, we are vendor dependent)

 IN THE MICRO LEVEL OF TRAINING IN ELECTRONIC CONTROL

CARDS and its SOFTWARE uploading & IMPLEMENTATION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF ALL INPUTS / OUTPUTS (including OPTO
OUTPUTS) corresponding to each and individual functions are not
possible.
 Hence, in VSD, UPS, ATS FIRMWARE CONTROL CARDS- We have
faced problems even for identifying the actual problems in the control
cards and to repair it.
 Reason is- It is quite difficult to impart training in that MICRO LEVEL to
the operators to UPLOAD THE SOFTWARE and to identify the fault in
the respective control cards.
 Temporary Solution was to Replace the Control cards / call the vendors
spending huge money.
 LONG TERM SOLUTION- Provide Extensive Training to the specialised
people, who had similar Electronics Background with the manufacturers
in the field of VSD, UPS, Chargers, Numerical relays, etc.
 ATS FIRMWARE CONTROL CRADS- Earlier in my early days, there
was only HARDWARE INTERLOCKS with ON DELAY TIMERS and
OFF_DELAY TIMERS; hence, it was not a problem for us.
 Nowadays, if you see MICOM P-143-FEEDER PROTECTION RELAY
LOGICS and its 600 pages MAINTENANCE MANUALS, then it is very
awesome to resolve these problems. You will have 56 DIs, 98 DOs, and
then check the Relay Setting, and to identify the missing inputs/ outputs
and follow the signal indicating lamps in the control cards, etc.
 Relay programming is a Big Challenge (NOT DURING
COMMISSIONING, BUT DURING MALOPERATION / Trouble
Shooting).
REQUIREMENT OF 50 LBB - Switchgears.
Note-
 There is no 50 LBB in 415 volt / 600 Volt Low Voltage Switchgears
normally, as inter-tripping feature is always there across the
Transformers.
 There is no 50 LBB in 11 kV switchgears, as BACK-UP protection
will always work.
 There are always 50 LBB in 132 kV and 220 kV GIS switchgears.

SAFETY- SAFOP STUDY -

 Electrical Operational Reliability- to ensure the Fault withstand

rating of the switchgear is not exceeded- During Load Transfer, this
is SHORT CIRCUIT OVER DUTY, as there is Momentary Paralleling of
Transformer Reactances so Long Automatic Change over Circuit
Operation is completed with load change over from one
Transformer Incomer to another Transformer Incomer. ATS scheme
should be completed within 01 second. Timer. If ATS does not take
place within 01 sec., then ATS system should be defeated.
 Synchrocheck Operation is Healthy with Dead bus Over-Ride option.
 CB FAIL OPERATION (i.e. LBB / CBF) is Healthy.
 VERIFICATION OF INTERLOCKING BETWEEN ISOLATOR and EARTH
SWITCHES.
 VERIFICATION OF INTERLOCKING BETWEEN CIRCUIT BREAKER and
EARTH SWITCHES - TO AVOID SWITCHING ON TO DIRECT EARTH
FAULT (GROUND).
 ARC FLASH STUDY.
 STEP AND TOUCH POTENTIAL-SUBSTATION EARTHING GRID AS PER
IEEE 80 -STEP AND TOUCH POTENTIAL.
 Electrical Operational Reliability- to ensure the
a). Fault withstand rating of the switchgear is not exceeded .
b). Critical fault clearing time is not exceeded, so that Generator Rotor Angle does not go OUT OF
STEP (between 90 Degree and + 30 Degrees) .
c). No Contact is welded.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LCI AND VSI
LCI vs. VSI

..\My Documents\LCI Versus VSI - 2 (2).ppt

Issues

• VSI (Mainly up to 15 MW …… 20 MW Motors Induction /

Synchronous Motors)
– Standard design motor
– Torque Pulsations can be tuned out during.
Commissioning
– Cooling.

• LCI (Above 20 MW …… 6 winding Synchronous Motors)

– 3 or, 4 winding Input Transformers (Delta- Delta, Delta Star Transformers with 0
Deg. & 30 deg. And
Delta-Delta, Delta Star Transformers with (15 Deg. & 45 deg.).
– 6 winding Synchronous Motors.
– Special motor which affects the converter characteristics
– Mechanical design of compressor train key.
– Torque pulsations have to be designed out with resonant frequencies being
Checked. May not be an issue.
– Cooling.
– Proven technology for LNG.
– 3 or, 4 winding Input Transformers-12/12 Pulse Possible (Delta- Delta, Delta Star Transformers with 0 Deg. & 30 deg.
And
Delta-Delta, Delta Star Transformers with (15 Deg. & 45 deg.).
 The main features of the Perfect Harmony ASD are as follows:-
 Harmonic compliance without the need for a filter . 36 pulses is
offered for CO2 packages.
 Catch a spinning load capability.
 High availability with the advanced cell bypass system - in
event of a failed cell (rectifier/dc link/inverter) the drive will not
shut down, 100% load available with 1 of 18 cell’s in bypass.
 Footprint - due to close coupled transformer and ASD additional
cabling at site is not necessary.
 Standard motor (no de-rating necessary) without the need for a
motor filter.
 No advance trip signal from 33kV supply necessary.
 Over 5000 PH in operation worldwide.
 Advanced processor controls Eagle system.
 Refinery-

1) ID (Induced Draft) Fan application needs where suction is needed thru' a system. -FAN DISCHARGE
GOES TO ATMOSPHERE /STACK-IN CASE OF FURNACE.
2) FD (Forced Draft) Fan application needs where FORCED DRAFT is needed thru' a system.
3) FIN FAN COOLERS / AIR BLOWER Inputs to HEAT EXCHANGERS is done thru' -FD (Forced Draft) Fan
Motors. FD FAN TAKES AIR FROM THE ATMOSPHERE.

 CDU- CRUDE DISTILLATION UNITS, - LIGHTER FRACTION (UP TO C10) - GASOLINE,

DIESEL, - AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ETC.
 VDU- VACUUM DISTILLATION UNITS- HEAVIER FRACTION - CREATING
VACUUM- RESIDUE AS A COKE.
 COKER UNITS- RESIDUE / HEAVIEST FRACTION OF CRUDE OIL- CRACKING
OF VACUUM RESIDUE ARE CARRIED OUT, WHICH IN TURN USED AS A FUEL IN TO FURNACE.  
 FCCU - FLUIDISED CATALYTIC CRACKING- FLUIDISED (TO INCREASE SURFACE AREA OF MATERIALS) IS
DONE VIA BLOWER / Compressor's. 
 NAPHTHA CRACKING UNITS- NAPHTHA IS FED AND ETHYLENE / PROPYLENE ARE
PRODUCED.
 C1- METHANE, C2- ETHANE, C3-PROPANE, C4 - BUTANE.
 REFINERY FURNACE - STARTING THRU' OIL FIRED AND THEN HEATED FLUE GAS IS GENERATING HEAT for
furnace.
 Electrical DRIVES - PUMPS ( CDU / VDU), 

COMPRESSORS (IN THE FINAL OUTPUT GAS).

HEAT EXCHANGERS- AIR COOLERS- FORCED FANS / ID FANs.

Petrochemical Units in a Plant

Naphtha Cracker – Product- Ethylene, Propylene,

Petrochemical Plant.

Ethylene, Propylene – is the Main Product in Petrochemical Plant

Polymerization Units- Polyethylene, Polypropylene, etc.
↓
Polyethylene - LDP, LLDP, HDP, etc.

Main Drives – Pumps, Compressors, VSDs, and ID Fans etc.

Air coolers- ID Fans (Induced Draft Fans with IGV – Insulated Guide Vent, which is Damper ) in Desserts.

Compressor Package in a Plant

Auxiliary Loads - Main Lubricating Pumps, Auxiliary Lubricating Pumps, Lube Oil
Heaters, Oil Coolers.

Testing for compressors and Pumps- STRING TEST and VSD operational test.

Pump Packages in a Plant- Auxiliary Loads - Main Lubricating Pumps, Auxiliary

Lubricating Pumps, Lube Oil Heaters, Oil Coolers.
----- Forwarded Message -----
From: Sudipta Chatterjee <Sudipta.Chatterjee@mwkl.co.uk>
To: Sudipta Chatterjee <chat_sudipto@yahoo.co.in>
Sent: Tuesday, 6 July 2010 4:24 PM
Subject: Reason for Reacceleration scheme-Typical Refinery Fault in Radial Feeders - System Undervoltage in Healthy
system for 250 Mili Seconds

Sub- Typical Refinery Fault - System Under voltage for 250 Mili Seconds.
 
Say, there is a Fault in CDU and there is another process at
COKER UNITS.
 
All are radial feeders operating Parallely.
 
CDU (Catalytic Distillation Units) ---- Say, there is a fault in CDU (Catalytic
Distillation Units) in LV, or, MV Motor Feeder System.
 
As these are radial feeders,
Power Distribution System in COKER UNIT shall feed the Fault
through Common Upstream / Radial Feeder System, until &
unless Fault is cleared in CDU.
Fault Clearance Time, say, is- 250 millisecond.
 
Hence, there is a Voltage Dip in COKER UNIT for 250 millisecond
and Contactor will Drop out (if voltage dip is below 70 %).-
Thereby, we need to have Reacceleration Scheme in COKER
UNIT, so that Delayed Tripping in all of the Motor Feeders can be
exercised. This delayed Tripping shall be in the tune of 250
millisecond.

Refinery-

2. Final Product - MS (MOTOR SPIRIT), Naphtha, Kerosene,

LPG, HSD.
By-product – Coke, Wax, etc.

3. Capacity - 15 MTP (Million Ton per Year) 250 MW Power Requirements.

4. Power Distribution - Power Generation at 11 KV, then stepped

down to 6.6 kV and then to 415 / 660 volt system.
(NO 33 KV and 132 KV systems, please on Refinery).

5. Centrifugal Speed Switch – Fin-Fan Cooler. Nowadays, Centrifugal Speed Switch is

not used for high inertia Fan motors.
Note- Nowadays, Istart is allowed to some extent corresponding to time
parameters- I sqrd.t.

6. Flare- Unrecovered gases / materials need to go out of the

system that goes out via FLARE.

7. CDU (CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT) / VDU (VACUUM

Distillation Units ) / FDU ( Fractional Distillation Units) -

8. ID FAN and FD FAN, both are required in Furnace.

9. Electrical in Furnace - Furnace is Non-Electrical-Furnace. It continues to burn on Gas Burning. Only

Electrical supply is required to for SPARK IGNITION.
Motor Current Signature Analysis.pdf
THERMOGRAPHY

Today thermal imaging is proving indispensable for the early detection of electrical faults. An infrared camera is now easily
portable and year on year the technology is being developed to provide better image quality and the necessary software tools to
make the job easier, quicker and more efficient.
No longer just the preserve of the professional thermographer, thermal imaging is used across the electrical trades. And the
infrared cameras that are really extending the use of thermal imaging in electrical inspection are the new generation find-it-fix-it
models. These easily portable, torch-style cameras are true toolbox tools designed for spot checks and limited analysis. They
have become a viable option thanks to developments in detector technology that has allowed the purchase price of the camera
to be set at a level that is within the scope of any professional electrician.
It is this type of thermal imaging camera that has allowed Power Technical Services to add value to the electrical surveys it
conducts for its customers. The company bought its FLIR Systems InfraCAM® thermal imaging camera from instrument
supplier, Alpine Components, eighteen months ago. This entry-level camera for safe, non-contact thermal inspection has a
120x120 pixel uncooled focal plane array that displays radiometric images in a choice of colour palettes.
Based in Burnham-on-Crouch, Power Technical Services specialises in high voltage power distribution engineering such as
cable jointing, transformer and switchgear installation and maintenance. "Detecting faults early is key to reducing down time and
this of course contributes to lower operating costs," Jeremy Taylor continues. "The camera gives us instant images of failing
plant. Not having an infrared camera as part of our diagnostic kit is no longer an option. It’s in use daily and often in very harsh
environments. And although it’s not the cheapest on the market is certainly represents good value for money."
Typical faults that the camera finds are cable overloads, loose terminals and faulty bearings. "Left undetected these faults could
result in substantial loss of production and potentially cost the customer thousands of pounds," Jeremy Taylor adds.
Thermography also vital for ICW.
As a company dedicated to providing complete power solutions to support its customers’ critical businesses, ICW Power also
sees continued investment in thermal imaging as an integral part of its growth.
In essence, ICW Power designs, manufactures, installs, commissions and services industrial and commercial power systems. It
also services other manufacturers’ equipment. Typical customers are in finance, telecoms, disaster recovery, pharmaceuticals
and public sector organizations.
In the type of businesses that ICW Power supports, the early detection of faults in electrical equipment is of paramount
importance. Major failures cannot be tolerated. Even relatively minor faults on fuses, circuit breakers and cables can cause
havoc if left unchecked. In the worse case they could result in a fire and cause significant server damage.
"Thermography is the safest and most cost efficient way to maintain a power system," explained a company spokesman. "In one
pass of the thermal imaging camera we can tell which of the many components need attention. We don’t need to go through
every single terminal to discover the fault." This allows ICW Power to give an accurate assessment of how long the system
needs to be taken off-line which is particularly important for customers in the financial and communications sectors where
continuity of supply is imperative.
The importance of training
Whilst a thermal imaging camera enables electrical faults to be spotted in an instant there is also opportunity for
misinterpretation. So whether the camera is being used for fault-finding or for conducting critical thermal analysis training is a
must.
For example, reflections from overhead lighting and the paint chosen to finish a cabinet can both have a profound effect on
results. A cabinet may be glowing hot in the thermal image but its shiny surface could just be reflecting a light. Emissivity values
of paint also need to be considered.
The electrician also needs to put the problem into context. For example, is there a high current or high resistance contact where
a higher operating temperature may be the norm? A sound knowledge of cable ratings is also of course essential. What may be
a safe temperature for LSF covered cable, will not be for general PVC covered cables which should not exceed 70°C and will
give off highly toxic fumes when burned.
Taking a course in basic thermography is undoubtedly the best action plan for any electrician seeking to adopt this technology.
It will provide a basic grounding in the principles of infrared and include a practical workshop that covers elementary
interpretation of the thermal images.
With thermography so readily available there is unfortunately a trend towards underplaying the need for training but it is vitally
important to ensure infrared cameras are used to best effect. A good infrared manufacturer will of course provide such
rudimentary training as part of the camera package but beyond that there is a range of certification courses available in the UK.
Accredited by the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing there are three certification levels now available. For an electrician
simply conducting a survey, Level I is a good option but if that survey is to include analysis - Level II is appropriate. Level III is
aimed at those whose work involves creating and imposing thermal benchmarks and standards.
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
EMC is the ability of equipment to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without
introducing intolerable disturbances to that environment or to other equipment .

MAXIMUM  downstream switchgear fault level:-

1. When in a Single Ended switchgear, Emergency Generator are in

momentary paralleling with Transformer Incomer during restoration of
normal power supply, then only MAXIMUM downstream
switchgear fault level takes place.
1.  In a SWITCHBOARD  Single Ended Operation- If One Incomer is closed and
Bus coupler is closed in switchboard in single-ended
operation, then Fault Contribution Xm of all the the motors
being 
 all in parallel configuration affecting on the whole of Single
bus bars (instead of two separate sections of Bus bars while
bus-tie is open)
 
Hence, this is the Stringent Condition prevailing in terms of downstream switchgear fault level.

----- Forwarded Message -----

From: Sudipta Chatterjee <Sudipta.Chatterjee@kbr.com>
To: chat_sudipto@yahoo.co.in
Cc: Sudipta Chatterjee <Sudipta.Chatterjee@kbr.com>
Sent: Thursday, 15 September 2011 6:47 PM
Subject: Maximum S.C. Fault Conditions- OFFSHORE- UPstream and Downstream Ditribution

 
 
1.    MAXIMUM downstream switchgear fault level:-
 
 
Electrical equipment and cable short circuit ratings will be based on the maximum contribution from
generation and switchboard single ended operation taking account of the maximum motor contribution with
bus-ties closed.
 
 
Switchboard Single ended operation - If One Incomer is closed and Bus coupler is closed in switchboard single-ended
operation, then Fault Contribution of all the motors will
 
be all in parallel configuration affecting on the whole of Single bus bars (instead of two separate sections of
Bus bars while bus-tie is open)
 
Hence, this is the Stringent Condition prevailing in terms of downstream switchgear fault level.
 
 
2.       MAXIMUM upstream switchgear fault level:-
 
Please recapitulate the Configuration- Upstream 11 kV is always with bus-tie breakers closed and
downstream 6.6 kV & 600 Volt systems operating with
bus-tie breakers being opened always.
 
If all downstream boards operate with two incomers and Bus-tie open, then all downstream two transformers
in parallel will back-feed
the fault towards upstream 11 kV (or, 13.8 kV ) system, which will create the Maximum Fault Contribution in
the UPSTREAM from the downstream power distribution system.
 
This is because when fault happens in the upstream 13.8 (or, 11 kV system), downstream all two
transformers being in parallel (i.e. two Transformer reactances being in parallel – increasing the fault feed) ,
will maximize the fault feeding towards the upstream Switchgear, till such time breaker nearest to the fault
opens the faulty feeder.  
 
Reason is - Upstream 11 kV is always with bus-tie breakers closed and downstream 6.6 kV & 600 Volt
systems operating with
bus-tie breakers being opened always.
 

List Of IEC Standards-

List Of IEC Standards-

6. IEC- 60034 -1 - Rotating electrical machines.

Part 1: Rating and performance.

7. IEC 60034 -3 - Rotating electrical machines –

Part 3: Specific requirements for synchronous generators driven by steam -
Turbines or combustion gas turbines.

8. IEC60034-1 section 9- Other performance and tests –

9.1 Routine
tests ....................................................................................................... 103
9.2 Withstand voltage
test......................................................................................... 105
9.3 Occasional excess
current................................................................................... 109
 9.4 Momentary excess torque for
motors................................................................... 111
9.5 Pull-up
torque...................................................................................................... 113
9.6 Safe operating speed of cage induction
motors ................................................... 113
9.7
Overspeed .......................................................................................................... 115
9.8 Short-circuit current for synchronous
machines ................................................... 117
9.9 Short-circuit withstand test for synchronous
machines......................................... 117
9.10 Commutation test for commutator
machines ........................................................ 117
9.11 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) for synchronous
machines ................................ 117.

9. IEC 62271-1- High-voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 1: Common

specifications.

10. IEC 61439-1- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part
1: General rules,
IEC 61439-2- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part
2: Power switchgear and control gear assemblies.

11. IEC 60092 standards- OFFSHORE Cables will be low smoke, zero
halogen, (LSZH) oil resistant
12. Oversheath and flame retardant to IEC 60332-1-2 and IEC 60332-3-22
(Category A).

13. Oversheath and FIRE PROOF to IEC 60331.

1. OFFSHORE / SHIP Electricals –

 Lloyds. Rules for Ships- 2008. CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY.
 LR Offshore Rules- (FOIFL), April 2008. – CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY.
 ABS- American Bureau Of Shipping - CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY.
 OFFSHORE STANDARD- DNV-OS-D201- CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY( DET
NORSKE VERITAS)-

IEC – 60092- 201, 350, 352, 353, 359. (Onshore- Hazardous Areas- IEC- 60079).
Offshore Discussion-

Weight of the Switchboards-

 1 Ton per vertical Panel for LV boards. We need to calculate number of vertical panels. Same needs
to be verified with SNI / Siemens.
 1.2-1.4 Ton per vertical Panel for 6.6 KV & 11 KV boards, respectively. Same needs to be verified with
SNI / Siemens.
 Two Tiers per each vertical Panel: - Due to very tight space restriction in offshore (which is very
common), sometimes, Two Tiers per each vertical Panel need to be considered.
Accordingly, depth per panel will be increased and hence, weight per each vertical panel housing two
tiers will be increased to 1.5 ton per vertical panel.
 Transformer Weight needs to be taken from Transformer Catalogue / Vendor’s inputs like ABB / Areva,
Powell, etc.
 For transformers in Zone-1 areas, mail to ABB for KNAN (Silicon oil > 300 Deg. C ) Transformers.
 Alternatively, Transformers rated up to 4. 0 MVA can be DRY type Transformers.

Layouts-

 Transformer (ONAN / ONAF) shall be at Cellar Deck. Dry Type within Room with Water to Air Heat Exchangers.
 HV switchgear shall be at Cellar Deck - For very little Maintenance.
 LV switchgear shall be at Mezzanine Deck- for Maintenance at times.
 LER- Instrument Room.
 Main Power Generation at Weather Deck – Due to clear Exhaust.
 Emergency Diesel Generator – At Cellar Deck in CANTILEVER INSTALLATION with Exhaust, open to Air.
 All Compressors, Pumps, Motors are in the Field (i.e. scattered in Deck areas).

WHAT IS Manifold?

When multiple pipelines from WELL meet in a common valve, where Single / Different Pipeline comes out of the system – one to Oil
Separator, etc.

MODBUS CONNECTION OF DATA CONCENTRATOR: - Copper To Fibre Connector and RS485 cable.

Copper To Fibre Connector- RS485 cable is connected to Data-concentrator then COPPER TO FIBER CONVERTER needs to be given
before it gets connected via FIBRE to FOTC PATCH PANEL then from there to another FOTC PATCH PANEL then to Converter and then
to DATA CONCENTRATOR.

 DATA CONCENTRATOR is connected in Modbus.

 Relays are connected in Profibus.
 Higher level in connected in Ethernet connection.

Short Circuit Calculation and SWITCHGEARS ATS SCHEME -

1. Momentary Paralleling (for duration more than 01 Second) between two Transformers (or, one EDG &
One Transformer in case of Single Ended Switchboard operation during restoration of normal power)
and same is not considered in SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION. This is considered as Switchgear
Fault Level Over duty.

2. If Auto changeover takes place for more than 01 Seconds, then Auto-transfer is to be defeated by means of ATS
scheme as embedded software in the SWITCHGEARS ATS SCHEME.
 3. Momentary Paralleling (for up to 01 Second) is only permitted, without exceeding the switchgear short-circuits duty.

The Role of X/R Ratio in Short Circuit Computation

For simplicity the discussion is given in bullet point as below:

1. In a meshed electrical network the value of X/R varies depending upon where in the network it is measured. Generally
the value of X/R is larger the nearer the measured point is to the generator.

2. X/R ratio generally increases with the transformer size: For large transformers
the reactance is considerably larger than its resistance, hence a large X/R.
 For transformer size < 10 MVA, X/R may be taken as 10, or lower.
 For transformer size > 10 MVA, Calculate X/R = 30 Log10 (MVA – 20).
3. Typical X/R values are (approximate):

Equipment Rating Typical X/R

Generator 100 MW 100
Transformer 150 MVA 60
Transformer 30 MVA 30
Transformer 10 MVA 10
Motor (LR) 12.5 to 25 MW 10

4. Basically the X/R ration influences the short circuit current in two ways:
a. The value of the Peak Short Circuit current IP is dependent upon a factor ‘x’ which itself is dependent upon the
value of X/R as shown in the following equations:

IP = ‘x’. I”k. √2 where ‘x’ = 1.02 + 0.98 e-3R/X …………….. (1)

Where I”k is the initial rms value of the short circuit current.
Note, to allow for inaccuracies in calculating the value of X/R, IEC 60909
proposes that factor ’x’ may be multiplied by an additional safety factor of
1.15

b. The value of the DC component of the short circuit current, and its rate of decay, is dependent upon the value
of X/R ratio as shown in the following equation:
 Idc = √2. I”k. e-2пft / X/R ………………… (2 )

5. The value of factor ‘x’ may also be obtained from the plotted curves of X/R (or
R/X) which are given in IEC 60909 or AS 3851. For a meshed circuit the value
for X/R may be taken as the largest X/R in the fault path or the value at the
actual fault point.

6. It can be shown, from equation (1), that the factor ‘x’

increases with the value of X/R. Hence the larger is X/R
the larger would be IP.

7. It can be shown from equation (2), that:-

 The larger is the value of‘t’ (or the smaller the value of X/R), the smaller
would be the value of Idc.
 The latter decays with time and the value of R: the higher the circuit
resistance (hence the smaller the X/R ratio) the faster the decay of Idc.
 The larger the value of X/R, the larger would be the value of Idc (Highest
value of Idc = √2 I”k at t = 0, or X/R = Infinity – a purely reactive circuit
which exists only theoretically).
8. Effect of X/R on switchgear rating:
Switchgear is normally tested (and its short circuit rating guaranteed) by the
manufacturer at a particular value of X/R. If purchaser stipulates a higher X/R
value, the effect would be either a higher IP, corresponding to a higher value of
I”k, or retain the guaranteed value of IP, but now corresponding to a value of I”k
lower than guaranteed (due to a higher multiplying factor ‘x’).

TRANSFORMER :- “e-type” or “d-type” terminal boxes *

Have the choice between “e-type” or “d-type” terminal
boxes *
 Use ex-type:
     

 Plug-in bushings * and avoid sparking on High-Voltage side

      

􀂊 Glands & Min. IP 56 cable boxes and avoid sparking on

Low-Voltage
    Side
􀁘 Use intrinsically safe relays and avoid ignition
􀁘 Reduce number of accessories by having transformers protection
blocks
􀁘 Protect
􀂊 all valves against unauthorized access by using locks
􀂊 selected cables

How to reduce harmonics by structural

modifications in the AC drive system
The cause The effect

1. The larger the motor… the higher the current harmonics

2. The larger the DC or AC inductance… the lower the current
harmonics
3. The higher the number of pulses in The rectifier… the lower the
current harmonics
 4. The larger the transformer… the lower the voltage harmonics
5. The lower the transformer impedance… the lower the voltage
harmonics

6. The higher the motor load… the higher the current harmonics
 

As we discussed, below is the information regarding Motors for VSD:

 
1). Main factor that is causing motor insulation to break down is motor lead length
(the length of wire between the VFD and the motor). This is a problem because if the
impedance of the motor is much larger than the impedance of the wiring a reflected
wave can be established.

When this reflected wave is added to the transmitted wave from the VFD, the voltage
spike can exceed what the motor can withstand and motor insulation breakdown will
occur.

Because the impedance of motors is larger in smaller motors, this problem is most
likely to occur in smaller motors.

All VFD manufacturers should have published data on the allowable motor lead
lengths for their VFD’s

2). Another Factor:-

The use of IGBT’s, while offering significant cost and performance benefits, has led
to motor failures. The problem that has been occurring is a breakdown in the motor
insulation, which causes the motor to go to ground or across windings. This is
caused by the high voltage spikes that occur when the transistor in a VFD switches
on. When the transistor switches on, there is a high voltage spike (as high as 1600
volts) for a very small period of time. The switching speed of IGBTs is very high,
typically 8 kHz or even 16 kHz. This results in a much smoother output sine wave
and significantly lower audible noise of the motor.
This increase in switching speed has also increased the rate of voltage change over
time, or the dv/dt. These high voltage peaks and short voltage rise times can cause
premature breakdown of the motor insulation if it is not selected for these conditions.
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) has issued a new standard for
VFD motors. This standard is NEMA MG1-1993, Part 31.40.4.2. This standard states
that the motor should be designed for a peak voltage of 1600 volts and a minimal rise
time of 0.1 microseconds for motors rated less than 600 volts. This standard should
always be specified when using motors with VFD’ which utilize IGBT’s.
 
We need to add additional insulation to the motor winding so the voltage
dv/dt and peaks do not cause premature damage to the insulation. In reality
it may be the case to apply the next higher level of insulation.
 
 Key Services (Essential)

We have following Key Services Switchboards-

1. Topsides - Key Services Switchboards - Main Generator Auxiliary

Switchboards - needs to be supplied from this switchboard.

2. Forward Key Services Switchboard.

3. Accommodation Key Services Switchboard.

4. Emergency Switchboards - Process Shutdown & Start-up Loads.

Essential Loads to Cater to The following –

1. Generator (GTG) Auxiliary Loads.

2. PORTABLE WATER pumps.
3. Crane Loads.
4. Few Loads on Accommodation.
5. HULL Statutory Loads.
6. Emergency Lighting (400 kVA).
7. Instrument Air Purging System.
8. Process Shutdown and Start-up Loads.
9. Thruster Loads.
10. Life saving loads ( as PER SOLAS )

Sometimes, Sewage System needs to be fed from two duplicate feeders’

services?
Essential loads (BP SPECIFICATION).

These are loads which are important to the safety of the

installation or the operational staff, and which require power to
permit a controlled shutdown of process plant and facilities in an
emergency. They should have a second independent power
source and be generally associated with no break supplies.

In certain cases, a short supply break of say 15 minutes may

be acceptable if this
does not represent a hazard to safety.

a). Included in the concept of essential loads would be such

devices as emergency
Shutdown systems lube oil pumps for gas turbines and
large compressors, Ventilation systems, helipad lighting,
emergency lighting, some floodlighting
Systems, navigational aids, radio systems etc.

b). Some loads, which are essential by this definition, may

require the provision of emergency power supply facilities in
order to meet legislative requirements such as NFPA 70
(guidance is available in IEEE Std 446).

Advantage of Synchronous Motors over Induction motors

Note-Highest Rating of Available Induction motors -15
MW.
 
 
1.      HighestRating of Induction motors available in the Global
Market is 15 MW (due to the fact that Induction motor has a very
low value of efficiency in the range of motor rating ≥ 15 MW).  
 
         In the range of rating ≥ 15 MW, synchronous motors can
only offer higher efficiency benefits, which reduce our operating
costs.
 
 
2.      Main Advantage – For the Wide Range Of Speed Control for
Compressor Application by Synchronous Motors.
 
Speed control (more than 5 %) can not be achieved by means of
Throttling.
 
Hence, VSD is the only option; - speed control in the range of
20% - 30 % (more than 5 %) can be achieved only through the
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS in the rating ≥ 15 MW ratings.
 
In this range of Ratings of 15 MW & more, only SYNCHRONOUS
MOTORS (not Induction Motor) can achieve 20% - 30 % step less
speed Control.
 
 
3. Added benefit- Synchronous motors can be designed to
operate with leading power factor. This feature helps balance
out your plant’s power system, thus lowering your energy costs.

4.      An added benefit (not being the main reason) is low inrush
current for minimum system disturbance during starting.
 
 
 
Note-
Throttling means that it is a valve used to control the flow of a fluid, especially the amount of fuel
and air entering in to the cylinders of an internal-combustion engine.
 
Electrical Arc Flash Hazard Mitigation

The 4.16kV switchgear and MCC are in HRC 2 based on current data, therefore, mitigation measures need to be
looked at if the category is exceeded.
In the 480V system all the switchgears and control gears exceed the category level 2. Therefore, the following
mitigation methods are considered;

Mitigation Methods

According to NEC (NFPA 70) 2011 edition, Section 240.87, for a non-instantaneous trip, where
a circuit breaker is utilized without an instantaneous trip, one of the following or approved
equivalent means shall be used:

 Zone selective interlocking (ZSI)

 Differential Relaying
 Energy Reducing Maintenance switch with local status indicator
In the course of this study other mitigation methods such as the following were
also considered:
 Fibre Optic detection and Protection.
 Remote Racking In / Racking Out.
 Arc resistant switchgear / MCCs
However, as agreed with Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Department (CSD),
considering the applicability and maintainability aspects of various mitigation
methods, the following mitigations shall be utilized for the Electrical LV systems
of Shaybah NGL Recovery program:

 Zone Selective Interlocking (ZSI) or virtual Bus Differential protection

at 480V switchgears. This shall include incomers and bus-tie breakers.
 Energy reducing maintenance switches at 480V feeders to MCCs.
With this arrangement the HRC categories at the switchgears and MCCs is reduced
to 1 or 2.

RCD rating 30 mA for Human Safety

And 300 mA for Fire Safety.
 
RCD rating 30 mA - Human bodies can endure in the range of 15
mA - 30 mA depending upon the duration of the Peak Current
(ISqd. x t).

Hence, 30 mA is selected in all SINGLE PHASE Distribution

Boards –i.e.
230 Volt DITRIBUTION CIRCUIT for Human Safety, as there is a
possibility of human handling this Single Phase circuit very
often.
 
RCD rating 300 mA for Fire Safety in Lighting Circuit – Mainly in
False Ceiling and False Floor.

We give 300mA setting for the following three reasons –

 
1. If we give 30 mA Trip setting, it will give Spurious Tripping in
 

Lighting Circuit, in which case lighting being covered under the

false ceiling / Floor, which is sometimes not properly accessible.
2. Lighting Circuit is not in very usual possibilities of Human
 

Touch, hence, not 30 mA.

3. 300 mA setting is given so that we can prevent severe Ground
 

fault current and also we can prevent it from setting it in to the

Fire. Hence, it is given for Fire Safety.
Low impedance bus zone protection schemes
were selected when compared to a high
impedance schemes for the following reasons -
 1.   None identical CT’s can be employed.
2. · No CT secondary switching is required.
3. · Sensitivity less affected by the number of CTs in the circuit.
4. · Operating time more consistent even with CT saturation.
5. · Easy to expand for future circuits.
6. · Minimal external wiring.
7. · Low impedance relays are inherently more stable than high impedance
schemes.

FUNCTION OF AUTO SYNCHRONISERS -

Auto-synchronizer has   ▲V, ▲f, and Phases Angle BANDWIDTH ---- configured in
to the Auto-Synchronizer SOFTWARE ALGORITHM Logic in Generator Control
Panel ( MARK- V & MARK- VI Synchronizing Panel ) plus there is CHECK
SYNCRONISING RELAY (25 ) , which double-checks the Voltage, Frequency and
Phase Angle by means of Guard Relay (25 G).

Breaker Failure Relay (CB Fail) operates as

follows-
Either the primary (86P) lock-out relay OR back-up (86S) lock-out
Relay associated with a given breaker picks-up and the fault detector
Relay for this breaker picks up. Then the timer associated with that
Breaker is started.

If the fault detector is still picked-up when timer times out.  The logic
assumes that the breaker has failed to interrupt the fault.

Then the back-up lock-out relay, which controls both of the adjacent
feeder bay and failed breaker bay is energized.

Then the failed breaker and the adjacent feeder bay breaker shall be
tripped.   In general, all adjacent breakers feeding to that particular
fault need to be tripped.
BLACK START PHILOSOPHY-

Essential Power
 Essential power is provided by Essential Diesel Generators (EDGs).
 EDGs shall be provided to serve the basic essential and black start loads identified in this
philosophy. If all EDGs are operating then all basic essential loads may be running and there
shall be enough essential generation capacity to black start the first GTG.
 EDGs do not incorporate an N+1 philosophy, therefore a spare EDG will not be provided. If one
EDG fails to operate then part of the basic essential load must be shed in order to perform a
black start for a GTG.
 Multiple EDGs shall be provided and each shall be rated equally with ratings of up to 2500 kW,
such that the total essential generation is adequate to supply all essential loads.
 There are two types of essential loads.
 Black start loads are those electrical loads that are required to accomplish a safe, reliable
start-up of the first GTG. Once the first GTG is online, it will provide start-up power for the
other GTGs and the LNG plant may be restarted.
 Basic essential loads are all essential loads other than the black start loads above. They are
those essential loads that are required to operate essential services in the plant during a
short or extended outage of the GTGs.
 EDGs shall be rated for standby service and shall be able to provide their nameplate power
output for outages as short as a few hours or as long as several weeks depending on the length
of GTG outage.

Critical Power
 Critical power is provided by AC Uninterruptible Power Supply
(UPS) systems and DC UPS systems.
 UPS systems shall be provided to serve critical loads during
unplanned, unscheduled plant shutdowns. They shall be
reliable and redundant in order that the plant may be shutdown
in a safe and orderly manner. UPS ratings and backup time
requirements are not included in the scope of this philosophy.
Basic ESSENTIAL LOADS

General
 Black plant is defined as the total loss of normal power. Normal power is the
electrical power supplied by the GTGs installed within the LNG plant. Black
plant conditions exist when all GTGs are offline.
 Off plot power sources are not considered in this philosophy, since they may be decommissioned at some future
date.

Basic Essential Load Descriptions

 Black plant conditions may last as little as a few hours or as
long as several weeks. EDGs shall be rated to provide power
to all basic essential loads during the entire duration of black
plant conditions.
 During black plant conditions certain basic essential utilities are
required within the LNG plant.
 Basic essential loads may include AC UPS loads, DC
power systems, emergency lighting, certain HVAC
systems, GTG auxiliaries, fire fighting equipment, lube oil
systems, etc.
 Basic essential loads are listed in Attachment 2, Basic
Essential Load List.

BLACK start LOADS

General
A black start is the start-up of the first main gas turbine generator when all GTGs are offline. Normal power
is not available from other in-plant GTGs or offplot sources.

Black Start Load Descriptions

 Black start loads are those essential loads that are required to accomplish a safe, reliable start-up of the first GTG.
 Black start loads may include GTG auxiliaries such as turbine control panel, automatic voltage regulator, lube oil
pumps, ventilation fans, etc.
 Other black start loads provide the utilities needed for start-up and operation of the GTGs such as fuel gas heaters,
cooling water pumps, instrument air compressors (IAC) and IAC auxiliaries, as well as any other utilities that must
be operational to support GTG start-up and operation.
 During black start, the primary objective is to provide all necessary utilities to a single GTG and prepare it to start-up
and operate so that it can generate sufficient power to start other utilities and the remaining gas turbine generators.
  Black start loads are in addition to basic essential loads. EDGs shall be sized to provide electrical power to all basic
essential loads and black start loads. EDGs shall be sized to start the largest black start load with all other essential
loads in operation.
 Black start loads are listed in Attachment 1, Black Start Load List.

BLACK Start SEQUENCE

General
A black start is the start-up of the first main gas turbine generator after all normal power has been lost. Normal
power is not available from other in-plant GTGs or off plot sources.

Typical Sequence of Events

 All normal power is lost. GTGs are offline. Black plant
conditions exist.
 AC and DC UPS systems supply critical power to plant
equipment to allow a safe, orderly shutdown of the plant.
 The EDGs start-up within 20-30 seconds of black plant
conditions. The first EDG connects to a dead bus. The
other EDGs automatically synchronise to the essential
bus.
 Troubleshoot the power system to determine the cause of
normal power failure.
 Repair or isolate the cause

 Make decision to bring GTGs back on-line

 Start Emergency Air Compressor

 Start Tempered Water Pumps ( Extent of system to be

started requires review )
 Select first GTG for start-up

 Disable permissive of other GTGs so UCP does not

automatically start the remaining GTGs when normal
power is restored by the first GTG.
Recommendations
The essential diesel generator capacity required is now 6772 kW.
Starting of the 1400 kW GTG Starter Motor is marginal as
revealed in the electrical motor starting studies.
It is recommended that at least two of the GTG starter motors be
furnished with soft starters. The Rev. 0 estimate will be trended
to reflect the additional equipment cost and space requirements
for two soft starters.

ZIG- ZAG Transformer can not carry any Balanced Current

distributed in Phase Sequence, only ZERO SEQUENCE
CURRENT can flow in ZIG ZAG Transformer.
1. ZIG- ZAG Transformer can not carry any Balanced Current distributed in Phase Sequence, only ZERO
SEQUENCE CURRENT can flow in ZIG ZAG Transformer .
2. Under Normal balanced condition, ZIG- ZAG Transformer can not carry any balanced current, as
Normal Balanced current in Phase Opposition.
3. However, Zero Sequence current can flow in ZIG-ZAG Transformer, as there is no phase sequence
(or, as well no Phase lags) in Zero Sequence Current.
Droop mode operation:-
One must of course be very aware of what the power consumers are and their
requirements on power quality such as frequency, but generally I must admit
that I am a big fan of droop mode operation, advantages being as you
described them. Many tend to appreciate the isochronous mode due to its
advantages in returning to nominal frequency.

The reason for wanting that is often not well motivated but can be easier
understanding for the operators (many find droop very complicated) or fear
of malfunctioning consumers (especially converters).

There are several ways around this, in order to get the best out of two worlds.
How to implement them is of course highly dependant several issues.

One can for example use temporary droop control with a correctional control
loop for returning to nominal frequency. One can also implement a Power
Management System (PMS) which is basically a superior control system
coordinating turbine control, consumer control, boiler control (if applicable)
and load shedding.

I have elaborated on similar subjects in a paper that is available for download

at:
http://www.power-
technology.com/downloads/whitepapers/training/file2056/

Do have a look at www.solvina.com for further information.

Feel free to contact me again on sven.granfors@solvina.se

rather than using the linked in messages

ONSHORE STANDARDS-
 14. IEC- 60034 -1 - Rotating electrical machines- Part 1: Rating and
performance.

15. IEC 60034 -3 - Rotating electrical machines –

Part 3: Specific requirements for synchronous generators driven by steam -
Turbines or combustion gas turbines.

16. ( IEC60034-1 section 9 )- PERFORMANCE AND TESTS –

17. IEC 62271-1- HIGH-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROL GEAR –

Part 1: Common specifications.

18. IEC 61439-1- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part
1: General rules,
IEC 61439-2- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part 2:
Power Switchgear and control gear assemblies.

19. IEC 60332-1-2 and IEC 60332-3-22 (Category A) – Cables, its Oversheath
and flame retardant.

20. IEC 60092 standards- (LSZH) oil resistant - Cables will be LOW SMOKE,
ZERO HALOGEN.

Motor Design for VSD application: - Voltage dv/dt and peaks do not cause premature
damage to the insulation

Any special design we do for motors would depend on the type of VSD we are
applying and how sinusoidal the waveform is.
 
Perfect Harmony has a very good current and voltage waveform so nothing special is
required for the motor windings, this is demonstrated by applying the Perfect
Harmony on existing fixed speed motors and operating them at variable speed with
no power de-rating.
 
For other less sinusoidal drives we have 2 possibilities, add a motor filter (inductor
and capacitance) at the output of the VSD to clean up the waveform or,
Please add additional insulation to the motor winding so the voltage dv/dt and peaks
do not cause premature damage to the insulation. In reality it may be the case to
apply the next higher level of insulation.
 
However a general rule is not possible without knowing the type of VSD technology
involved.
Other aspects like cooling for constant torque loads need to be considered.

What Determines the Switchgear Fault Level ???

 TRANSFORMER Size (its Impedance and Full Load Current) will

determine the SHORT CIRCUIT FAULT RATING OF THE
SWITCHBOARD to be fed via Transformer.
 Source Impedance does not contribute to the LV Switchgear Fault Level, as we
see that in case of one GTG, if we connect 05 nos. GTGs, the LV
SWITCHGEAR FAULT LEVEL does not change. This is due to very high
Transformer Reactance.

[Reason is = Transformer Zero Sequence

Impedance is always less than << Positive
Sequence Impedance ]
What is the Typical Earth Fault Current in the System ??

Earth Fault current solidly grounded system will be slightly

more than 3 phase short circuit current.

 For Resistance Grounded System, Earth Fault current is

limited to – 400 to 1000 Amps, should be always less than
Transformer Full–load current.

 Earth Fault current solidly grounded system will be slightly more than
3 phase short circuit current – Say, 2 MVA transformer with 6 %
 Impedance = (2/ 0.06) MVA = 33.34 MVA = 28 kA without the
Source Impedance.
[Reason is = Transformer Zero Sequence Impedance is always less than <<
Positive Sequence Impedance].

Hence, in any solidly grounded system, Earth Fault Current is

slightly more than the Three Phase Short Circuit Current (I Sc).

Note: - Core type, delta- wye, solidly grounded transformers have lower Z0
than Z1 or Z2. Not so with Shell type transformers. Because core type do not
have direct path for zero sequence exciting flux return except for tank or air ( a
path of high reluctance resulting in lower winding reactance), while shell types
do. A bank of 3 single phase transformer will also be like a shell type
transformer. Wye connected, solidly grounded generators also typically have
lower Z0 than positive sequence impedance and hence higher SLG currents
than 3-phase fault currents.

However, for Resistance Earthed System,

Earth Fault Current ( I E) is limited to 400 Amps.
(NOTE- Earth Fault Current is normally limited between 400 Amps to 1000
Amps).

Sometimes, MV Earth Fault Current is limited to 100 Amps – As in case of

QUAD- 204.

For Quad 204, Generator is HIGH IMPEDANCE GROUNDED with limiting Earth
Fault Current to 20 Amps- as per the Recommendation of the Vendor.

For High Impedance Grounding, any of the Earth Fault Relays will not operate in
case of HIGH IMPEDANCE GROUNDING. Hence, Directional Earth Fault
Current (67 N) was employed.

Why we do Earthing-
 1. To MAINTAIN EQUIPOTENTIAL ZONE and to make sure that EPR (EARTH
POTENTIAL RISE) is not there. To prevent electric shock to human operators,
maintenance personnel and persons in the vicinity of electrical equipment.
2. To minimize damage to equipment when excessive current passes between the
conductors and the
Casing or frame during an internal fault condition.

3. To provide a point of zero reference potential in the power system for the
conductors.

4. When we leave Single Earth Fault in a system, operating voltage will rise to
give over voltage across the healthy phases.

Why we use zig-zag transformer – LOW ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES.

Zig-zag Transformer Zero Sequence Impedance.

Zigzag transformer is supposed to offer low impedance for zero sequence currents
i.e. LOW ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES.

Any typical value ??

IEEE 62.92.4 has a typical calculation for sizing the zigzag transformer and arrives at
the required transformer per phase zero sequence impedance value as 5 Ohms.

IEC voltages- we can get typical zero sequence values for various
transformer connections in Table 1 of IEC 60076-8 "Application Guide
for Transformers".

DEFINITION of PROTECTIVE EARTHING and Why Earthing is

required????
The IEC definition of Protective Earthing is-

Earthing a point or points in a system or in an installation or in

equipment for the purposes of safety. This is understood to mean
safety of individuals working on or operating electrical devices. It is
normally understood to mean the connection of the enclosures of the
device to earth, such that no dangerous potential difference can arise
between the enclosure and the environment where the individual is
standing.

As such protective earthing is not mainly applied in electronic

equipment, but in all electrical equipment where there is an interaction
between man and machine, and is intended to provide a safe
operating condition to humans.

WHY LNG is required in our Oil & Gas System?

LIQUIFACTION of Natural GAS (LNG) – is solely carried out for the purpose of
TRANSPORTATION.

V X D = M (Volume x Density = Mass),

For the same Fixed Mass (i.e. same mass is requd. to burn the same amount of
energy),
By means of LNG, we reduce Volume (increase density) by means of Refrigeration
(Propane Refrigeration PR, Mixed Refrigeration -MR) and subsequent compression,
thereby liquefying natural Gas.
System Earthing

1. WHAT IS SYSTEM EARTHING

The term “earthing” consists of several functions which only have “utilizing the
earth” in common. Before describing the system earthing, it can be of interest to
know a bit about the different types of earthing.

Protective earthing is: - Protective earthing can be described as a way of

protecting man from dangerous voltages. Example of protective earthing is, when
the casing of e.g. a washing machine is connected to earth (green/yellow
conductor) or when a row of switchgear cubicles are connected to an earth
conductor, which connects the cover of the cubicle to earth.

2. WHY USE SYSTEM EARTHING

The main reason for connecting the network to an earth potential, is of course that
both human beings and equipment will be protected.

These are only two reasons for system earthing but many other requirements on
operation reliability have to be fulfilled as well. Some of the reasons to use system
earthing are described in the following text.

2.1 FIX THE NETWORK TO EARTH POTENTIAL

All alternating current networks are in one way or another coupled to

earth through leakage capacitances. The capacitances can be so
small that the network at some occasions can reach a dangerously
high potential.
If a connection between the conductors in two networks with
different Voltage occurs; the network with the lowest voltage
would get a dangerously increased voltage to earth. This can be
prevented by a suitable earthing of the network with the lowest
voltage.

Even if there is no direct connection a dangerous voltage can

occur due to the capacitive coupling between the two networks.

2.2 REDUCE THE FAULT CURRENT AT EARTH FAULT.

In an unearthed network a capacitive current will appear when an earth fault

occurs. This derives basically from the leakage capacitance in cables and overhead
lines but also generators, motors and transformers contribute. Depending on the
voltage level and the distribution of the network this current can reach values from a
few, up to hundreds of Amperes in big cable networks. The cables will give the
highest capacitive current. A formula for the capacitive current IC of cables is
normally stated as IC = UH/10x3 A/km, where UH is the line voltage. If the
capacitance of the network is compensated with a reactor connected to the neutral
point, the current through the fault point can be drastically reduced, See figure 2. This
is advantages since the damage caused by the fault current through the fault location
is limited.

Figure 2. Reduction of earth fault current with a neutral-point

impedance.
Resulting earth fault current Ij is very small if IL= ICTot.

2.3 REDUCE OVERVOLTAGES

The overvoltages that can be reduced through system earthing are those who
depend on transient earth faults, increased neutral-point voltage and transients due
to switching or lightning.
Transient earth faults at occurring earth faults, especially in systems with small earth fault
current, the conditions are such that the arc will be extinguished at the zero passage of
the current. Afterwards it will be re-ignited when the voltage increases over the fault point
again.

This phenomenon is in USA, called “arcing grounds”. If the current and the voltage at the
fault point not are zero simultaneously the transient fault can throughout repeated
extinctions and reignitions create a high overvoltage in the whole network.
The overvoltage will be particularly high if the system is com- WHY USE SYSTEM
EARTHING.

System Earthing
Increased neutral-point voltage

In case of an earth fault in one phase in an unearthed network a

phase-ground voltage will appear in the neutral-point and the
other two phases will thus have their phase-phase voltage to
earth?
By using an effective earthing (see section 3.2) the voltage can
be reduced to 80% of the phase-phase voltage. It’s then possible
to choose apparatuses with lower insulating level which means
considerable cost reducing at high voltage networks. A
transformer with a direct earthed neutral-point can furthermore
be equipped with graded insulation. This means that the
insulation level is lower close to the neutral-point than at the line
terminals which give considerable savings for big power
transformers.

Coupling and lightning overvoltages

Operating of switching apparatuses can create overvoltages

which usually are higher than three times the nominal voltage
but of short duration. The overvoltages are created through
transient oscillation in the capacitance and the inductance of the
circuit. Neutral point earthing will probably not reduce the
overvoltages
created by switching waves or lightning. They can though
distribute the voltage between the phases and reduce the
possibility of a high voltage stress on the insulation between one
phase and earth.

2.4 SIMPLIFY LOCATION OF EARTH FAULTS

In an unearthed network it’s often difficult to

detect and clear an
Earth fault. Through a suitable earthing it’s
possible to create an
earth fault current that can be measured and
also form a base for
the locating of the earth faults.
WHY USE SYSTEM EARTHING
2.5 AVOID FERRO-RESONANCE
Voltage transformers connected to an unearthed network can under particular
circumstances create abnormal neutral-point voltages.

The voltage transformer can then be regarded as an non-linear inductance, which

goes into self-oscillation with the Capacitance of the network. This phenomenon is
called “ferro-resonance”.

The abnormal neutral point voltage can damage the voltage transformers and create
unwanted earth fault indications. If the network is earthed the phenomenon will not
appear. In an unearthed network the oscillation can be prevented by connecting a
resistor either to the “delta” winding in a three phase voltage transformer or to a zero-
point voltage transformer. Note that such a resistor gives the same result as a
resistor with a very high resistance connected directly between the zero-point and
earth (See figure 4).
Figure 4. Three equal methods to prevent ferro resonance.

FPSO EARTHING
BASIC PRINCIPLE – RIVETTED JOINTS IN HULL areas should not carry any earth
fault current. It is safety Requirement. Most LV Earthing Grid runs around HULL
areas.

HOWEVER, earth fault current GRID for HV& MV grounding can be located in
TOPSIDES for only RESTANCE EARTHING of HV and MV system.

Insulating the neutral does not prevent the flow of current into an earth fault. For a
low voltage system the earth fault current is low enough to be negligible due to the
low capacitance of the 690V system, providing there is no significant contribution
from harmonic effects.

Note - You can detect the location of Earth Fault Current Detector- By Bender
System.

The main advantages of the insulated neutral system of allowing an earth fault to
persist because there is no effective fault current to cause arcing or ignition sources
is negated by the capacitance effect.

HV& MV grounding -However the value becomes more significant as the system
voltage rises, particularly where lumped capacitances such as surge capacitors are
connected. (Note that capacitors used for power factor correction or as part of tuned
harmonic filters have isolated neutrals and do not affect the fault current calculation).

Where capacitance currents can flow into an earth fault and the fault is of an
intermittent nature, some references (e.g. Refs 5 and 9) note that there is the
possibility of resonant conditions between circuit capacitance and circuit inductance
which can lead to damaging over voltages.

This has greater significance in high voltage systems than in low voltage systems
due to the inherently higher relative withstand levels of the low voltage system. The
solution to this (Refs 5 and 6) is to earth the neutral with a resistor of sufficiently low
resistive value to damp the resonance.

IS BARRIERS and GALVANIC Isolation.

An intrinsic safety barrier is used to connect a non-certified piece of
electrical equipment in a safe area to a certified or simple field device
in a hazardous area. A barrier cannot be used to make an uncertified
device safe in a hazardous area. If a field device is uncertified, it can
have internal energy storing components.

These components, in case of fault, may cause a spark, which in turn

may start the combustion process. The barrier only protects the non-
certified device in the safe area from transmitting dangerous energy
to the hazardous area. In summary, the barrier is an energy limiting
device placed on the electrical wires between the safe and hazardous
areas.

This is in relation to ELECTRICAL SAFETY in Control & Relay panels.

Transformer RTD Relays and Motor RTD Relays located in the control
panels,

IS BARRIERS- For intrinsic safety applications our safety barriers limit the
power that is transmitted to the explosive area. Isolated barriers guarantee
a galvanic isolation to prevent ground loops between field loop and DCS-
loop. Zener barriers without isolation only limit the power to the field device.
Pepperl+Fuchs has a wide range of isolated barriers in the K-System and
zener barriers for DIN-Rail mounting

SIL Rated Intrinsic Safety Isolated Barriers Used on E.ON Gas

Storage Project in Cheshire, United Kingdom [Reference]
Project details
For intrinsic safety applications, safety barriers limit the power that is
transmitted to the explosive area. Isolated barriers guarantee a galvanic
Isolation to prevent ground loops between field loop and DCS-loop. Zener
barriers without isolation only limit the power to the field device.
Pepperl+Fuchs has a wide range of isolated barriers in the K-System and
zener barriers for DIN-Rail mounting.

Zener barriers – cost saving and easy mounting Ex-

protection
Zener barriers provide cost saving Ex-protection for various applications in process
automation systems. The amount of energy transferred to the hazardous location is
limited to a safe level incapable of igniting the explosive atmosphere. Pepperl+Fuchs
offers a wide product portfolio of housing and connection styles, which include DIN
rail, termination board mounted, and accessories for each application.
Zener barriers have to be connected to an IS ground.

ARC FLASH- An arc flash is an electrical breakdown of the dielectric medium

between Phase to Phase/ Phase To Earth resulting in an electric arc which can
occur where there is sufficient voltage in an electrical system and a path to ground or
lower voltage.
How to mitigate ARC FLASH? ---- ARC FLASH MITIGATION
As per ANSI 70 E / NFPA 70 E and IEEE 1584 .

1. Selection of appropriate PPE (PERSONNEL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT).

2. By using REMOTE OPERATION for Switchgear Module RACKING IN /
RACKING OUT.
3. By using FUSE, where ever possible, in the outgoing Motor feeders / SFU
feeders, as FUSE will cut-off the Circuit, much before the PROSPECTIVE
PEAK CURRENT.

4. PREDICTIVE DETECTION - By using a FIBER OPTIC OPTO ELECTRIC

SENSOR to DETECT and in accordance with the levels of arc energy to be
 exposed, this mechanism turns Incomer relays in to INSTANTANEOUS
RELAYS, without any discriminating delays- Arcing time can significantly be
reduced by protection based on detection of arc-flash light. Optical detection is
often combined with overcurrent information.[4] Light and current based
protection can be set up with dedicated arc-flash protective relays or by using
normal protective relays equipped with arc-flash option.

5. ZONE INTERLOCKING ??????- If there is a faulty in MCC

system, it will block Incomer from Tripping and rather
outgoing feeder of the main PCC ( LV SWITCHGEAR) will
trip.

Note – ARC CONTAINMENT = ARC SHOULD NOT PROPAGATE FROM ONE

COMPARTMENT TO ANOTHER COMPARTMENT; SEPARATION between
COMPARTMENTALIZED MODULES shall be as per FORM- -4 category.

ARC FLASH Standards

 ANSI-70E - NFPA 70E 2000 provides guidance on
implementing appropriate work practices that are
required to safeguard workers from injury while working
on or near exposed electrical conductors or circuit
parts that could become energized.
 The Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers IEEE 1584 – 2002 Guide to
Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations.[8]
 The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 70 - 2002
“The National Electrical Code” (NEC) contains requirements for warning
labels.
 OSHA Standards 29-CFR, Part 1910. Occupational Safety and Health
Standards. 1910 sub part S (electrical) Standard number 1910.333
specifically addresses Standards for Work Practices and references
NFPA 70E.
These factors are the
1.Quantity of fault current available in a system,
2.Time fault until an arc flash is cleared,
3.And the distance an individual is from an arc.

Electrical Arc Flash Hazard Mitigation

The requirements stated in Saudi Arabian Oil Company – General Instruction
manual GI-0002.721 for Arc Flash Hazard Mitigation shall be complied with to
mitigate the Arc Flash Hazard in Electrical systems. In future revisions, based on
revised ETAP short circuit and Protective Devices Coordination studies, where the
Hazard/Risk Category exceeds Category 2, the following mitigation methods may
be utilized in reducing the risk of Arc Flash Hazards.
The 4.16kV switchgear and MCC are in HRC 2 based on current data, therefore,
mitigation measures need to be looked at if the category is exceeded.

In the 480V system all the switchgears and control gears exceed the category level
2. Therefore, the following mitigation methods are considered;

4.1 Mitigation Methods

According to NEC (NFPA 70) 2011 edition, Section 240.87, for a non-
instantaneous trip, where a circuit breaker is utilized without an instantaneous
trip, one of the following or approved equivalent means shall be used:
 Zone selective interlocking (ZSI)
 Differential Relaying
 Energy Reducing Maintenance switch with local status indicator
In the course of this study other mitigation methods such as the following were
also considered:
 Fiber Optic detection and Protection
 Arc resistant switchgear / MCCs
However, as agreed with Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Department
(CSD), considering the applicability and maintainability aspects of various
 mitigation methods, the following mitigations shall be utilized for the Electrical
LV systems of Shaybah NGL Recovery program:
 Zone Selective Interlocking (ZSI) or virtual Bus Differential protection at
480V switchgears. This shall include incomers and bus-tie breakers.
 Energy reducing maintenance switches at 480V feeders to MCCs.
With this arrangement the HRC categories at the switchgears and MCCs is
reduced to 1 or 2.

Following is brief description of each mitigation method.

Zone Selective Interlocking

Zone selective interlocking method involves interlocking between upstream and

downstream circuit breakers through wired contacts. It preserves the desired
selective coordination between main, tie and feeder circuit breakers but also allows
tripping for faults within each device’s desired zone.
This is achieved via wired connections between circuit breaker/relays. If a feeder
detects an over current condition it sends a restraining signal to upstream breaker.
However, if the main breaker detects an over current condition above its short time
pick up settings, then the main breaker will not receive a restraining signal and it will
trip without intentional time delay for bus faults.

The switchgear incomer breaker and bus-tie breaker will

be set at instantaneous. Therefore, incomer switchgear set
at instantaneous will clear the bus fault at 480V switchgear
within 5 cycles.
Refer to Attachment 5 for summary of results with ZSI applied and Appendix – I for
typical manufactures data.
Differential Relaying
Modern Low Voltage Switchgears are available with bus bar differential protection
such as GE Entellisys 4.0 - Low Voltage Switchgear equipped with 87B. However, for
downstream faults, the outgoing feeder breakers are required to have their protection
settings temporarily set to instantaneous during maintenance, called RELT (reduced
Energy Let-Through) mode. The RELT mode can be activated from front of the panel
or interfacing HMI.

Refer to Appendix – H for details of GE LV switchgear an example of differential

protection availability at 480V switchgear level.
 Energy reducing maintenance switch
An energy reducing maintenance switch is means by which an intentional delay in
the opening of a circuit breaker can be overridden while maintenance, service, or
diagnostic tasks are being performed and then restored upon completion of the tasks
to enable the system to be selectively coordinated.

Typically energy reducing maintenance switches clear the fault within times
listed in table 2 below.
For the 480V system of the Shaybah project, all the 480V switchgears outgoing
feeders to MCC shall be equipped with energy reducing maintenance switches.

Refer to Attachment 6 for summary of results with maintenance switches

applied and Appendix – G for typical manufactures data.
Table 2

Prot Total Breaker

Equip ection Trip interrupting time
ment method device (cycle)

480V Inco LV 3½
SWGR mer Over Power
Current Circuit
(51) – ZSI Breaker
or (87B)
 Prot Total Breaker
Equip ection Trip interrupting time
ment method device (cycle)

480V Feed LV 3½
SWGR er Over Power
Feeder to Current Circuit
MCC (51) – Breaker
Maintena
nce
switch

480V Moto Mould 1

motor r ed Case
starter protection circuit
instantan breaker
eous

Refer to Appendix – J for the LV circuit breaker total clearing times.

In accordance with IEEE std 242, section 8.3.4 .

“The trip opening time of today’s MCCBs, service protectors,

power circuit breakers, or shunt-tripped switches is usually
about 3 cycles”.

Therefore, the maximum Total clearing time for circuit breakers at

480V switchgears shall not exceed 3 ½ cycles to satisfy the Table 2 above.

Conclusion
5.1 This study report is based on current ETAP
short circuit model reports of IGHC and NGL
listed in Reference section 1.4 and preliminary
protective device data. In accordance with section
4 of IEEE 1584, the Arc Flash Hazard analysis
should be performed as continuation of short
circuit study and protective device coordination
study.

5.2 Therefore, detailed Arc Flash Hazard Analysis of the Electrical

systems at Shaybah NGL programme shall be done at detailed
design phase of the project when the protective device coordination
study has been developed, equipment data is available and system
short circuit study is finalized.
The future revision of detailed arc flash study shall include using
latest ETAP software in conjunction with protective devices
coordination study.
The protective devices coordination study to be performed in future
shall validate the fault clearing times required for Arc Flash study
based on actual Circuit breaker and Relays data.
5.3 CONTRACTOR shall be responsible to perform an Arc Flash
Analysis as required by the latest revision of COMPANY Standard
SAES-P-100 (November, 2010).  The design of all new electrical
equipment rated higher than 240 volts shall include an arc flash
hazard analysis, in accordance with NFPA 70E and IEEE 1584, to
determine the Arc Flash Protection Boundary, the incident energy a
worker may be subject to, and the personal protective equipment
(PPE) to be worn.
The maximum allowable incident energy shall not exceed 8
Cal./cm². The analysis shall be performed in conjunction with both
short-circuit and protective device time-current coordination
analyses during the detailed design phase. CONTRACTOR shall be
responsible to update/modify the preliminary analysis results of the
equipment in their scope and update/modify documentations and
design in accordance with the detailed analysis results during
detailed design phase.

CONTRACTOR shall comply with the Arc Flash Mitigation

requirements to limit the maximum allowable incident energy as stated
in the latest revision of SAES-P-100.

Attachments
Summary sheet
 IEEE 1584 ARC FLASH CALCULATOR
 IEEE 1584 BASED MANUAL CALCULATION SHEET
 ETAP VER 7.0.0C ARC FLASH CALCULATION
 IEEE 1584 CALCULATOR FOR 480V SYSTEM WITH ZSI
(AT 480V SWGRS)
 IEEE 1584 CALCULATOR FOR 480V SYSTEM WITH
ENERGY REDUCING MAINTENANCE SWITCH (AT 480V
FEEDERS TO MCCS)
APPENDICES
 A. MV Power Circuit Breakers data
B. MV fuse curves data
C. LV Power Circuit Breaker Data
D. LV motor starter clearing times
E. High Impedance Relays data – for 4.16kV Switchgears
F. Relay coordination diagrams – Typical Aramco conventional times based.
G. Manufacturers typical data for Energy Reducing Switches
H. Manufacturers typical data for LV bus differential
I. Manufacturers typical data for ZSI
J. Manufacturers typical data for LV power circuit breaker clearing times

Cable (All power distribution and sub-distribution cables will be shipboard standard
cables,

Single or multicore copper stranded with EPR (Ethylene Propylene Rubber)

insulation and SHF2 oversheath to IEC 60092 standards. Cables will be low smoke,
zero halogen, (LSZH) oil resistant
Oversheath and flame retardant to IEC 60332-1-2 and IEC 60332-3-22 (Category A).
SHF2 means – Elastomeric (EPR / Ethylene / XLPE).
SHF1 means- PVC.

Power and control cables that are routed to and from the Emergency switchboard
including all downstream distribution boards and circuits will be fire resistant to
IEC 60331.

Cables associated with emergency service alarm and indication systems, Cables
passing through high risk fire areas will also be fire resistant.

SHF2 means – Elastomeric (EPR / Ethylene / XLPE).

SHF1 means- PVC.
Transformers-Transformers can have KNAN- with MIDAL TYPE OIL (where Flash
Points are high, sometimes more than 300 Deg. C).
All OUTDOOR OFF_SHORE- Transformers shall have Class A with MIDAL OILS
(Only Silicon Oils with high Flash Points. > 250-300 Deg. C). NO MINERAL OIL
PLEASE for CLASSIFIED AREAS.

1. Transformers will be cast epoxy resin insulated, dry-type units according to IEC
60076- 11 and all will have suitable vector groups, typically Dy11 (Dyn11 where
appropriate), for parallel operation. In general, they will be located in the aft
machinery space at the +12400 levels.

2. Transformers will be liquid (AFWF) or natural cooled (AN) for normal

Operation. Selection of the cooling method will be determined by the HVAC
capabilities of the aft machinery space.

Transformers will be rated for 125% of combined board loadings to allow for load
Growth and operation with a single feeder transformer out of service. Where space
restrictions preclude the use of AN cooled transformers for the defined duty,
consideration may be given to forced air cooling (AF). Forced air cooling will give a
possible 40% increase in rated output.
Transformers will be protected by fixed enclosures to prevent accidental contact by
operating personnel. Temperature sensors will be incorporated into the windings to
give alarm on overload and subsequent trip. Transformers with unearthed secondary
windings will incorporate metallic earthed screens between primary and secondary
windings. Transformers will have suitable off-circuit tap links for adjustment of voltage
to suit the operating conditions.

Enclosure covers will be interlocked with the HV circuit breaker earth switch.
Transformers will not normally operate in parallel except during operational
changeover for maintenance reasons.
Transformers for lighting and small power will be sized to meet 125% of the power
consumed by the connected loads.

COMPARATIVE STUDY between OFFSHORE and

ONSHORE
1. FPSO - SHIP and FPSO - LV system is mostly unearthed System with insulated
Neutral. However, HV & MV system is resistance earthed like it happens in
ONSHORE projects.

2. System X/ R ratio is always high in offshore if number of drives are less and if
there is very small cable length leading to low value of cable resistance
(especially depending upon the number of Branching Circuits leading thru’
Transformers & Induction motors, etc.) .
Typical Values for X/R for Off-shore – 88- 58.
Typical Values for ONSHORE- 47.6

Note-
i. X value is contributed by nearness to the Generators, Number of
Induction motors, and number of branching circuits thru’
Transformers & Induction motors.
ii. R values are contributed by length of the cable.
iii. X/ R ratio goes high if cable length goes low.
iv. X/ R ratio goes high if number of Induction motors in series is high
(like ON SHORE PLANTS).
We can reduce X/R ratio by Reducing Equivalent X (i.e. by creating more parallel
Inductive branching circuit paths through Transformer & Induction Motors (Source of
X value). Effect of X/ R ratio- More Asymmetrical Breaking Current Capacity is
needed to interrupt the Fault Current,

Reason is :- You can not chop the current at normal current-zero, as there is always
a declining DC Component which is above the reference current zero -point with
delayed Zero crossing and DC component SET-OFF. Hence, we need more
asymmetrical capacity (energy) to interrupt this high asymmetrical current.

3. In case of OFF-Shore, Transformers are always with OFF-CIRCUIT TYPE

(NOT WITH OLTC). Generator AVR can regulate voltage in case of all off-shore
circuits due to small cable length in very small area. Here, we do not need any OLTC
in Transformer.

However, in case of ON-Shore projects, if we want to control Voltage by means of

Generator AVR, there will be non-uniform voltage distribution (i.e. very high voltage
 at equipment nearer to Generator and then comparatively low voltage at equipment
remoter to Generator).

Due to very long length of the cable (in terms of few thousands meters), Main Power
Transformers are always with OLTC.

We can not control by means of Generator AVR.

4. ESD- Trips only identified incomers due to safety system in both of the
OFF-Shore and ON-SHORE system.
5. All cables are EPR (ETHYLIN PROPYLIN RUBBER) Braided Armored
(instead of FLAT ARMOURED), to facilitate more contact areas while connecting to
Earthing Grid / Flats.
6. Expansion Joints (like, bellows) in Cable Trays are given in OFFSHORE, to
accommodate balancing in the Platform.
7. LER- Local Equipment Room- Contains Electrical Equipment & Instrument
Equipment.
8. Mostly transformers are Indoor Type-DRY TYPE. Outdoor ONAN
Transformers are mostly in Safe Areas. If transformers are in Hazardous areas, then
KNAN Transformers with MIDAL type Synthetic Oil (with High Flash Point) needs to
be used.

9. Sometimes, for Safety issues, all cables are Smoke Halogen Free (SHF-1,
SHF2, etc.). / LOW SMOKE LOW HALOGEN.

There are three types of cables , as below-

i. FRLS- (FLAME RETARDANT LOW SMOKE) - When cable burns, less
OXYGEN are produced to facilitate OXYGEN burning (i.e. High OXYGEN INDEX-
High Amount of Oxygen is required to burn the cable), so that FLAME is retarded in
absence of Oxygen. Low smoke, so that you can see and do not suffocate.
ii. FR- (FI RE RESISTANT) - Flash Point of the cable material should be
high, so that even at 160 degree C, cable can resist against being caught in to fire.
iii. LS – (LOW SMOKE) – Some additives are added, so that it can
produce less smoke.
1. Main Power Generation - Diesel Generators with Diesel Tanks.

F)             Generator- Specification for Reactance-

 We need to specify-Minimum Limiting (marginal)  Value of X”d- Generator
Subtransient Reactance’s – so that we can limit the Short Circuit Level of the
Generator Switchboard fed from generator. (i.e. LOWER the X”d, higher the Short
Circuit level Value of the Switchboard.)
 We need to specify-Maximum Limiting (marginal) Value of X’d- Generator
Transient Reactance’s – so that we can limit the Voltage Drop/ Motor Starting fed
from the Generator Switchboard. (i.e. higher the X’d, higher the voltage drop during
motor starting.)
 Vendor gives the value of SCR (Short Circuit Ratio), Capability Curve, Data
Sheet, etc.
 
G)            Generator Isochronous Mode – Constant Speed / Frequency. It is
pragmatic enough to keep 04 GTGs in Droop mode, and one GTG in Isochronous
Mode.
H)           ALL GTGs are to be kept under Base Load with 4% Droop; with one GTG
unit is Isochronous Mode – with Constant Speed / Frequency mode. This is to avoid
all generators dancing with the Frequency. Ultimately, PMS will take over the control
on Generator.

I) Then PMS will control both of the AVR (voltage control)

and Governor (frequency Control) and bring down the
droop in to 1 % and thereby stabilizing the system
smoothly.

II) WE SET DROOP, but, we do not set FREQUENCY.

J)               If all 05 nos. GTGs are in Isochronous mode, all of the GTGs will be
dancing with the load changes.

ALL GTGs are to be kept with 4% Droop, with one GTG unit is Isochronous Mode.
Then PMS will control both of the AVR (voltage control) and Governor (frequency
Control) and bring down the droop in to 1 % and thereby stabilizing the system
smoothly.
Note- Transformers will be adequately rated for any likely conditions of harmonic
distortion.

2. VSD- VSI / LCI – For Thruster- Positioning & Propulsion ( GPS satellite
3. Pumps and Instrument Air Compressors – As applicable.
4. Diesel Generators a) Essential Diesel Generators ( For GENERAL
HABITATION PURPOSE ) - For power to HVAC, Essential Lighting,
Ventilation, Water, Sewage, Air Compressor – GENERAL HABITATION
PURPOSE.

b). Emergency Diesel Generators – (18 hours of STORAGE as per IEC). - For power
to BLACK START-UP LOADS for Generator AUXILIARIES- ) , UPS, HVAC, Power
to PRESSURIZATION to determine Evacuation of Plant Operating Personnel after 18
hours.

Note - Black start loads include GTG auxiliaries (such as turbine control panel,
automatic voltage regulator, lube oil pumps, ventilation fans, etc.

Other black start loads provide the utilities needed for start-up and operation of the
GTGs such as fuel gas heaters, cooling water pumps, instrument air compressors
(IAC) and IAC auxiliaries, as well as any other utilities that must be operational to
support GTG start-up and operation).

UPS – ONE FEEDER ALWAYS FROM Emergency Diesel Generators - Second

FEEDER ALWAYS FROM Essential Diesel Generators.

PROTECTION PANEL for Diesel Generators and MANUAL SYNCHRONIZING

PANELS – Double Voltmeter, Double Frequency Meters, SYNCHROSCOPE.
Either AUTO SYNCHRONIZING PANEL- Or, MANUAL SYNCH PANEL (in case of
Link Failure or, Auto Synchronizer not being available) - then GO to (25) – Check
Synchronizing Relay.
Two generators are operating in parallel feeding to the same Generator
Switchboards through individual interconnecting GCB (Generator Circuit Breakers) to
11 kV Generator Switchboards.
Earth Fault Current is limited to 20 Amps achieved through NER and we have 50 G
(Standby E/F) protection and Differential Protection covering only Generators (not
covering the generator Cables).

Now, in case of Single Line to Ground Fault in one of the Generator feeding cable,
Generator differential 87 G will not operate, as they will never see this fault.

However, both of the two 50 G (i.e. Generator Standby Earth Fault Relays) protection
will see this earth fault and try to Trip / Open both of the Incomer breakers, loosing
the entire board.

In order to prevent the tripping operation of both the Incoming breakers together ,
both of the 50 G relays will have Directional Earth Fault Element (67 N) .In both of
the above cases, directional protection relays will open-up the only one of the
incomer breakers, continuing the operation of the board thru’ other Incomer breakers.
Note- 1). Here, we do not have Generator Overall Differential; hence Generator
Cable is not covered under any of the protected Zones.
2). If the Earth Fault Current limit is restricted to 400 Amps, Earth Fault relay
sensitivity will be lost.

COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN VACUUM BREAKER AND SF6 CIRCUIT

BREAKER
Lower than 33 KV level, it is preferable to have Vacuum Breakers.
SF6 BREAKER – SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride): its thermal and dielectric properties
make it the best available arc-quenching and insulation medium, especially at higher
voltage levels;
Or,
Vacuum: this can be generally applied up to a highest system voltage of 36 kV. This
type is preferred for fused contactor feeders.
VACUUM BREAKER – UPTO 33 KV switchgear, ( ABB- VD4 at 12 kV ) .
Nowadays SF6 insulated Bus bar with VACUUM INTERRUPTER is the good choice
in terms of space, technicality and cost. Lower than 33 KV level, it is preferable to
have Vacuum Breakers.
VACUUM BREAKER

1. Nowadays, current chopping at non-zero cross-over current zone is not a

problem any more.
11 k V Vacuum Breaker can break higher DC Component. 11 k V ABB Vacuum
breaker ( ABB - VD4 ) can break 100 % DC Component (Same percentage of
Breaking Capacity- say , Breaking capacity is 50 kA , and then DC component
Breaking Capacity shall be 50 kA).

2. CAPEX (initial cost) is less compared to SF6 breakers AND hence, cost

effective also. However, nowadays OPEX is not substantial. We need
to replace only capsule (VACUUM BOTTLE) during preventive / breakdown
maintenance.

3. Nowadays, Number of operation is substantially more compared to SF6

breakers. Breakers are robust enough to withstand more number of mechanical
operations.

4. During motor switching, it is always advisable to use surge suppressor in motor

circuits. However, nowadays with modern ABB breakers it may not be
practically required if we calculate the over voltage factor during motor
switching.

SF6 BREAKER –
1. CAPEX (initial cost) is comparatively high AND hence, not cost effective at all.
However, OPEX is minimum with SF6 monitoring device.
2. During motor switching, no surge suppressor is required, as it carries out
current chopping normally at zero cross-over zones.
3. Nowadays, number of mechanical operation is less compared to Vacuum
Breakers. 
4. 11 k V SF6 Breaker can carry out current chopping at zero cross-over current
zones.

NOTE-
Space requirement is always less with SF6 encapsulated Switchgear / Bus bar.  
Hence, for 33 kV switchgear, nowadays SF6 insulated Bus bar with VACUUM
INTERRUPTER is the good choice in terms of space, technicality and cost.

Lower than 33 KV level, it is preferable to have Vacuum Breakers.

A) Transformer Tripping Circuit - Reliability
Transformer Trip Coil / 86 Grouping- For reliability Issues-
a)    87 T-Trfo. Differential in one group – energise one 86A
b)    50 / 51 R, Y, B- . Differential in one group – energise one 86A
c)     50G / 50 N- energise one 86A.
d)  64 R- REF- energise one 86B.
e) 63 (Buccholtz) Relay- energise one 86B.

Alternatively, Each Protection Relay-element will be energising one 87 & as well as

each Set of Trip Coil.
Note - 86 (master Trip) relay will be always HAND RESET (NOT ELECTRICAL
RESET, for Safety purpose-not left to the mercy of the operator).

B) Under voltage-Under voltage Element in Protection Relay is provided in MPR-

(Motor Protection Relay) -
1.         Under voltage-Under voltage Element in Protection Relay is provided in MPR-
(Motor Protection Relay) - If it has only one contactor, Motor contactor will
drop out for voltages in < 70 % of rated Voltage during the course of Motor
undervoltage.

2.         Under voltage- While two Contactors are there (one for closing operation) and
another (for opening operation), then it is called LATCHING CONTACTOR
(i.e. always closed). If it is latched contactor like described above, then
latched contactor will not drop out during System Undervoltage. Bus PT
sensing is taken in order to energize NO VOLT Relay element of Motor
 Undervoltage Relay and to trip the motor feeder as well as to trip the system-
incomer during Undervoltage.

Under voltage --- Similarly, if there is only breaker operated motor feeder, during
undervoltage similarly, motor breaker will still remain closed, then motor undervoltage
element will get sensed thru’ BUS-PT, and trip the motor & incomer due to motor
Undervoltage.

Bus PT sensing is taken in to energize NO VOLT Relay element of Motor

Undervoltage Relay, as Bus PT input is taken as an input in to KW metering
purposes already.

C)            All indoor OFF_SHORE- Transformers are preferably DRY-TYPE- RESIN

(with Class H insulation) - with No Buchholtz Relay, no OTI, etc. Only Trafo WTI
along with Primary / Secondary Feeder protection Relays (with 50 / 51R, Y, B and
50N) are provided. 

D)            Differential & REF (only for HV transformers above 5/10 MVA, not for LV
transformers,) are provided to take care of Winding Faults.

E)             All outdoor OFF_SHORE- Transformers shall have Class A with MIDAL
OILS (only Silicon Oils with high Flash Points. > 250-300 Deg. C). NO MINERAL OIL
PLEASE for CLASSIFIED AREAS.
 
MISCELLENIOUS-
 Under voltage-Under voltage Element in Protection Relay is provided in
MPR-(Motor Protection Relay) - If it has only one contactor, Motor contactor
will drop out for voltages in < 70 % of rated Voltage during the course of
Motor undervoltage.
 Under voltage- While two Contactors are there (one for closing
operation) and another (for opening operation), then it is called LATCHING
CONTACTOR (i.e. always closed). If it is latched contactor like described above,
then latched contactor will not drop out during System Undervoltage. Bus PT sensing
is taken in order to energize NO VOLT Relay element of Motor Undervoltage Relay
and to trip the motor feeder as well as to trip the system-incomer during
Undervoltage.
 Under voltage --- Similarly, if there is only breaker operated motor
feeder, during undervoltage similarly, motor breaker will still remain closed, then
motor undervoltage element will get sensed thru’ BUS-PT, and trip the motor &
incomer due to motor Undervoltage. Bus PT sensing is taken in to energize NO
VOLT Relay element of Motor Undervoltage Relay, as Bus PT input is taken as an
input in to KW metering purposes already.
 All INDOOR OFF_SHORE- Transformers are preferably DRY-TYPE-
RESIN (with Class H insulation) - with No Buchholtz Relay, no OTI, etc. Only Trafo
WTI along with Primary / Secondary Feeder protection Relays (with 50 / 51R, Y, B
and 50N) are provided.  Differential & REF (only for HV transformers above 5/10
MVA, not for LV transformers,) are provided to take care of Winding Faults.

Why and when FIELD FORCING is required? -

1. Supplying Reactive Power demand during any SHORT CIRCUIT and Motor Startin
 FIELD FORCING is automatically done by AVR
 with a view to supply reactive power
during motor starting and also during any
SHORT CIRCUIT FAULT for the purpose
of feeding reactive power. Modern Digital AVR does have this facility.

Field forcing has no effect at initiation of the fault –

the current will be determined
by the sub transient X, and the field forcing will only be initiated
by the resulting voltage collapse.
 
Eventually after sufficient time (say in the order of 5 seconds) the fault current is IL/xd
(xd=direct axis synchronous reactance of the machine).

As the duration of the fault progresses the sub transient reactance

has less of an effect,
this would result in a fault current being 2 times
the value of the normal line current.
Hence, the field forcing is done to keep the current at a higher value.
The field forcing is a measure to ensure that sufficient current
is available to operate the protection.
In order to maintain short circuit current at a high level,
field forcing or boosting is used
giving the protection to act and trip the circuit breaker.

When you have got :-

Short Circuit in Generator, Voltage of the Generator collapses

to such a low level (as explained above), so that current gets
reduced to very low value approximately to I fl.

Now the there are two options, left out to detect this fault current and thereby to
operate the protection, shall be as below-
Option – I ------ Thru’ Voltage Restraint 51 V UNDERVOLTAGE DETECTION –
We can use 51 V (Voltage Restraint Relay) so that Multifunction Generator
Protection Relay shifts the curve to the 51 V from Current Dependent Overcurrent Relay
and typical under voltage situation due to short circuit can be detected.

Option – II ------- FIELD FORCING- The field forcing is automatically done by AVR
to increase the current to a reasonably higher level so that sufficient current is available
to operate the protection. In order to maintain short circuit current at a higher level,
Field forcing or boosting is used for giving the protection to act and trip the circuit breake

Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW:-

Case- 01) the question is what happens at the instant 1 GTG has tripped. Consider
the following scenario:

Pre-trip- 5 Generators rated 80 MW (ISO) and 60 MW (site) feeding a total load of

280 MW, say so that the load on each generator is 280/5 = 56 MW.

During trip: 1 GTG trips, so the balance 56 MW has to be shared by the remaining 4
generators. Now each GTG can take a further 4 MW (theoretically) so how the
balance 40 MW will be shared at that instant and how the GTGs will behave during
that instant. There is no definite graph or equation provided by any GT manufacturer
to consider this event i.e. behavior of the machine above Base load…..loads shading
is the solution, but before that dynamic stability study needs to be done…. .
Say, we have 05 nos. Generators, producing total of X MW in Isolated system.

Now the loss of one generator producing Y MW will cause dropping of Hz to

approximately 45 Hz and the remaining 4 Gens will trip.

If you immediately cross trip load of 50 MW the frequency may stabilize at 47.5 to 48
Hz and the remaining Gens may survive, therefore I recommend cross trip load of
about 70 to 75 MW without time delay. (Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW) to
save the system.

Case- II - 04 Generators are in Droop Mode with 4 % Droop - (52-50/52) *100 = 4%.
Then 04 nos. GTG s shall be in droop / swing mode
And 01 no. GTG shall be in ISOCRONOUS mode.
01 no. GTG in ISOCRONOUS mode will absorb all the LOAD CHANGES with no
Impact on change in SPEED / FREQUENCY.

We need to carry out Transient Stability Study on this.

2. Load Rejection Test (Governor Test) – What is the purpose of it?
The purpose of Turbine Load Rejection Test is to verify and demonstrate the
governor function to sustain a
Load rejection in order to prevent the turbine from overspeed tripping, steady speed
control at no-load operation and remain in service without any adverse effect to the
turbine.
The test requires skillful and appropriate operation not only for turbine, but also for
boiler and its auxiliaries.

3. “Why REVERSE POWER Protection is Critical?”

When the stop valve is closed, the entrapped Gas (steam) will produce some power
and low forward power will detect this and trip the machine.
When machine goes into reverse mode means steam is exhausted, and will reflect
on the cooling effect of the turbine blades based on the metallurgy and will lead to
damage of the blades.
Reverse power protection is applied for the below reasons –

 To prevent damage to mechanical plant items in the event of failure of the prime
mover.

GTG and STG are prone to turbine blade and gearbox damage while running in
motoring mode.
Interpretation- In the event of a prime mover failure, a generator will act as a
synchronous motor when operating in parallel with other units and drive the prime
mover at synchronous speed, drawing power from the electrical system. If the failure
is due to a mechanical fault or fuel shortage, this may cause further damage and
could damage the gear box by driving reduction gears in the reverse direction. The
reverse power protection detects a flow of electrical power into the generator and
opens the generator circuit breaker. A time delay is introduced to prevent operation
on transient conditions, for example immediately after synchronizing the generator.
For reverse power protection, class 0.2 CTS with a non-standard turns ratio is often
employed for improved accuracy of measurement.
The prime mover vendor shall confirm the maximum motoring power to be used for
the reverse power relay setting however a typical setting for reverse power protection
for a large gas turbine driven generator is 5% Of the rated prime mover rated output.

4. In which specific case, we must use Directional Over current with Earth Fault
Element (67 / 67 N)? Is it under, while one Transformer incomer fails with bus-
tie closes to continue power?

a) IN KNPC and KOC projects, BUS-SECTION ALWAYS REMAINS CLOSED, all

switchgears operate with two incomers closed and Bus coupler Closed. If there is a
fault in any one incomer side, that particular incomer gets tripped, and then the other
incomer operates. Both of the Incomers are 2 X 100 % sized, but normally operate
on 2 X 50 % basis with bus-sections closed. While one of the incomers gets tripped
due to any Transformer Fault / Cable Fault, other incomer will take over to cater 100
% load.
Advantage of Above Scheme- During normal LIVE- Bus Auto changeover of the
Incomers one incomer along with Bus coupler are closed (through momentary
Paralleling), Motors may be stopped causing production downtime, and again you
may need to give a start pulse to start the motor and start the production.
In above case, Directional Overcurrent with E /F Relays is used to detect the fault
feeding direction towards a particular direction.
If one / two lines of Refinery are connected to the Power Grid, then, and in that case
Refinery / Plant system should not feed any fault to the GRID. In that case, 67 –
directional overcurrent with E/F relays are used with a forward direction from the
plant to the grid, so that refinery can not feed any fault in to the grid system.

5. 132 kV and 220 kV systems are always SOLIDLY GROUNDED. But, what is
the reason?
In EHV system, capacitance is huge and capacitive current always act opposite to
the resistive current (i.e. vectorically, capacitive current is always at a phase angle of
90 Degree lead wrt. its resistive current).
setting should be well above this Capacitive Current to avoid tripping. In 220 kV
systems, when a line to Ground Fault occurs, Ground Fault Current will flow through
the faulty phase windings and partly returning through NER and back to the neutral.
And this Earth Fault current shall be neutralized by the CAPACITIVE current, which
is flowing in phase-opposition through the NER.
Note- In case of any electrical equipment, there is a Capacitance current flowing in
the system always from any healthy phases windings to the Ground.
Under Normal Healthy condition, ANY NER should be rated for carrying the
Capacitive Current continuously causing heating ?
Under Normal condition, protection
6.
FIRES WATER PUMPS are nowadays are mostly DIESEL DRIVEN in OFFSHORE
PROJECTS.
In Power & Onshore - One is electrically driven and another one is driven by Diesel.
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN FIRE WATER PUMPS – ALWAYS HAVE
MECHANICALLY LATCHING CONTACTORS, So that Control Circuit goes OFF,
even then Contactors remain in ENERGISED condition, as they are mechanically
latched.

Note- Latching means that you have got one Closing Coil for Closing and one
separate Opening Coil for Tripping. SAME REQUIREMENT SHALL BE GUIDED BY
NFPA GUIDE LINES.
7. How we should set the IS-Limiter in terms of Tripping Value of IS - Limiter –
One is First Cycle instantaneous Peak and another is Asymmetrical Peak?

Ip - This is the peak value reached during the first cycle of short-circuit current and is
the ‘fault make’ value. It is the part of the short-circuit
calculation which determines the magnetic force
developed in conductors or in circuit breakers at fault
incidence. This corresponds to the switchgear fault
make and bus bar peak withstand ratings.

Ib - This is the rms value of the symmetrical part of the current which a circuit breaker
has to interrupt and is the ‘fault break’ value at a user-defined time (t) from fault
incidence. The time represents time from trip pulse up to
contact separation in a circuit breaker. In the
calculations in this report the Ib value has been taken
as the value at t = 50 miloisecond. The Ib value is used for
comparison with switchgear fault break ratings and is also suitable for comparison
with 1 second thermal withstand ratings.

Ik” - This is the rms value of the symmetrical current at the instant the short-circuit
starts. It is the basic fault calculation from a V/Z computation and it is from this value
that the other values relevant to short circuit assessments are derived e.g. Ip and Ib.
The Ik” value gives the prospective primary-side fault current for the short circuit
design of transformers. Ik” can also be linked directly to manual check calculations.

ESD system is always in FAIL SAFE mode-

Under all Normal Healthy Condition, ESD Relay Remain always energized in FAIL
SAFE MODE. However, then Trip Coil is under de-energized condition, and motor is
running.
1. And as ESD relay always remain energized, hence, NC CONTACT OF ESD
RELAY becomes NO and TRIP COIL is always UNDER DE-ENERGISED
CONDITION during al normally healthy condition.
2. As soon as some Fire / Gas releases take place in the plant, ESD relay gets
deenergized ( which in turn changes its NO contact in to NC, which is in series with
Master Trip – 86 Relay to energise the related Trip Coil ). And thereby tripping the
circuit breaker of the targeted motor.
3. The ESD is normally a stand-alone control system located in a CCR and is
heavily interfaced with all electrical supply circuits. However, there is not much
influence on the Electrical Discipline, except one issue: - ESD itself is powered from
ONE or, several UPS feeders and if UPS supply is lost, ESD will shut down all
related system as a fail SAFE mode.

8. SALIENT VS CYLINDRICAL ROTOR -There are two (2) basic rotor structures
used, depending on speed.
SALIENT POLE - For low speed machines, such as hydraulic turbines, a relatively
large number of poles are required to produce rated frequency, hence a rotor with
salient poles is well-suited to this application. Such rotors often have damper
windings (amortisseurs) in the form of copper or brass rods embedded in the pole
face; they are intended to dampen out speed oscillations.
CYLINDRICAL ROTOR - For high speed machines, such as steam and gas turbines,
a relatively small number of poles (2 to 4) are required to produce rated frequency;
hence a cylindrical rotor is well suited to this application. Cylindrical rotor machines
have a relatively uniform air gap; therefore, it can be assumed that a cylindrical rotor
field will produce a uniform air-gap flux regardless of angular direction. This cannot
be said of a salient -pole machine as the air gap is much larger between the poles
(i.e. along the quadrature axis) than it is at the centers of the poles (i.e. on the direct
axis).
Main Generator and Unit Transformer Protection
Numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) shall be utilized to provide the following protection
functions for the 147.9MVA (118.32MW) main gas turbine driven generators and the associated 150MVA
15/138kV unit transformers.

 Generator Differential Protection. (87G)

 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection. (64TN).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 Out of Step Protection. (78)
 Over Flux Protection. (24)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)
 Unit Transformer Differential Protection. (87T)
 Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 System Backup Earth fault Protection (51G)
 Transformer Over-temperature Protection. (26)
 Transformer Low Oil Level Switch (71)
 Transformer Buchholz. (80)
To enhance the reliability of the generator and unit transformer protection scheme the following protection
elements, transformer differential protection (87T), generator differential protection (87G), transformer general
protection and the generator general protection as listed above shall be located in four off dedicated relays each
relay powered from separate supplies.

Generator Differential Protection (87G)

Differential protection will be used to detect generator internal winding faults which may develop between
phase windings or between the phase windings and the stator core and does not need to discriminate with
other protection devices as the zone of protection is the generator and associated bus bar connections only.
The differential protection relay will be of the biased type and requires to be stabilized to prevent a
through fault causing nuisance trips. It is important that the differential CT’s are sized in accordance with
the relay manufactures recommendations to take into account the effects of CT saturation correctly,
particularly for through faults with high asymmetrical or DC content.

Reverse Power Protection (32)

In the event of a prime mover failure, a generator will act as a synchronous motor when operating in parallel with
other units and drive the prime mover at synchronous speed, drawing power from the electrical system. If the
failure is due to a mechanical fault or fuel shortage this may cause further damage and could damage the gear box
by driving reduction gears in the reverse direction. The reverse power protection detects a flow of electrical
power into the generator and opens the generator circuit breaker. A time delay is introduced to prevent operation
on transient conditions, for example immediately after synchronising the generator. For reverse power protection,
class 0.2 CTS with a none standard turns ratios are often employed for improved accuracy of measurement. The
prime mover vendor shall confirm the maximum motoring power to be used for the reverse power relay setting
however a typical setting for reverse power protection for a large gas turbine driven generator is 5% of the rated
prime mover rated output.
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection (46)
Unbalanced generator loading can result in the flow of both positive and negative sequence components. The
reverse rotating component of stator flux passes the rotor at twice the synchronous speed and results in
overheating of the rotor body, rotor and damper winding. This is undesirable as the generator only has a limited
thermal withstand capacity for this heating effect. The negative phase sequence relay will be closely matched to
the thermal capability of the generator and will disconnect the generator if the negative phase sequence current
reaches excessive levels, typically 15% of the balanced load current. The relay usually has an inverse time
characteristic, to tolerate low levels of negative phase sequence current for longer periods of time, but will
operate more quickly for high levels of negative phase sequence current.

Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)

System back up protection of the generators will be implemented using voltage restraint overcurrent
protection. Where inverse definite time overcurrent protection is provided on the generators, the
protection may fail to operate because the output voltage and hence the fault current of the generator
decays in accordance with the transient and subtransient time constants of the machine. The voltage
restraint overcurrent relay will detect this under voltage condition as it is set to detect the synchronous
time constant of the machine and the relay overcurrent setting will be reduced to a lower level to ensure
operation of the protection relay.

Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection (64TN)

The main generator neutrals will each be earthed via a transformer coupled resistor which will limit the
earth fault current to 25 amps. This low value of earth fault current is to limit damage to the stator in the
event of an earth fault. Two independent fault relays are provided, one which measures the voltage across
the resistor and the other which measures the current flowing through the resistor. The relays have a
short time delay to prevent operation due to transients.

Under Voltage Protection (27)

The generator under voltage element will be used for protection of a generator in the event of prolonged
under voltage condition when operating as a single unit. When operating in parallel with other units this
under voltage fault will be detected as loss of field. Transient system under voltages can be caused by
excessive VAR demand during a system fault or during large motor starting or by a fault in the generator
excitation system. The under voltage protection will trip the respective generator following a time delay to
allow for transient voltage dips.

Over Voltage Protection. (59)

The overvoltage element will be used for protection of the generator in the event of prolonged overvoltage
conditions. A transient overvoltage may occur after a severe system fault is cleared or at the end of a large
motor run up period however a prolonged overvoltage is normally caused by an AVR or voltage sensing
circuit failure. As system overvoltages will cause increased stress in insulation and can cause saturation of
the iron cores of wound components for example transformers then to protect electrical equipment the
overvoltage protection will trip the generator breaker and suppress the field. A typical overvoltage setting
of 120% of nominal voltage for a period of 10 seconds is used.

Loss of Field Protection (40)

Loss of excitation of a generator when running in parallel with another source will result in the faulty generator
operating as an induction generator and will absorb reactive power from the system. When a generator
operates as an induction generator it will be less able to absorb the power input from the prime mover as the
electric field between the stator and rotor will be weak and this can result in pole slipping. This is undesirable
as it causes torque pulsations in both the generator and prime mover and excessive voltages in the rotor
winding which may breakdown the rotor insulation. The loss of field protection for a generator never operated
at a leading power factor or load angles in excess of 900 the typical settings are:

Impedance Element Diagram Xb1 = Xd.

Impedance Element Offset Xa1 = X’d/ 2
Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)
 The Rotating Diode Failure protection relay will monitor the current in the exciter field circuit in order to
detect a diode failure and prevent the ac rippling effect in the exciter field circuit. The relay will be time
delayed in order to prevent any spurious trips and especially with field forcing during a fault.

Rotor Earth Fault. (53)

The generator rotor excitation system is a normally unearthed system. The generator can operate with a
single earth fault but a second earth fault could cause large circulating currents, causing damage due to
heating and vibration from unbalanced forces. There would be a loss of ampere turns from the field
winding and the AVR would attempt to compensate by increasing the rotor current. The rotor earth fault
relay detects a single earth fault and initiates an alarm. The generator can be shutdown at the next
available opportunity and the rotor earth fault investigated.

Out of Step Protection. (78)

A generator may pole slip or fall out of synchronism with a power system for a
number of reasons.
The principal causes are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault on the power system when the generator is
operating at a high load angle close to the stability limit or partial or complete loss of excitation.
Pole slipping is characterized by large and rapid oscillations in active and reactive power and rapid
disconnection is required to prevent serious damage to the generator and its associated prime mover.
During pole slipping the active power flow in both the forward the reverse direction can be used to activate
the pole slipping protection relay.

Typical settings for the out of step protection for a generator are:
Forward Reach setting = Xt x 1.5 (Where Xt is the Generator Transformer
Reactance), Offset Reach setting = X’d x 2.
Over Flux Protection (24)
The magnetic flux in an electrical machine, transformer or reactor is proportional to the voltage divided
by the system frequency. The two quantities can vary independently, and a high voltage together with a
low frequency can result in a in an excessive level of magnetic flux. This will increase the iron losses which
may cause damage by over temperature, and may also cause magnetic saturation of the iron core of the
equipment. When this occurs the magnetic flux can leak out of the normal magnetic circuit and cause
unwanted heating of the external parts of the equipment.
A protection relay is provided which will trip the generator breaker and suppress the field if the magnetic
flux exceeds a predetermined level for a predetermined time.

Over/ Under Frequency Protection. (81)

Over frequency will cause the generator shaft to run above its design speed which may excite resonances
and cause vibrations. This relay measures the frequency and will disconnect the generator for excessive
frequency and performs as a backup to the Gas Turbine overspeed devices.
The system frequency falls when the electrical load exceeds the generator prime mover rating. Under
frequency will cause the generator shaft to run below its design speed which may excite resonances and
cause vibrations also damage to electrical equipment due to increase in magnetizing currents (Volts/cycle).
The under and over frequency relays are normally set in the region of ± 5% of nominal frequency with a
10 second time delay to allow for transient load swings.

Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)

The generator windings shall be protected against over temperature normally caused by over loading the machine
or failure of the cooling system with dedicated RTD’s embedded within the windings. The RTD’s will be
connected to the associated generator protection relays to initiate warning alarms and associated over temperature
trips as required.

Unit Transformer Differential Protection. (87T)

A differential relay will be used to protect the HV and LV windings of a transformer in order to detect internal
phase to phase and phase to earth faults. Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the various
 windings of the transformer should sum to zero, taking into account the turns ratio(s) of the windings. The
differential relay monitors these currents and operates if a discrepancy of approximately 5% of full load
current is detected. The relay can be set to take into account CT ratios.
The bias differential scheme is to cover for current transformer mismatch and tap changing. By analysis of the
harmonic content of the current waveform, the relay is insensitive to the transformer magnetizing current
(including inrush) and over fluxing. It is important that the differential current transformers are sized in
accordance with the relay manufacturer’s recommendations to provide an accurate representation of the fault
current, taking into account into account the effects of CT saturation particularly for high asymmetrical DC
content.
This is required to ensure that the differential protection is stable during through fault conditions. The
transformer primary and secondary cables shall be included within the protected zone.

Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64)

Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for the generator unit transformer secondary 132kV star connected
windings. For parallel connected transformers the restricted earth fault relay will provide rapid fault clearance in
the event of a transformer earth fault where discriminating earth fault protection is required with down stream
devices.
The restricted earth fault relay’s shall be of the high impedance, instantaneous, low set type incorporating
a stabilizing resistor to provide through fault stability. The current transformer connections shall compare
the resultant current from the three phases with the current flowing in the star winding neutral which for
normal operation should sum to zero.

System Backup Earth Fault. (51G)

The 132 kV generator transformers shall each be provided with an IDMT backup earth fault protection
relay. The earth fault relay shall be time delayed to operate in the event that should a 132kV system earth
fault occur and the system down stream earth fault relays fail to operate. The current transformer for the
backup earth fault protection shall be located in the transformer neutral-earth connection between the
unit transformer star point and the neutral earthing resistor.

Transformer Over Temperature Protection. (26)

An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm when the transformer
oil temperature reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further increase
in oil temperature occur.
Transformer Low Oil Level Switch. (71)
The generator unit transformers shall each be equipped with a low oil level switch
located in the transformer conservator tanks to alarm and trip on low oil level.
Transformer Buchholz. (80)
The generator unit transformers shall each be provided with a Buchholz overpressure relay with contacts
which will be arranged to alarm in the event of a slow gas overpressure and trip for a rapid liquid surge in
the event of a winding fault. This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping relay located
within the associated 132kV switchgear.

Generator Mechanical Protection

The generator mechanical protection devices for example vibration and lube oil pressure, excitation
system protection, stator winding temperature trips and other such devices shall be connected into the
generator protection scheme to provide an alarm or trip as appropriate.

Essential Generator Protection

The 3.125MVA (2.5MW) 6kV essential diesel driven generators shall utilize numerical multifunction protection
relays (IED’S) to provide the following protection functions.

 Generator Differential Protection. (87G) (Unbiased)

 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 System Earth Fault (51G)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD (49T) .

The protection devices 27, 32, 40, 46, 49T, 51V, 53, 59, 64, 81 and 87G which are
applied for the protection of
the essential generators have the same functionality as the protection devices applied for the main
generators as described in section 6.2. above.

A description of the essential generator earth fault protection device 51G is

presented below.
System Earth Fault (51G)
The essential generators are individually earthed through high impedance earthing transformers and in the event
of a generator earth fault with the respective generator circuit breaker open a neutral displacement relay will
detect the fault and trip the diesel generator after a short time delay.
The essential power 6kV distribution system is earthed via a dedicated bus connected earthing
transformer to limit the earth fault current to a maximum of 400 amps. In the event of a 6kV system earth
fault not detected by the individual circuit earth fault protection devices then a back up time delayed earth
fault relay 51G connected in the earthing transformer neutral will operate and trip all the associated
feeders and out going circuits.

Distribution Transformer Protection

Power Distribution Transformers supplied at 6.6kV and above shall be equipped with numerical multifunction
protection relays (IED’S) connected to suitably rated current transformers to provide the following protection
functions.

Transformer Primary Winding

 Differential Protection. (87T)
 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
Transformer Secondary Winding
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G )
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)
 Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)
 Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection (80)
 Transformer Over Pressure ((63)
 STAND BY EARTH FAULT PROTECTION.
Transformer Differential Protection (87T)
Differential relay’s will be used to protect both the HV and LV windings of a transformer’s in order to detect
internal phase to phase and phase to earth faults.

Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the various transformer
windings should sum to zero, taking into account
the turns ratio(s) of the windings.

The differential relay monitors these currents and operates if a discrepancy of

approximately 5% of full load current is detected. By analysis of the harmonic content
of the current waveform, the relay is insensitive to the transformer magnetizing
current (including inrush) and over fluxing.
The differential relays will be of the percentage biased type with second harmonic
compensation and shall be provided with Class X CT’s dedicated for this scheme
only. This is required to ensure that the transformer differential protection is stable
during through fault conditions. The transformer primary and secondary cables shall
be included within the protected zone.
Transformer Primary Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)
All distribution transformers and the associated primary cables which are supplied via
Circuit breakers shall be protected against both three phase and two phase short
circuits using instantaneous overcurrent relay elements connected to suitably rated
CT’s installed in each phase.
The transformer instantaneous relay elements shall be set not to trip under the
transformer magnetizing current inrush conditions
And be set approximately 1.3 times above the system maximum through fault
currents and therefore only operate on transformer internal faults and thus provide
rapid disconnection.
Transformer Primary IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
The distribution transformers and the associated cables shall be protected against
system overload currents using three IDMT overcurrent relay elements located in
each phase. The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with
the largest secondary outgoing feeder circuit. The relay elements shall be set close
to the full load current of the transformer with a suitable grading margin.
Transformer Primary Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
Transformer primary side earth fault protection shall be provided with an instantaneous earth fault
current element to provide rapid disconnection in the event of a transformer primary earth fault. The
earth fault relay element be set to approximately 5% to 10% of the system earth fault current and will be
supplied using three residually connected CTs or from a dedicated core balance CT.

Transformer Secondary IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)

IDMT overcurrent protection shall be provided on all the distribution transformer
secondary side circuit breakers to protect against switchboard busbar phase to
phase and three phase faults also to provide back up protection for the switchboard
outgoing feeders.
The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit. The relay elements shall be set close to the full
load current of the transformer with a suitable grading margin with the outgoing
feeders as described in Section 5.4.
Transformer Secondary IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G )
Transformer secondary side IDMT earth fault protection relay element shall be
connected to a suitably rated CT located in the transformer secondary winding neutral star point
connection.

The IDMT earth fault element will detect all earth faults located on the transformer
secondary side
including the transformer secondary winding, associated switchboard busbar and outgoing feeder earth
faults.

The IDMT earth fault relay element shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit earth fault protect
and act as backup protection to the transformer restricted earth fault protection.

The IDMT relay elements shall be set at approximately 10% of the maximum
earth fault current with a suitable grading margin with the outgoing feeder earth fault protection relays as
described in Section 5.4.

Transformer Secondary Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)

Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for distribution transformer secondary
star connected windings.
The restricted earth fault relay protection will provide rapid fault clearance in the
event of a transformer winding earth fault
where discriminating earth fault protection is required with down stream devices.
The restricted earth fault relays shall be of the high impedance, instantaneous, low
set type incorporating a stabilizing resistor to provide through fault stability.
The current transformer connections shall compare the resultant current from the
three phases with the current flowing in the star winding neutral which for normal
operation should sum to zero.
Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)
An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm when the transformer
oil temperature reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further increase
in oil temperature occur.
Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)
The distribution transformers shall be equipped with oil level switches measure the
oil level in the transformer conservator tank and alarm and trip should the oil level
fall.
Transformer Over Pressure (63)
For oil filled sealed distribution transformers, 3.125MVA and below a pressure relief
device will be fitted to
prevent the transformer tank reaching excessive over pressure in the event of a winding or internal fault.

A contact is fitted which provides a trip when the overpressure device operates.
Transformer Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection. (80)
All distribution transformers above 3.125MVA and above shall each be provided with a Buchholz
overpressure relay with contacts arranged to alarm
in the event of a slow gas overpressure and trip for a rapid liquid surge in the event of a winding fault.

This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping relay located within
the associated switchgear.
Open Delta VT Earth Fault Detection
The secondary windings of the 33/6.9kV feeder transformers to the essential switchboard will be
unearthed during energisation until the secondary breaker is closed on to the 6.6kV bus and the system is
earthed via the earthing transformers.
To detect transformer secondary winding earth faults during this energisation period until the circuit
breaker an open delta voltage transformer shall be provided. When the system is healthy the voltage
measured at the open delta winding will be zero but should an earth fault occur on the 6.6kV system the
voltage at the open delta connection can be as high as three times the VT secondary phase voltage. This
voltage can be measured by a dedicated protection relay and the transformer primary breaker can be
tripped.

Switchboard Auto Transfer Schemes

Switchboard Auto Transfer Schemes
The 11kV, 6.6kV and LV switchboards with 2 or 3 bus sections are provided with
an Automatic Transfer System (ATS). The ATS is a configuration using a of
numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) with a number of inputs and
outputs. The function of the Automatic Transfer System is loss of voltage for 2
seconds on either of the switchboard incoming circuits will automatically transfer
power from a healthy bus section to the adjacent bus section that has lost its
supply by automatically closing the bus section breaker providing that the failed
bus is fault free. A schedule showing the relative protection functions and the ATS
operation is presented below.
AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SYSTEM LOGIC SCHEDULE.

Protec P Tem P T Trip

tion e pora r r Sec
Device r ry e i ond
Numbe m Bloc v p ary
r i k e Bre
t Tra n P aker
nsfe t r
T r / i
r I m
a n a
n h r
s i y
f b
e B
i
r r
t
e
T a
r k
a e
n r
s
f
e
r
50 -
Instant X X X
aneous
Over
curren
t
(Transf
ormer
Primar
y)
51 -
IDMT X X X
Overcu
rrent
(Transf
ormer
Primar
y)
50G -
Instant X X X
aneous
 Earth
Fault
(Transf
ormer
Primar
y)
87 –
Transf X X X
ormer
Differe
ntial
Protec
tion
64 –
Restric X X X
ted
Earth
Fault
(Transf
ormer
Secon
dary)
50-
Instantaneous X
Over current
(Transformer
Secondary)
51 -
IDMT X X X
Overcu
rrent
(Transf
ormer
Secon
dary)
51N -
IDMT X X X
Earth
Fault
(Transf
ormer
Primar
y)
26 -
Transf X X X
ormer
Liquid
 Over
Tempe
rature
63 -
Transf X X X
ormer
Over
Pressu
re
26 -
Transf X X X
ormer
Oil
Low
Level

Temporary Block Transfer is an unrestricted instantaneous overcurrent device to

block an auto-transfer sensed by undervoltage should a downstream fault occur of
sufficient magnitude to pull the system voltage down. This block transfer signal is
provided to ensure that the downstream overcurrent protection on outgoing feeders
has time to operate and clear the fault before the auto-transfer takes place.
Bus Zone Protection
The 132kV, 33kV, 11kV and the 6.6kV Essential Switchboard shall be equipped with a low impedance Bus Zone
Protection scheme. The bus zone protection scheme measures the current entering and leaving a bus bar on each
circuit. If these values of current do not sum to zero the bus zone protection relay opens all breakers connected to
the bus bar. Low impedance bus zone protection schemes were selected when compared to a high impedance
schemes for the following reasons.

 None identical CT’s can be employed.

 No CT secondary switching is required
 Sensitivity Less effected by the number of CTs in the circuit.
 Operating time more consistent even with CT saturation.
 Easy to expand for future circuits.
 Minimal external wiring.
 Low impedance relays are inherently more stable than high impedance
schemes.

Based on vendor information a typical setting for a low impedance relay scheme would be roughly 20% of the
rated current. This is made up of the following factors.

 5% Line CT errors.
 5% Interposing CT errors.
 5% Relay errors.
 5% Safety margin.
Settings lower than 20% of the relay rated current are not advisable unless high
accuracy matched CT’s are employed.
Induction Motor Protection
The induction motors will be controlled and protected in accordance with the project protection drawings listed in
section of this philosophy.

Motor Protection Schemes

The following protection schemes will be applied to induction motors depending upon their rating.

 Thermal overload protection. (49)

 Short circuit protection. (50)
 Earth fault protection. (64)
 Under voltage protection. (27)
 Stall protection. (48)
 Negative phase sequence protection. (46)
 Differential Protection (87)
 Miscellaneous protection.

Thermal Overload Protection (49)

Thermal overload protection will be provided in order to in order to restrict excess current flow in the
motor while the motor is running at the normal operating speed. This protection element shall be
provided in all phases and shall include protection against single phasing and be at least trip class 20 in
accordance with IEC 60947-4-1. The overload relays shall be of the temperature compensated type and
shall be equipped with manual reset facilities.
Limitation to the number of successive starts shall be applied to the motors, especially to those motors that
are associated with a long run up time.
In addition all MV motors above (1850kW) will be provided with resistance temperature detectors
(RTD’s) embedded in the stator winding. The RTD’s shall be PT-100 type in accordance with IEC60751
and be connected to the associated motor protection relays to initiate alarms and associated over
temperature trips as required.

Short Circuit Protection (50)

All MV induction motors and the associated feeder cables which are supplied via circuit breakers shall be
protected against both three phase and two phase short circuits using instantaneous overcurrent relay
elements connected to suitably rated CT’s installed in each phase. The motor instantaneous overcurrent
relay elements shall be set above the motor starting current to prevent tripping during motor starting
conditions.
Medium voltage motors switched by vacuum contactors and all the 690 volt motors shall be protected
against short circuit currents by suitably rated HRC fuses. Coordination between the contactor and
protective devices shall be Type 2 as per AS/NZS 61459.

Earth Fault Protection (64)

 All motors rated 30kW and above including all MV motors shall be provided with instantaneous earth
fault protection. The earth fault protection shall be of the core balance type, otherwise be connected
residually in the CT circuitry provided for overload/phase fault protection.
Where earth fault protection is installed as part of a fuse contactor arrangement on a solidly earthed
system, for example the 690 motors, the earth fault relays shall be coordinated with the circuit fuses to
prevent to the contactor switching a current greater than the contactor rating.

Undervoltage Protection (27)

MV motors controlled by circuit breakers shall be protected by

time delayed under voltage relays to prevent block starting of
motors to prevent block restarting of a group of motors in the
event of loss of incoming supply.
Motors controlled by ac contactors provides its own inherent under
voltage tripping as the contactor drops out in less than 50 milliseconds if
the voltage drops below approximately 70% of nominal voltage.
The system shall provide for instantaneous re-closure of pre-selected
motor contactors following voltage dips of duration up to 200
milliseconds, and for an adjustable time delayed re-closure following
outages of duration up to 4 seconds. Special restarting arrangements shall
be made through the PCS for any drives that have to be supplied from the
essential services system since the supply from the essential generators
will not be available for at least ten seconds .

Stall Protection (48)

Locked rotor current protection shall be applied to all motors to afford
protection against stalling. This shall include motor stall protection during the
start condition as well as from a running condition. If the stalling time is less
than the corresponding motor run up time then the motor shall be protected
via speed switch relays and timer relays.
Negative Phase Sequence Protection (46)
MV motors rated 6.6kV and above shall be provided with negative phase sequence
relays to protect against unbalanced currents. This protection element shall form an
integral part of the motor protection relay.
Differential Protection (87)
 For motors above 1850kW differential protection will be used to detect motor
internal winding faults which may develop between phase windings or
between the phase windings and the stator core. The differential protection
relay will be of the biased type and requires to be stabilized to prevent the
motor starting current causing nuisance trips. For these motors, the star
point connections shall be brought out to a star point terminal box.
Where motors are supplied via dedicated unit transformers the motor and associated
transformer shall each have separate differential protection.
Miscellaneous protection

All MV motors will be provided with bearing resistance temperature

detectors (RTD’s) embedded in the motor bearings to trip the motor in the
event of high bearing temperatures. The bearing RTDs shall be connected
to the PCS system to initiate alarms and associated bearing over
temperature trips as required.
The MV motors shall be equipped with vibration monitoring facilities where vibration
may cause significant damage to driven or associated equipment.

Variable Speed Drive Protection

Medium voltage Variable Speed Drive units will each consist of one or two
unit transformers, one or two frequency converters plus a synchronous
motor. For the Gorgon project the VSD drives use the LCI technology for the
drives above 14MW and the VSI technology for the smaller units. The
following protection elements for the VSD drives will be provide as a
minimum.
Frequency Converter Protection

Protection of the frequency converter shall include but not be limited to:
 Overcurrent. (51)
 Incorrect thyristor firing.
 Short-circuit internal to the converter. (50)
 Thyristor failure (short circuit).
 Loss of control voltage. (27)
 Earth fault in the power circuit. (64)
 Loss of cooling medium flow. (56)
 Over-temperature cooling medium. (23)
 High conductivity cooling medium. (56)
 High temperature inside enclosure. (49).

Converter Unit Transformer

The various protection elements applied for the protection of the converter
unit transformers are the same as those described in section 6.4.

Variable Speed Drive Motor

The protection of the main drive motor and supply cables shall
include but not be limited to:
 Overcurrent. (51)
 Overvoltage. (59)
 Short-circuit. (50)
 Loss of field. (40)
 Earth fault in motor stator or supply cables. (64)
 Overspeed. (12)
 Winding over temperature. (49)
 Over-temperature or loss of cooling medium. (12)
 Rotor diode failure. (58)
 High bearing temperature. (38)
 Low lube oil pressure. (38)
 High vibration. (38).

Harmonic Filter Protection

 It is anticipated that, there is no need for harmonic filters for this project.
However, where installed, the protection of the feeder to the harmonic filter
shall be afforded by means of IDMT overcurrent and earth fault relays.
These are necessary in order to achieve effective discrimination with the
protective devices, which form an integral part of the harmonic filter
package.
Within the harmonic filter package the individual harmonic filter circuits will
be protected against short circuit currents with an inverse time characteristic
also detection of unbalanced currents within the star connections of the
capacitor banks.
The protection device settings will be chosen to meet the following criteria.
 The protection device must not switch off the filters during energisation.
 The overload protection must trip in the event of a single phase or three
phase capacitor short circuit.
 Steady state overloads will be detected to trip the individual filter circuit in
order to protect the resistors, reactors and capacitors from damage.

Tan-Delta Test- Electrical properties of the insulating system

In a pure capacitor, current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. When a resistor is
introduced in between the current leads an angle less than 90 degrees.

Similarly in a Dielectric material when a cavity or deterioration starts , the life of the
material starts deteriorating , as there is a resistance getting added and hence
leakage current increases In tan Delta we find the difference in the angle and
periodically note down the pace at which deterioration takes place.

Electrical properties of the insulating system change due to age and continuous
electrical street. The principal contributor to the unexpected breakdown of the high
voltage equipment is the insulation failure.
As compared to the magnetic, conducting & insulating materials which form the
basics of any electrical equipment, the insulating material is more prone to service
stresses like thermal stress, electrical stress, mechanicals stress, environment stress
etc.

By measuring the electrical properties such as capacitance and Tan-Delta regularly

on periodical basis, it is possible to ensure the operational unexpected breakdown.

Dissipation factor (Tan-Delta) is one of the most powerful off-line nondestructive

diagnostic tools to monitor the condition of solid insulation of various high voltage
equipment.

Capacitance and Tan-Delta values obtained on new insulation are treated as

benchmark readings. Then by measuring and comparing the periodical readings of
the capacitance and Tan-Delta of the insulating material with the benchmark
readings, one can know the rate of deterioration of the health of the insulation.

Knowing the rate of deterioration, we can be able to predict the future unexpected
breakdown of the insulation of HV equipment. Plan the maintenance schedule.

Repair the insulation before actual flashover, saving high cost of replacement of
material which will reduce the inventory well as delay in procurement at the last
minute. After repair, quality of insulation can be checked before returning the
equipment to service.
When to check capacitance & Tan-Delta
During manufacturing process preferably at each stage. In service & same will be
depend on rate of change of Tan-Delta Vs Voltage Vs Time (Month/Year), Frequency
of testing depends on history of past failures on same machine.
Frequency of testing depends on environmental conditions. More humidity,
temperature, pollution would require frequency measurement of Tan-Delta.

How we can try to change the System Voltage and Generator Voltage?

When you try to change the Generator voltage, the set point will change and the
voltage will be increased.  But it has a limit that it can’t go up to 105% of the system
 voltage(Normally AVRs set at 105% ceiling) which is not normal as the machine to be
operated at 100% of its terminal voltage.
Further tap changer can be controlled, which in turn will reduce the reactive power by
increasing the system voltage.  It has got its own limitations based on the number of
taps.

9. Why and when FIELD FORCING is required? –

Supplying Reactive Power demand during any SHORT CIRCUIT and Motor
Starting.
 FIELD FORCING is automatically done by AVR with
a view to supply reactive power
 during motor starting and also during any SHORT
CIRCUIT FAULT
 for the purpose of feeding reactive power. Modern
Digital AVR does have this facility.
 Field forcing has no effect at initiation of the fault - the current will be
determined by the subtransient X, and the field forcing will only be
initiated by the resulting voltage collapse. 

 EEventually after sufficient time (say in the order of
 5 05 seconds) the fault current is IL/xd (xd=direct
axis synchronous reactance of the machine). As the
duration of the fault progresses the sub transient
reactance has less of an effect, this would result in
a fault current being 2 times the value of the normal
line current. Hence, the field forcing is done to keep
the current at a higher value. The field forcing is a
measure to ensure that sufficient current is
available to operate the protection. In order to
maintain short circuit current at a high level, field
forcing or boosting is used giving the protection to
 act and trip the circuit breaker.

When you have got Short Circuit in Generator, Voltage of the Generator
collapses to such a low level (as explained above), so that current gets
reduced to very low value approximately to (1.5- 2) x I fl.

Now the there are two options, left out to detect this fault current and thereby to
operate the protection, shall be as below-

Option – I ------ Thru’ Voltage Restraint 51 V UNDERVOLTAGE

DETECTION - We can use 51 V (Voltage Restraint Relay) so that
Multifunction Generator Protection Relay shifts the curve to the 51 V
rom Current Dependent Overcurrent Relays and typical under voltage
situation due to short circuit can be detected.

Option – II ------- FIELD FORCING- The field forcing is automatically done by

AVR to increase the current to a reasonably higher level so that sufficient
current is available to operate the protection . In order to maintain short circuit
current at a higher level, field forcing or boosting is used for giving the
protection to act and trip the circuit breaker.

10. Query:  If one of the GTGs (say, out of total 05 nos. GTGs) get tripped, then the
remaining GTGs in  load sharing mode will experience overloading with frequency
gradually falling in steps in to minimum 47.5 Hz within a span of say, 03 secs (only if
not fast load shading in gradual mode is not already activated thru’ PMS), then AVR &
Governor will also respond to it.
then question is
How fast-load shading scheme needs to be configured to save the entire Generation
system?
Answer-
For saving the system, we need to devise a cross-trip scheme or under frequency
FAST LOAD SHADING  and its tripping need to be in steps
 X MW if Hz reaches level A with some time delay, then,
 Y MW if Hz reaches B with less time delay &
 Z MW if Hz reaches C with no time delay.

X, Y & Z MW will depend on the size of the system, generation lost, & sensitivity of the
system.

Normally the recommended under frequency tripping in a 50 Hz system is 47.5 Hz with

the time delay may be in mille seconds.

The entire scenario needs to be simulated thru’ DYNAMIC STABILITY STUDY.

have been setting up many strategies and cotroller tunings for isolated operation at
very different conditions.

One must of course be very aware of what the power consumers are and their
requirements on power quality such as frequency, but generally I must admit that
I am a big fan of droop mode operation, advantages being as you described them.
Many tend to appreciate the isochronous mode due to its advantages
in returning to nominal frequency. The reason for wanting that is often not well
motivated but can be easier understanding for the operators (many find droop
very complicated) or fear of malfunctioning consumers (especially converters).

There are several ways around this, in order to get the best out of two worlds.
How to implement them is of course highly dependant several issues.

One can for example use temporary droop control with a correctional
control loop for returning to nominal frequency.
One can also implement a Power Management System (PMS)
which is basically a superiour control system coordinating turbine control,
consumer control, boiler control (if applicable) and load shedding.

I have ellaborated on similar subjects in a paper that is available for download at:
http://www.power-technology.com/downloads/whitepapers/training/file2056/
Do have a look at www.solvina.com for further information.

Feel free to contact me again on sven.granfors@solvina.se rather than using the linked
in messages

Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW:-

Case- 01) the question is what happens at the instant 1 GTG has tripped.
Consider the following scenario:

Pre-trip:   5 Generators rated 80 MW (ISO) and 60 MW

(site) feeding a total load of 280 MW say so that the
load on each generator is 280/5 = 56 MW.

During trip: 1 GTG trips, so the balance 56 MW has to be

shared by the remaining 4 generators. Now each GTG can
take a further 4 MW (theoretically) so how the balance 40 MW will be shared at
that instant and how the GTGs will behave during that instant. There is no
definite graph or equation provided by any GT manufacturer to consider this
event i.e. behavior of the machine above Base load…..loads shading is the
solution, but before that dynamic stability study needs to be done….
Say, we have 05 nos. Generators, producing total of X MW in Isolated system.
Now the loss of one generator producing Y MW will cause dropping of Hz to
approximately 45 Hz and the remaining 4 Gens will trip. If you immediately
cross trip load of 50 MW the frequency may stabilize at 47.5 to 48 Hz and the
remaining Gens may survive, therefore I recommend cross trip load of about
70 to 75 MW without time delay. (Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW) to
save the system.
Case- II - 04 Generators are in Droop Mode with 4 % Droop - (52-50/52) *100
= 4%.

Then 04 nos. GTG s shall be in droop / swing mode

And 01 no. GTG shall be in ISOCRONOUS mode.
01 no. GTG in ISOCRONOUS mode will absorb all the LOAD CHANGES with no
Impact on change in SPEED / FREQUENCY.
We need to carry out Transient Stability Study on this.
11. Load Rejection Test (Governor Test) – What is the purpose of it?
The purpose of Turbine Load Rejection Test is to verify
and demonstrate the governor function to sustain a
Load rejection in order to prevent the turbine from
overspeed tripping, steady speed control at no-load
operation,

And remain in service without any adverse effect to the

turbine.
The test requires skillful and appropriate operation not
only for turbine, but also for boiler and its auxiliaries..

12. “Why REVERSE POWER Protection is Critical?”

When the stop valve is closed, the entrapped Gas (steam)

will produce some power and low forward power will
detect this and trip the machine.

When machine goes into reverse mode means steam is

exhausted, and will reflect on the cooling effect of the
turbine blades based on the metallurgy and will lead to
damage of the blades.

Reverse power protection is applied for the below reasons –

 To prevent damage to mechanical plant items in
the event of failure of the prime mover.
  GTG and STG are prone to turbine blade and
gearbox damage while running in motoring mode.

Interpretation- In the event of a prime mover failure, a

generator will act as a synchronous motor when
operating in parallel with other units and drive the
prime mover at synchronous speed, drawing power
from the electrical system.

If the failure is due to a mechanical fault or fuel shortage, this may cause further
damage and could damage the gear box by driving reduction gears in the reverse
direction.

The reverse power protection detects a flow of

electrical power into the generator and opens the
generator circuit breaker. A time delay is introduced to
prevent operation on transient conditions, for example
immediately after synchronizing the generator.

For reverse power protection, class 0.2 CTS with a non-standard turns ratio is often
employed for improved accuracy of measurement. The prime mover vendor shall
confirm the maximum motoring power to be used for the reverse power relay setting
however a typical setting for reverse power protection for a large gas turbine driven
generator is 5% of the rated prime mover rated output.

b) IN KNPC and KOC projects, BUS-SECTION ALWAYS REMAINS CLOSED; all

switchgears operate with two incomers closed and Bus coupler Closed. If there is a
fault in any one incomer side, that particular incomer gets tripped, and then the other
incomer operates. Both of the Incomers are 2 X 100 % sized, but normally operate
on 2 X 50 % basis with bus-sections closed. While one of the incomers gets tripped
due to any Transformer Fault / Cable Fault, other incomer will take over to cater 100
% load.
Advantage of Above Scheme-

During normal LIVE- Bus Auto changeover of the Incomers one incomer along with
Bus coupler are closed (through momentary Paralleling), Motors may be stopped
causing production downtime, and again you may need to give a start pulse to start
the motor and start the production.
In above case, Directional Overcurrent with E /F Relays is used to detect the fault
feeding direction towards a particular direction.

c) If one / two lines of Refinery are connected to the Power Grid, then, and in that
case Refinery / Plant system should not feed any fault to the GRID. In that
case, 67 – directional overcurrent with E/F relays are used with a forward
direction from the plant to the grid, so that refinery can not feed any fault in to
the grid system.

d) In case of 1ph to earth fault, when the neutral point is isolated or grounded by
high impedance, the fault current comes back through out the capacitances
(ph-to-gnd) of the sound phases. Thus you cannot detect the faulted
component simply measuring the amplitude of the current, but you need to
determine also its direction.

13. 132 kV and 220 kV systems are always SOLIDLY GROUNDED. But, what is
the reason?

In EHV system, capacitance is huge and capacitive current

always act opposite to the resistive current (i.e.
vectorically, capacitive current is always at a phase
angle of 90 Degree lead wrt. its resistive current).

In 220 kV systems, when a line to Ground Fault occurs,

Ground Fault Current will flow through the faulty phase
windings and partly returning through NER and back to
the neutral.
And this Earth Fault current shall be neutralized by the CAPACITIVE current, which
is flowing in phase-opposition through the NER.

Note- In case of any electrical equipment, there is a Capacitance current flowing in

the system always from any healthy phases windings to the Ground.

14. Under Normal Healthy condition, ANY NER should be

rated for carrying the Capacitive Current continuously
causing heating?

Under Normal condition, protection setting should be

well above this Capacitive Current to avoid tripping.
FIRES WATER PUMPS are nowadays are mostly DIESEL
DRIVEN in OFFSHORE PROJECTS.

In Power & Onshore - One is electrically driven and

another one is driven by Diesel.
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN FIRE WATER PUMPS – ALWAYS
HAVE MECHANICALLY LATCHING CONTACTORS, So
that Control Circuit goes OFF, even then Contactors
remain in ENERGISED condition, as they are
mechanically latched.

Note- Latching means that you have got one Closing Coil
for Closing and one separate Opening Coil for Tripping.
SAME REQUIREMENT SHALL BE GUIDED BY NFPA
GUIDE LINES.
How we should set the IS-Limiter in terms of Tripping
Value of IS - Limiter – One is First Cycle instantaneous
Peak and another is Asymmetrical Peak?

Ip - This is the peak value reached during the first cycle

of short-circuit current and is the ‘fault make’ value. It is
the part of the short-circuit calculation which
determines the magnetic force developed in conductors
or in circuit breakers at fault incidence. This
corresponds to the switchgear fault make and bus bar
peak withstand ratings.

Ib - This is the rms value of the symmetrical part of the

current which a circuit breaker has to interrupt and is
the ‘fault break’ value at a user-defined time (t) from
fault incidence. The time represents trip pulse to
contact separation in a circuit breaker. In the
calculations in this report the Ib value has been taken
as the value at t = 0.05s. The Ib value is used for
comparison with switchgear fault break ratings and is
also suitable for comparison with 1 second thermal
withstand ratings.
Ik” - This is the rms value of the symmetrical current at
the instant the short-circuit starts. It is the basic fault
calculation from a V/Z computation and it is from this
value that the other values relevant to short circuit
assessments are derived e.g. Ip and Ib. The Ik” value
gives the prospective primary-side fault current for the
short circuit design of transformers. Ik” can also be
linked directly to manual check calculations.

SOLAS- Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) .

ESD system is always in FAIL SAFE mode-

Under all Normal Healthy Condition, ESD Relay Remain always energized in FAIL
SAFE MODE. However, then Trip Coil is under de-energized condition, and motor is
running.
4. And as ESD relay always remain energized, hence, NC CONTACT OF ESD
RELAY becomes NO and TRIP COIL is always UNDER DE-ENERGISED
CONDITION during al normally healthy condition.

5. As soon as some Fire / Gas releases take place in the plant, ESD relay gets
deenergized ( which in turn changes its NO contact in to NC, which is in series with
Master Trip – 86 Relay to energise the related Trip Coil ). And thereby tripping the
circuit breaker of the targeted motor.

 The ESD is normally a stand-alone control system located in a CCR and is

heavily interfaced with all electrical supply circuits.

However, there is not much influence on the Electrical Discipline, except one issue: -
ESD itself is powered from ONE or, several UPS feeders and if UPS supply is lost,
ESD will shut down all related system as a fail SAFE mode.

15. SALIENT VS CYLINDRICAL ROTOR -There are two (2) basic rotor structures
used, depending on speed.

SALIENT POLE - For low speed machines, such as hydraulic turbines, a relatively
large number of poles are required to produce rated frequency, hence a rotor with
salient poles is well-suited to this application. Such rotors often have damper
windings (amortisseurs) in the form of copper or brass rods embedded in the pole
face; they are intended to dampen out speed oscillations.

CYLINDRICAL ROTOR - For high speed machines, such as steam and gas turbines,
a relatively small number of poles (2 to 4) are required to produce rated frequency;
hence a cylindrical rotor is well suited to this application. Cylindrical rotor machines
have a relatively uniform air gap; therefore, it can be assumed that a cylindrical rotor
field will produce a uniform air-gap flux regardless of angular direction. This cannot
be said of a salient -pole machine as the air gap is much larger between the poles
(i.e. along the quadrature axis) than it is at the centers of the poles (i.e. on the direct
axis).

Main Generator and Unit Transformer Protection

Numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) shall be utilized to provide
the following protection functions for the 147.9MVA (118.32MW) main gas
turbine driven generators and the associated 150MVA 15/138kV unit
transformers.
 Generator Differential Protection. (87G)
 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection. (64TN).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 Out of Step Protection. (78)
 Over Flux Protection. (24)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)
 Unit Transformer Differential Protection. (87T)
 Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 System Backup Earth fault Protection (51G)
 Transformer Over-temperature Protection. (26)
 Transformer Low Oil Level Switch (71)
 Transformer Buchholz. (80).
 To enhance the reliability of the generator and
unit transformer protection scheme the following
protection elements, transformer differential
protection (87T), generator differential protection
(87G), transformer general protection and the
generator general protection as listed above shall
be located in four off dedicated relays each relay
powered from separate supplies.

Generator Differential Protection (87G)

Differential protection will be used to detect

generator internal winding faults which may
develop between phase windings or between the
phase windings and the stator core and does not
need to discriminate with other protection devices
as the zone of protection is the generator and
associated bus bar connections only. The
differential protection relay will be of the biased
type and requires to be stabilized to prevent a
through fault causing nuisance trips. It is
important that the differential CT’s are sized in
accordance with the relay manufactures
recommendations to take into account the effects
of CT saturation correctly, particularly for through
faults with high asymmetrical or DC content.

Reverse Power Protection (32)

 In the event of a prime mover failure, a generator will act as a
synchronous motor when operating in parallel with other units
and drive the prime mover at synchronous speed, drawing power
from the electrical system. If the failure is due to a mechanical
fault or fuel shortage this may cause further damage and could
damage the gear box by driving reduction gears in the reverse
direction.
The reverse power protection detects a flow of electrical power
into the generator and opens the generator circuit breaker.
A time delay is introduced to prevent operation on transient
conditions, for example immediately after synchronizing the
generator. For reverse power protection, class 0.2 CTS with a
none standard turns ratios are often employed for improved
accuracy of measurement.
The prime mover vendor shall confirm the maximum motoring
power to be used for the reverse power relay setting however a
typical setting for reverse power protection for a large gas
turbine driven generator is 5% of the rated prime mover rated
output.

Negative Phase Sequence Protection (46)

Unbalanced generator loading can result in the flow of both positive
and negative sequence components. The reverse rotating component
of stator flux passes the rotor at twice the synchronous speed and
results in overheating of the rotor body, rotor and damper winding.
This is undesirable as the generator only has a limited thermal
withstand capacity for this heating effect. The negative phase
sequence relay will be closely matched to the thermal capability of
the generator and will disconnect the generator if the negative phase
sequence current reaches excessive levels, typically 15% of the
balanced load current. The relay usually has an inverse time
characteristic, to tolerate low levels of negative phase sequence
current for longer periods of time, but will operate more quickly for
high levels of negative phase sequence current.
Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 System back up protection of the generators will be
implemented using voltage restraint overcurrent protection.
Where inverse definite time overcurrent protection is provided on
the generators, the protection may fail to operate because the
output voltage and hence the fault current of the generator
decays in accordance with the transient and subtransient time
constants of the machine. The voltage restraint overcurrent
relay will detect this under voltage condition as it is set to
detect the synchronous time constant of the machine and the
relay overcurrent setting will be reduced to a lower level to
ensure operation of the protection relay.

Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection (64TN)

The main generator neutrals will each be earthed via a
transformer coupled resistor which will limit the earth fault
current to 25 amps. This low value of earth fault current is to
limit damage to the stator in the event of an earth fault. Two
independent fault relays are provided, one which measures the voltage
across the resistor and the other which measures the current flowing
through the resistor. The relays have a short time delay to prevent operation
due to transients.

Under Voltage Protection (27)

The generator under voltage element will be used

for protection of a generator in the event of
prolonged under voltage condition when operating
as a single unit. When operating in parallel with
other units this under voltage fault will be
detected as loss of field. Transient system under
voltages can be caused by excessive VAR demand
during a system fault or during large motor
starting or by a fault in the generator excitation
system. The under voltage protection will trip the
 respective generator following a time delay to
allow for transient voltage dips.

Over Voltage Protection. (59)

The overvoltage element will be used for protection of

the generator in the event of prolonged overvoltage
conditions.

A transient overvoltage may occur after a severe system

fault is cleared or at the end of a large motor run up
period however a prolonged overvoltage is normally
caused by an AVR or voltage sensing circuit failure. As
system overvoltages will cause increased stress in
insulation and can cause saturation of the iron cores of
wound components for example transformers then to
protect electrical equipment the overvoltage protection
will trip the generator breaker and suppress the field. A
typical overvoltage setting of 120% of nominal voltage
for a period of 10 seconds is used.

Loss of Field Protection. (40)

Loss of excitation of a generator when running in parallel with another

source will result in the faulty generator operating as an induction generator
and will absorb reactive power from the system. When a generator operates
as an induction generator it will be less able to absorb the power input from
the prime mover as the electric field between the stator and rotor will be
weak and this can result in pole slipping. This is undesirable as it causes
torque pulsations in both the generator and prime mover and excessive
voltages in the rotor winding which may breakdown the rotor insulation. The
loss of field protection for a generator never operated at a leading power
factor or load angles in excess of 900 the typical settings are:
Impedance Element Diagram Xb1 = Xd.
Impedance Element Offset Xa1 = X’d/ 2

Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)

The Rotating Diode Failure protection relay will monitor the current in the
exciter field circuit in order to detect a diode failure and prevent the ac
rippling effect in the exciter field circuit. The relay will be time delayed in
order to prevent any spurious trips and especially with field forcing during a
fault.

Rotor Earth Fault. (53)

The generator rotor excitation system is a normally unearthed

system. The generator can operate with a single earth fault but a
second earth fault could cause large circulating currents, causing
damage due to heating and vibration from unbalanced forces. There
would be a loss of ampere turns from the field winding and the AVR
would attempt to compensate by increasing the rotor current. The
rotor earth fault relay detects a single earth fault and initiates an
alarm. The generator can be shutdown at the next available
opportunity and the rotor earth fault investigated.

Out of Step Protection (78)

A generator may pole slip or fall out of synchronism with a power system for a
number of reasons.
 The principal causes are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault on the power
system when the generator is operating at a high load angle close to the
stability limit or partial or complete loss of excitation. Pole slipping is
characterized by large and rapid oscillations in active and reactive power
and rapid disconnection is required to prevent serious damage to the
generator and its associated prime mover. During pole slipping the active
power flow in both the forward the reverse direction can be used to activate
the pole slipping protection relay. Typical settings for the out of step
protection for a generator are:
Forward Reach setting = Xt x 1.5 (Where Xt is the Generator Transformer Reactance)
Offset Reach setting = X’d x 2.

Over Flux Protection (24)

The magnetic flux in an electrical machine, transformer or reactor is

proportional to the voltage divided by the system frequency. The two
quantities can vary independently, and a high voltage together with a low
frequency can result in a in an excessive level of magnetic flux. This will
increase the iron losses which may cause damage by over temperature, and
may also cause magnetic saturation of the iron core of the equipment. When
this occurs the magnetic flux can leak out of the normal magnetic circuit and
cause unwanted heating of the external parts of the equipment. A protection
relay is provided which will trip the generator breaker and suppress the field
if the magnetic flux exceeds a predetermined level for a predetermined time.

Over/Under Frequency Protection (81)

Over frequency will cause the generator shaft to run above its design
speed which may excite resonances and cause vibrations. This relay
measures the frequency and will disconnect the generator for
excessive frequency and performs as a backup to the Gas Turbine
overspeed devices.

The system frequency falls when the electrical load exceeds the
generator prime mover rating. Under frequency will cause the
generator shaft to run below its design speed which may excite
 resonances and cause vibrations also damage to electrical equipment
due to increase in magnetizing currents. (Volts/cycle). The under
and over frequency relays are normally set in the region of ± 5%
of nominal frequency with a 10 second time delay to allow for
transient load swings.

Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)

The generator windings shall be protected against over temperature
normally caused by over loading the machine or failure of the cooling system
with dedicated RTD’s embedded within the windings. The RTD’s will be
connected to the associated generator protection relays to initiate warning
alarms and associated over temperature trips as required.
Unit Transformer Differential Protection. (87T)
A differential relay will be used to protect the HV and LV windings of a
transformer in order to detect internal phase to phase and phase to earth
faults. Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the
various windings of the transformer should sum to zero, taking into account
the turns ratio(s) of the windings. The differential relay monitors these
currents and operates if a discrepancy of approximately 5% of full load
current is detected. The relay can be set to take into account CT ratio’s.
The bias differential scheme is to cover for current transformer mismatch
and tap changing. By analysis of the harmonic content of the current
waveform, the relay is insensitive to the transformer magnetising current
(including inrush) and over fluxing. It is important that the differential current
transformers are sized in accordance with the relay manufacturer’s
recommendations to provide an accurate representation of the fault current,
taking into account into account the effects of CT saturation particularly for
high asymmetrical DC content. This is required to ensure that the differential
protection is stable during through fault conditions. The transformer primary
and secondary cables shall be included within the protected zone.
Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64)
Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for the generator unit
transformer secondary 132kV star connected windings. For parallel
 connected transformers the restricted earth fault relay will provide rapid fault
clearance in the event of a transformer earth fault where discriminating earth
fault protection is required with down stream devices.
The restricted earth fault relay’s shall be of the high impedance,
instantaneous, low set type incorporating a stabilising resistor to provide
through fault stability. The current transformer connections shall compare
the resultant current from the three phases with the current flowing in the
star winding neutral which for normal operation should sum to zero.
System Backup Earth Fault. (51G)
The 132 kV generator transformers shall each be provided with an IDMT
backup earth fault protection relay. The earth fault relay shall be time
delayed to operate in the event that should a 132kV system earth fault occur
and the system down stream earth fault relays fail to operate. The current
transformer for the backup earth fault protection shall be located in the
transformer neutral-earth connection between the unit transformer star point
and the neutral earthing resistor.
Transformer Over Temperature Protection. (26)
An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm when the transformer
oil temperature reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further increase
in oil temperature occur.
Transformer Low Oil Level Switch. (71)
The generator unit transformers shall each be equipped with a low oil level switch
located in the transformer conservator tanks to alarm and trip on low oil level.
Transformer Buchholz. (80)
The generator unit transformers shall each be provided with a Buchholz
overpressure relay with contacts which will be arranged to alarm in the event
of a slow gas overpressure and trip for a rapid liquid surge in the event of a
winding fault. This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping
relay located within the associated 132kV switchgear.
Generator Mechanical Protection
The generator mechanical protection devices for example vibration and lube
oil pressure, excitation system protection, stator winding temperature trips
and other such devices shall be connected into the generator protection
scheme to provide an alarm or trip as appropriate.
Essential Generator Protection
The 3.125MVA (2.5MW) 6kV essential diesel driven generators shall utilize
numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) to provide the following
protection functions.

 Generator Differential Protection. (87G) (Unbiased)

 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 System Earth Fault (51G)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD (49T) .

The protection devices 27, 32, 40, 46, 49T, 51V, 53, 59, 64, 81 and 87G which are
applied for the protection of
the essential generators have the same functionality as the protection
devices applied for the main generators as described in section 6.2. above.
A description of the essential generator earth fault protection device 51G is
presented below.
System Earth Fault (51G)
The essential generators are individually earthed through high impedance
earthing transformers and in the event of a generator earth fault with the
respective generator circuit breaker open a neutral displacement relay will
detect the fault and trip the diesel generator after a short time delay.
The essential power 6kV distribution system is earthed via a dedicated bus
connected earthing transformer to limit the earth fault current to a maximum
of 400 amps. In the event of a 6kV system earth fault not detected by the
individual circuit earth fault protection devices then a back up time delayed
 earth fault relay 51G connected in the earthing transformer neutral will
operate and trip all the associated feeders and out going circuits.
Distribution Transformer Protection
Power Distribution Transformers supplied at 6.6kV and above shall be
equipped with numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) connected to
suitably rated current transformers to provide the following protection
functions.
Transformer Primary Winding
 Differential Protection. (87T)
 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
Transformer Secondary Winding
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G )
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)
 Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)
 Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection (80)
 Transformer Over Pressure ((63).

Transformer Differential Protection (87T)

Differential relay’s will be used to protect both the HV and LV windings of a
transformer’s in order to detect internal phase to phase and phase to earth
faults.
Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the various transformer
windings should sum to zero, taking into account the turns ratio(s) of the windings.
The differential relay monitors these currents and operates if a discrepancy of
approximately 5% of full load current is detected.
By analysis of the harmonic content of the current waveform, the relay is insensitive
to the transformer magnetizing current (including inrush)
and over fluxing.
 The differential relays will be of the percentage biased type with second
harmonic compensation and shall be provided with Class X CT’s dedicated
for this scheme only.
This is required to ensure that the transformer differential protection is stable during
through fault conditions.
The transformer primary and secondary cables shall be included within the protected
zone.

Transformer Primary Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)

All distribution transformers and the associated primary cables which are supplied via
Circuit breakers shall be protected against both three phase and two phase short
circuits using instantaneous overcurrent relay elements connected to suitably rated
CT’s installed in each phase.
The transformer instantaneous relay elements shall be set not to trip under the
transformer magnetizing current inrush conditions.

And be set approximately 1.3 times above the system maximum through fault
currents and
therefore only operate on transformer internal faults and thus provide rapid
disconnection.

Transformer Primary IDMT Overcurrent Protection (51)

The distribution transformers and the associated cables shall be protected against
system overload currents using
three IDMT overcurrent relay elements located in each phase.

The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit.
The relay elements shall be set close to the full load current of the transformer with a
suitable grading margin .
Transformer Primary Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
 Transformer primary side earth fault protection shall be provided with an
instantaneous earth fault current element to provide rapid disconnection
in the event of a transformer primary earth fault.
The earth fault relay element be set to approximately 5% to 10% of the system earth
fault current and
will be supplied using three residually connected CTs or from a dedicated
core balance CT.

Transformer Secondary IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)

IDMT overcurrent protection shall be provided on all the distribution transformer

secondary side circuit breakers to
protect against switchboard busbar phase to phase and three phase faults
also to provide back up protection for the switchboard outgoing feeders.
The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit.
The relay elements shall be set close to the full load current of the
transformer with a suitable grading margin with the outgoing feeders as
described in Section 5.4.

Transformer Secondary IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G)

Transformer secondary side IDMT earth fault protection relay element shall be
connected to a suitably rated CT located in the transformer secondary winding
neutral star point connection.
The IDMT earth fault element will detect all earth faults located on the transformer
secondary side including the transformer secondary winding, associated switchboard
busbar and outgoing feeder earth faults.
The IDMT earth fault relay element shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit earth fault protect and act as backup protection to
the transformer restricted earth fault protection.
The IDMT relay elements shall be set at approximately 10% of the maximum earth
fault current with a suitable grading margin with the outgoing feeder earth fault
protection relays as described in Section 5.4.

Transformer Secondary Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)

Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for

distribution transformer secondary star connected
windings.
The restricted earth fault relay protection will provide
rapid fault clearance in the event of a transformer
winding earth fault where discriminating earth fault
protection is required with downstream devices.

The restricted earth fault relays shall be of the high

impedance, instantaneous, low set type incorporating a
stabilizing resistor to provide through fault stability.

The current transformer connections shall compare the resultant current from the
three phases with the current flowing in the star winding neutral which for normal
operation should sum to zero.

Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)

An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm
when the transformer oil temperature
reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further
increase in oil temperature occur.

Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)

The distribution transformers shall be equipped with oil
level switches measure the oil level in the transformer
conservator tank and alarm and trip should the oil level
fall.
Transformer Over Pressure (63)

For oil filled sealed distribution transformers, 3.125MVA

and below a pressure relief device will be fitted to
prevent the transformer tank reaching excessive
over pressure in the event of a winding or internal
fault.
A contact is fitted which provides a trip when the
overpressure device operates.

Transformer Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection. (80)

All distribution transformers above 3.125MVA and above

shall each be provided with a Buchholz overpressure
relay with contacts arranged to alarm
in the event of a slow gas overpressure and trip for a
rapid liquid surge in the event of a winding fault.
This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping relay located within
the associated switchgear.

Open Delta VT Earth Fault Detection

The secondary windings of the 33/6.9kV feeder

transformers to the essential switchboard will be
unearthed during energisation until the secondary
breaker is closed on to the 6.6kV bus and the
system is earthed via the earthing transformers.
 To detect transformer secondary winding earth
faults during this energisation period until the
circuit breaker an open delta voltage transformer
shall be provided.

When the system is healthy the voltage measured at the

open delta winding will be zero but should an earth fault
occur on the 6.6kV system
the voltage at the open delta connection can be
as high as three times the VT secondary phase
voltage.

This voltage can be measured by a dedicated

protection relay and the transformer primary
breaker can be tripped.

Switchboard Auto Transfer Schemes

The 11kV, 6.6kV and LV switchboards with 2 or 3 bus sections are provided
with an Automatic Transfer System (ATS). The ATS is a configuration using
a of numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) with a number of inputs
and outputs. The function of the Automatic Transfer System is loss of
voltage for 2 seconds on either of the switchboard incoming circuits will
automatically transfer power from a healthy bus section to the adjacent bus
section that has lost its supply by automatically closing the bus section
breaker providing that the failed bus is fault free. A schedule showing the
relative protection functions and the ATS operation is presented below.
AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SYSTEM LOGIC SCHEDULE.

Protection Device P Te P T Tr
Number e mp r r ip
r ora e i S
m ry v p e
i Blo e c
t ck n P o
Tra t r n
T nsf / i d
r er I m ar
a n a y
n h r Br
s i y e
f b a
e B
i k
r r
t er
 T e
r a
a k
n e
s r
f
e
r
50 -
Instantaneous X X X
Overcurrent
(Transformer
Primary)
51 - IDMT
Overcurrent X X X
(Transformer
Primary)
50G -
Instantaneous X X X
Earth Fault
(Transformer
Primary)
87 – Transformer
Differential X X X
Protection
64 – Restricted
Earth Fault X X X
(Transformer
Secondary)
50 -
Instantaneous X
Overcurrent
(Transformer
Secondary)
51 - IDMT
Overcurrent X X X
(Transformer
Secondary)
51N - IDMT Earth
Fault X X X
(Transformer
Primary)
26 - Transformer
Liquid Over X X X
Temperature
63 - Transformer
Over Pressure X X X
 26 - Transformer
Oil Low Level X X X

Temporary Block Transfer is an unrestricted instantaneous overcurrent device to

block an auto-transfer sensed by undervoltage should a downstream fault occur of
sufficient magnitude to pull the system voltage down.

This block transfer signal is provided to ensure that the downstream over current
protection on outgoing feeders has time to operate and clear the fault before the
auto-transfer takes place.

Bus Zone Protection

The 132kV, 33kV, 11kV and the 6.6kV Essential Switchboard shall be
equipped with a low impedance Bus Zone Protection scheme. The bus zone
protection scheme measures the current entering and leaving a bus bar on
each circuit. If these values of current do not sum to zero the bus zone
protection relay opens all breakers connected to the bus bar. Low
impedance bus zone protection schemes were selected when compared to
a high impedance schemes for the following reasons.
 None identical CT’s can be employed.
 No CT secondary switching is required
 Sensitivity Less effected by the number of CTs in the circuit.
 Operating time more consistent even with CT saturation.
 Easy to expand for future circuits.
 Minimal external wiring.
 Low impedance relays are inherently more stable than high impedance
schemes.

Based on vendor information a typical setting for a low impedance relay

scheme would be roughly 20% of the rated current. This is made up of the
following factors.
 5% Line CT errors.
 5% Interposing CT errors.
 5% Relay errors.
 5% Safety margin.

Settings lower than 20% of the relay rated current are not advisable unless high
accuracy matched CT’s are employed.
Induction Motor Protection
The induction motors will be controlled and protected in accordance with the
project protection drawings listed in section of this philosophy.
Motor Protection Schemes

The following protection schemes will be applied to induction motors

depending upon their rating.
 Thermal overload protection. (49)
 Short circuit protection. (50)
 Earth fault protection. (64)
 Under voltage protection. (27)
 Stall protection. (48)
 Negative phase sequence protection. (46)
 Differential Protection (87)
 Miscellaneous protection.

Thermal Overload Protection. (49)

Thermal overload protection will be provided in order to in order to restrict

excess current flow in the motor while the motor is running at the normal
operating speed. This protection element shall be provided in all phases
and shall include protection against single phasing and be at least trip class
20 in accordance with IEC 60947-4-1. The overload relays shall be of the
temperature compensated type and shall be equipped with manual reset
facilities.
 Limitation to the number of successive starts shall be applied to the motors,
especially to those motors that are associated with a long run up time.
In addition all MV motors above (1850kW) will be provided with resistance
temperature detectors (RTD’s) embedded in the stator winding. The RTD’s
shall be PT-100 type in accordance with IEC60751 and be connected to the
associated motor protection relays to initiate alarms and associated over
temperature trips as required.

Short Circuit Protection. (50)

All MV induction motors and the associated feeder cables which are
supplied via circuit breakers shall be protected against both three
phase and two phase short circuits using instantaneous overcurrent
relay elements connected to suitably rated CT’s installed in each
phase. The motor instantaneous overcurrent relay elements shall be
set above the motor starting current to prevent tripping during motor
starting conditions.
Medium voltage motors switched by vacuum contactors and all the
690 volt motors shall be protected against short circuit currents by
suitably rated HRC fuses. Coordination between the contactor and
protective devices shall be Type 2 as per AS/NZS 61459.

Earth Fault Protection (64)

All motors rated 30kW and above including all MV motors shall be provided
with instantaneous earth fault protection. The earth fault protection shall be
of the core balance type, otherwise be connected residually in the CT
circuitry provided for overload/phase fault protection.
Where earth fault protection is installed as part of a fuse contactor
arrangement on a solidly earthed system, for example the 690 motors, the
earth fault relays shall be coordinated with the circuit fuses to prevent to the
contactor switching a current greater than the contactor rating.

Undervoltage Protection (27)

 MV motors controlled by circuit breakers shall be protected by time
delayed under voltage relays to prevent block starting of motors to
prevent block restarting of a group of motors in the event of loss of
incoming supply.
Motors controlled by ac contactors provides its own inherent
under voltage tripping as the contactor drops out in less than
50 milliseconds if the voltage drops below approximately 70%
of nominal voltage.

The system shall provide for instantaneous re-closure of pre-selected motor

contactors following voltage dips of duration up to 200 milliseconds, and for an
adjustable time delayed re-closure following outages of duration up to 4 seconds.
Special restarting arrangements shall be made through the PCS for any drives
that have to be supplied from the essential services system since the supply from
the essential generators will not be available for at least ten seconds.

Stall Protection. (48)

Locked rotor current protection shall be applied to

all motors to afford protection against stalling.
This shall include motor stall protection during the
start condition as well as from a running
condition. If the stalling time is less than the
corresponding motor run up time then the motor
shall be protected via speed switch relays and
timer relays.

Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)

MV motors rated 6.6kV and above shall be provided

with negative phase sequence relays to protect against
unbalanced currents. This protection element shall
form an integral part of the motor protection relay .
Differential Protection. (87)

For motors above 1850kW differential protection

will be used to detect motor internal winding
faults which may develop between phase windings
or between the phase windings and the stator
core. The differential protection relay will be of
the biased type and requires to be stabilised to
prevent the motor starting current causing
nuisance trips. For these motors, the star point
connections shall be brought out to a star point
terminal box.
Where motors are supplied via dedicated unit
transformers the motor and associated transformer
shall each have separate differential protection.
Miscellaneous protection
All MV motors will be provided with bearing resistance
temperature detectors (RTD’s) embedded in the motor bearings to
trip the motor in the event of high bearing temperatures. The
bearing RTDs shall be connected to the PCS system to initiate
alarms and associated bearing over temperature trips as required.
The MV motors shall be equipped with vibration monitoring facilities
where vibration may cause significant damage to driven or associated
equipment.
Variable Speed Drive Protection

Medium voltage Variable Speed Drive units will

each consist of either one or two unit
transformers, one or two frequency converters
plus a synchronous motor. For the Gorgon project
the VSD drives use the LCI technology for the
 drives above 14MW and the VSI technology for the
smaller units. The following protection elements
for the VSD drives will be provide as a minimum.

Frequency Converter Protection

Protection of the frequency converter shall include but not be limited
to:
 Overcurrent. (51)
 Incorrect thyristor firing.
 Short-circuit internal to the converter. (50)
 Thyristor failure (short circuit).
 Loss of control voltage. (27)
 Earth fault in the power circuit. (64)
 Loss of cooling medium flow. (56)
 Over-temperature cooling medium. (23)
 High conductivity cooling medium. (56)
 High temperature inside enclosure. (49).

Converter Unit Transformer

The various protection elements applied for the protection of the converter
unit transformers are the same as those described in section 6.4.
Variable Speed Drive Motor
The protection of the main drive motor and supply cables shall include but not be limited to:

 Overcurrent. (51)
 Overvoltage. (59)
 Short-circuit. (50)
 Loss of field. (40)
 Earth fault in motor stator or supply cables. (64)
 Overspeed. (12)
 Winding over temperature. (49)
 Over-temperature or loss of cooling medium. (12)
 Rotor diode failure. (58)
 High bearing temperature. (38)
 Low lube oil pressure. (38)
 High vibration. (38)
Harmonic Filter Protection
It is anticipated that, there is no need for harmonic filters for this project. However, where installed, the
protection of the feeder to the harmonic filter shall be afforded by means of IDMT overcurrent and earth
fault relays. These are necessary in order to achieve effective discrimination with the protective devices,
which form an integral part of the harmonic filter package.
Within the harmonic filter package the individual harmonic filter circuits will be protected against short circuit
currents with an inverse time characteristic also detection of unbalanced currents within the star connections of
the capacitor banks.
The protection device settings will be chosen to meet the following criteria.

 The protection device must not switch off the filters during energisation.
 The overload protection must trip in the event of a single phase or three
phase capacitor short circuit.
 Steady state overloads will be detected to trip the individual filter circuit in
order to protect the resistors, reactors and capacitors from damage.

Tan-Delta Test-
In a pure capacitor current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. When a resistor is
introduced in between the current leads an angle less than 90 degrees.

Similarly in a Dielectric material when a cavity or deterioration starts , the life of the
material starts deteriorating , as there is a resistance getting added and hence
leakage current increases In tan Delta we find the difference in the angle and
periodically note down the pace at which deterioration takes place.
 
Electrical properties of the insulating system change due to age and continuous
electrical street. The principal contributor to the unexpected breakdown of the high
voltage equipment is the insulation failure. As compared to the magnetic, conducting
& insulating materials which form the basics of any electrical equipment, the
insulating material is more prone to service stresses like thermal stress, electrical
stress, mechanicals stress, environment stress etc.

By measuring the electrical properties such as capacitance and Tan-Delta regularly

on periodical basis, it is possible to ensure the operational unexpected breakdown.
Dissipation factor (Tan-Delta) is one of the most powerful off-line nondestructive
diagnostic tool to monitor the condition of solid insulation of various high voltage
equipment.

Capacitance and Tan-Delta values obtained on new insulation are treated as

benchmark readings. Then by measuring and comparing the periodical readings of
the capacitance and Tan-Delta of the insulating material with the benchmark
readings, one can know the rate of deterioration of the health of the insulation.

Knowing the rate of deterioration, we can be able to Predict the future unexpected
breakdown of the insulation of HV equipment. Plan the maintenance schedule.
Repair the insulation before actual flashover, saving high cost of replacement of
material which will reduce the inventory well as delay in procurement at the last
minute.
After repair, quality of insulation can be checked before returning the equipment to
service.

When to check capacitance & Tan-Delta

During manufacturing process preferably at each stage.

In service & will be depend on rate of change of Tan-Delta Vs Voltage Vs Time
(Month/Year).
Frequency of testing depends on history of past failures on same machine.
Frequency of testing depends on environmental conditions. More humidity,
temperature, pollution would require frequency measurement of Tan-Delta.

Read more: What is tan delta testing? | Answerbag

http://www.answerbag.com/q_view/12408#ixzz10kBDZOdC
 
How we can try to change the System Voltage and Generator Voltage?
When you try to change the Generator voltage, the set
point will change and the voltage will be increased .  But
it has a  limit that it can’t go up to 105% of the system
voltage(Normally AVRs set at 105% ceiling) which is not
normal as the machine to be operated at 100% of its
terminal voltage.

Further tap changer can be controlled, which in turn will reduce the reactive
power by increasing the system voltage.  It has got its own limitations based on
the number of taps.
Why and when FIELD FORCING is required? -
1. Supplying Reactive Power demand during any SHORT CIRCUIT and Motor Starting
 FIELD FORCING is automatically done by AVR with a view to supply reactive power d
motor starting and also during any SHORT CIRCUIT FAULT for the purpose of feeding re
Modern Digital AVR does have this facility.
 Field forcing has no effect at initiation of the fault - the current will be determined
 by the subtransient X, and the field forcing will only be initiated by the
 resulting voltage collapse. Eventually after sufficient time (say in the order of 5 seco
 the fault current is IL/xd (xd=direct axis synchronous reactance of the machine).
 As the duration of the fault progresses the sub transient reactance has less of an eff
 this would result in a fault current being 2 times the value of the normal line current
 Hence, the field forcing is done to keep the current at a higher value.
 The field forcing is a measure to ensure that sufficient current is available to operat
 In order to maintain short circuit current at a high level, field forcing or boosting is u
 giving the protection to act and trip the circuit breaker.
When you have got Short Circuit in Generator, Voltage of the Generator collapses
to such a low level (as explained above), so that current gets reduced to very
low value approximately to (1.5- 2) x I fl.
Now the there are two options, left out to detect this fault current and thereby
to operate the protection, shall be as below-
Option – I ------ Thru’ Voltage Restraint 51 V UNDERVOLTAGE DETECTION –
We can use 51 V (Voltage Restraint Relay) so that Multifunction Generator Protection
Relay shifts the curve to the 51 V from Current Dependent Overcurrent Relays and
typical under voltage situation due to short circuit can be detected.
Option – II ------- FIELD FORCING- The field forcing is automatically done by
AVR to increase the current to a reasonably higher level so that sufficient current is
available to operate the protection. In order to maintain short circuit current at a highe
field forcing or boosting is used for giving the protection to act and trip the circuit brea

2. Query:  If one of the GTGs (say, out of total 05 nos. GTGs) get tripped,
How fast-load shading scheme needs to be configured to save the entire Generation sys
Answer-
For saving the system, we need to devise a cross-trip scheme or under frequency
FAST LOAD SHADING 
and its tripping need to be in steps
 X MW if Hz reaches level A / IF GTG #1 is tripped, then,
 Y MW if Hz reaches B with IF GTG #2 is tripped less time delay &
 Z MW if Hz reaches C with no time delay.
X, Y & Z MW will depend on the size of the system, generation lost, & sensitivity of the s

Normally the recommended under frequency tripping in a 50 Hz system is 47.5 Hz

with the time delay may be in mille seconds.

The entire scenario needs to be simulated thru’ DYNAMIC STABILITY STUDY.

Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW:-

Case- 01) the question is what happens at the instant 1 GTG has tripped. Consider
the following scenario:

Pre-trip:   5 Generators rated 80 MW (ISO) and 60 MW (site) feeding a total load of

280 MW say so that the load on each generator is 280/5 = 56 MW.

During trip: 1 GTG trips, so the balance 56 MW has to be shared by the remaining 4
generators. Now each GTG can take a further 4 MW (theoretically) so how the
balance 40 MW will be shared at that instant and how the GTGs will behave during
that instant. There is no definite graph or equation provided by any GT manufacturer
to consider this event i.e. behavior of the machine above Base load…..loads shading
is the solution, but before that dynamic stability study needs to be done….
Say, we have 05 nos. Generators, producing total of X MW in Isolated system.
Now the loss of one generator producing Y MW will cause dropping of Hz to
approximately 45 Hz and the remaining 4 Gens will trip. If you immediately cross trip
load of 50 MW the frequency may stabilize at 47.5 to 48 Hz and the remaining Gens
may survive, therefore I recommend cross trip load of about 70 to 75 MW without
time delay. (Instant load shedding of 70 to 75 MW) to save the system.
Case- II - 04 Generators are in Droop Mode with 4 % Droop - (52-50/52) *100 = 4%.
Then 04 nos. GTG s shall be in droop / swing mode
And 01 no. GTG shall be in ISOCRONOUS mode.
01 no. GTG in ISOCRONOUS mode will absorb all the LOAD CHANGES with no
Impact on change in SPEED / FREQUENCY.
We need to carry out Transient Stability Study on this.
3. Load Rejection Test (Governor Test) – What is the purpose of it?
The purpose of Turbine Load Rejection Test is to verify and demonstrate the
governor function to sustain a Load rejection in order to prevent the turbine from
overspeed tripping, steady speed control at no-load operation
And remain in service without any adverse effect to the turbine.
The test requires skillful and appropriate operation not only for turbine, but also for
boiler and its auxiliaries.
4. “Why REVERSE POWER Protection is Critical?”

When the stop valve is closed, the entrapped Gas (steam) will produce some power
and low forward power will detect this and trip the machine. When machine goes into
reverse mode means steam is exhausted, and will reflect on the cooling effect of the
turbine blades based on the metallurgy and will lead to damage of the blades.
Reverse power protection is applied for the below reasons –
1. To prevent damage to mechanical plant items in the event of failure of the
prime mover. GTG and STG are prone to turbine blade and gearbox damage while
running in motoring mode.
Interpretation- In the event of a prime mover failure, a generator will act as a
synchronous motor when operating in parallel with other units and
drive the prime mover at synchronous speed, drawing power from the electrical
system. If the failure is due to a mechanical fault or fuel shortage, this may cause
further damage and could damage the gear box by driving reduction gears in the
reverse direction. The reverse power protection detects a flow of electrical power into
the generator and opens the generator circuit breaker. A time delay is introduced to
prevent operation on transient conditions, for example immediately after
synchronizing the generator. For reverse power protection, class 0.2 CTS with a non-
standard turns ratio is often employed for improved accuracy of measurement. The
prime mover vendor shall confirm the maximum motoring power to be used for the
reverse power relay setting however a typical setting for reverse power protection for
a large gas turbine driven generator is 5% Of the rated prime mover rated output.
5. In which specific case, we must use Directional Over current with Earth Fault
Element (67 / 67 N)? Is it under, while one Transformer incomer fails with bus-tie
closes to continue power?
 Earth Fault Current Restricted to 20 A

87G 50G 87G

~
N
E
Earth Fault R
N
E
R

a) Two generators are operating in parallel feeding to the same Generator

Switchboards through individual interconnecting
GCB (Generator Circuit Breakers) to 11 kV Generator Switchboards.
Earth Fault Current is limited to 20 Amps achieved through NER and we have 50 G
(Standby E/F) protection
and Differential Protection covering only Generators (differential for the generator
Cables will not work at all due to low sensitivity).
Now, in case of Single Line to Ground Fault in one of the Generator feeding cable,
Generator differential 87 G will not operate, as they will never see this fault.
However, both of the two 50 G (i.e. Generator Standby Earth Fault Relays) protection
will see this earth fault and try to Trip / Open both of the Incomer breakers, loosing
the entire board.
 In order to prevent the tripping operation of both the Incoming breakers together
, both of the 50 G relays will have Directional Earth Fault Element (67 N) with only
forward direction activation possible for tripping the only one Incomer out of the two
Incomer breakers.
Say, Earth Fault is there in the indicated place, then DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT OF
50 G of G1 will feed the fault in the upward direction, but, NON-DIRECTIONAL
ELEMENT OF 50 G of G2 will feed the fault in the back-FEED direction in the faulty
incomer. In that case, it should be coordinated such that it should trip only faulty
Incomer 1 (much before it trips Incomer-2). DIRECTIONAL ELEMENT OF 50 G of G1
will feed the fault in reverse direction (in the Upward) to trip & Isolate the Faulty
Incomer.
Similarly, Earth Fault is there in the second Generator Cable, in that case, it will trip
only Incomer 2.
In both of the above cases, directional element of protection relays will open-up the
only faulty incomer breakers, continuing the operation of the board thru’ other
Incomer breakers.
Note- 1). Here, we do not have Generator Overall Differential; hence Generator
Cable is not covered under any of the protected Zones.
2). If the Earth Fault Current limit is restricted to 400 Amps, Earth Fault relay
sensitivity will be lost.

Earth Fault Current Restricted to 20

87G
50G 87G

N
E
Earth Fault R
N
E
R

b) IN KNPC and KOC projects, BUS-SECTION ALWAYS REMAINS CLOSED, all

switchgears operate with two incomers closed and Bus coupler Closed. If there is a
fault in any one incomer side, that particular incomer gets tripped, and then the other
incomer operates. Both of the Incomers are 2 X 100 % sized, but normally operate
on 2 X 50 % basis with bus-sections closed. While one of the incomers gets tripped
due to any Transformer Fault / Cable Fault, other incomer will take over to cater 100
% load.
Advantage of Above Scheme- During normal LIVE- Bus Auto changeover of the
Incomers one incomer along with Bus coupler are closed (through momentary
Paralleling), Motors may be stopped causing production downtime, and again you
may need to give a start pulse to start the motor and start the production.
In above case, Directional Overcurrent with E /F Relays is used to detect the fault
feeding direction towards a particular direction.
c) If one / two lines of Refinery are connected to the Power Grid, then, and in that
case Refinery / Plant system should not feed any fault to the GRID. In that case, 67 –
directional overcurrent with E/F relays are used with a forward direction from the
plant to the grid, so that refinery can not feed any fault in to the grid system.

6. 132 kV and 220 kV systems are always SOLIDLY GROUNDED. But, what is
the reason?
In EHV system, capacitance is huge and capacitive current always act opposite to
the resistive current (i.e. vectorically, capacitive current is always at a phase angle of
90 Degree lead wrt. its resistive current).
In 220 kV systems, when a line to Ground Fault occurs, Ground Fault Current will
flow through the faulty phase windings and partly returning through NER and back to
the neutral.
And this Earth Fault current shall be neutralized by the CAPACITIVE current, which
is flowing in phase-opposition through the NER.
Note- In case of any electrical equipment, there is a Capacitance current flowing in
the system always from any healthy phases windings to the Ground.
7. Under Normal Healthy condition, ANY NER should be rated for carrying the
Capacitive Current continuously causing heating?
Under normal condition, protection setting should be well above this Capacitive
Current to avoid tripping.
8. FIRES WATER PUMPS are nowadays are mostly DIESEL DRIVEN in
OFFSHORE PROJECTS.
In Power & Onshore - One is electrically driven and another one is driven by Diesel.
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN FIRE WATER PUMPS – ALWAYS HAVE
MECHANICALLY LATCHING CONTACTORS, So that Control Circuit goes OFF,
even then Contactors remain in ENERGISED condition, as they are mechanically
latched.
Note- Latching means that you have got one Closing Coil for Closing and one
separate Opening Coil for Tripping. SAME REQUIREMENT SHALL BE GUIDED BY
NFPA GUIDE LINES.
9. How we should set the IS-Limiter in terms of Tripping Value of IS - Limiter –
One is First Cycle instantaneous Peak and another is Asymmetrical Peak?
Ip - This is the peak value reached during the first cycle of short-circuit current and is
the ‘fault make’ value. It is the part of the short-circuit calculation which determines
the magnetic force developed in conductors or in circuit breakers at fault incidence.
This corresponds to the switchgear fault make and bus bar peak withstand ratings.
Ib - This is the rms value of the symmetrical part of the current which a circuit breaker
has to interrupt and is the ‘fault break’ value at a user-defined time (t) from fault
incidence. The time represents trip pulse to contact separation in a circuit breaker. In
the calculations in this report the Ib value has been taken as the value at t = 0.05s.
The Ib value is used for comparison with switchgear fault break ratings and is also
suitable for comparison with 1 second thermal withstand ratings.
Ik” - This is the rms value of the symmetrical current at the instant the short-circuit
starts. It is the basic fault calculation from a V/Z computation and it is from this value
that the other values relevant to short circuit assessments are derived e.g. Ip and Ib.
The Ik” value gives the prospective primary-side fault current for the short circuit
design of transformers. Ik” can also be linked directly to manual check calculations.
10.
ESD system is always in FAIL SAFE mode- Under all Normal Healthy Condition,
ESD Relay Remain always energized in FAIL SAFE MODE. However, then Trip Coil
is under de-energized condition, and motor is running.
 And as ESD relay always remain energized, hence, NC CONTACT OF ESD
RELAY becomes NO and TRIP COIL is always UNDER DE-ENERGISED
CONDITION during al normally healthy condition.
 As soon as some Fire / Gas releases take place in the plant, ESD relay gets
deenergized ( which in turn changes its NO contact in to NC, which is in series with
Master Trip – 86 Relay to energise the related Trip Coil ). And thereby tripping the
circuit breaker of the targeted motor.
 The ESD is normally a stand-alone control system located in a CCR and is
heavily interfaced with all electrical supply circuits. However, there is not much
influence on the Electrical Discipline, except one issue: - ESD itself is powered from
ONE or, several UPS feeders and if UPS supply is lost, ESD will shut down all
related system as a FAIL SAFE MODE.

11. SALIENT VS CYLINDRICAL ROTOR -There are two (2) basic rotor structures
used, depending on speed.
SALIENT POLE - For low speed machines, such as hydraulic turbines, a relatively
large number of poles are required to produce rated frequency, hence a rotor with
salient poles is well-suited to this application. Such rotors often have damper
windings (amortisseurs) in the form of copper or brass rods embedded in the pole
face; they are intended to dampen out speed oscillations.
CYLINDRICAL ROTOR - For high speed machines, such as steam and gas turbines,
a relatively small number of poles (2 to 4) are required to produce rated frequency;
hence a cylindrical rotor is well suited to this application. Cylindrical rotor machines
have a relatively uniform air gap; therefore, it can be assumed that a cylindrical rotor
field will produce a uniform air-gap flux regardless of angular direction. This cannot
be said of a salient -pole machine as the air gap is much larger between the poles
(i.e. along the quadrature axis) than it is at the centers of the poles (i.e. on the direct
axis).
Main Generator and Unit Transformer Protection
Numerical multifunction protection relays (IED’S) shall be utilized to provide the following protection
functions for the 147.9MVA (118.32MW) main gas turbine driven generators and the associated 150MVA
15/138kV unit transformers.

 Generator Differential Protection. (87G)

 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection. (64TN).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 Out of Step Protection. (78)
 Over Flux Protection. (24)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)
 Unit Transformer Differential Protection. (87T)
 Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 System Backup Earth fault Protection (51G)
 Transformer Over-temperature Protection. (26)
 Transformer Low Oil Level Switch (71)
 Transformer Buchholz. (80)
To enhance the reliability of the generator and unit transformer protection scheme the following protection
elements, transformer differential protection (87T), generator differential protection (87G), transformer general
 protection and the generator general protection as listed above shall be located in four off dedicated relays each
relay powered from separate supplies.

Generator Differential Protection (87G)

Differential protection will be used to detect generator internal winding faults which may develop between
phase windings or between the phase windings and the stator core and does not need to discriminate with
other protection devices as the zone of protection is the generator and associated bus bar connections only.
The differential protection relay will be of the biased type and requires to be stabilized to prevent a
through fault causing nuisance trips. It is important that the differential CT’s are sized in accordance with
the relay manufactures recommendations to take into account the effects of CT saturation correctly,
particularly for through faults with high asymmetrical or DC content.

Reverse Power Protection (32)

In the event of a prime mover failure, a generator will act as a synchronous motor when operating in parallel with
other units and drive the prime mover at synchronous speed, drawing power from the electrical system. If the
failure is due to a mechanical fault or fuel shortage this may cause further damage and could damage the gear box
by driving reduction gears in the reverse direction. The reverse power protection detects a flow of electrical
power into the generator and opens the generator circuit breaker. A time delay is introduced to prevent operation
on transient conditions, for example immediately after synchronising the generator. For reverse power protection,
class 0.2 CTS with a none standard turns ratios are often employed for improved accuracy of measurement. The
prime mover vendor shall confirm the maximum motoring power to be used for the reverse power relay setting
however a typical setting for reverse power protection for a large gas turbine driven generator is 5% of the rated
prime mover rated output.
Negative Phase Sequence Protection (46)
Unbalanced generator loading can result in the flow of both positive and negative sequence components. The
reverse rotating component of stator flux passes the rotor at twice the synchronous speed and results in
overheating of the rotor body, rotor and damper winding. This is undesirable as the generator only has a limited
thermal withstand capacity for this heating effect. The negative phase sequence relay will be closely matched to
the thermal capability of the generator and will disconnect the generator if the negative phase sequence current
reaches excessive levels, typically 15% of the balanced load current. The relay usually has an inverse time
characteristic, to tolerate low levels of negative phase sequence current for longer periods of time, but will
operate more quickly for high levels of negative phase sequence current.

Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)

System back up protection of the generators will be implemented using voltage restraint overcurrent
protection. Where inverse definite time overcurrent protection is provided on the generators, the
protection may fail to operate because the output voltage and hence the fault current of the generator
decays in accordance with the transient and subtransient time constants of the machine. The voltage
restraint overcurrent relay will detect this under voltage condition as it is set to detect the synchronous
time constant of the machine and the relay overcurrent setting will be reduced to a lower level to ensure
operation of the protection relay.

Generator Stator Earth Fault Protection (64TN)

The main generator neutrals will each be earthed via a transformer coupled resistor which will limit the
earth fault current to 25 amps. This low value of earth fault current is to limit damage to the stator in the
event of an earth fault. Two independent fault relays are provided, one which measures the voltage across
the resistor and the other which measures the current flowing through the resistor. The relays have a
short time delay to prevent operation due to transients.

Under Voltage Protection (27)

The generator under voltage element will be used for protection of a generator in the event of prolonged
under voltage condition when operating as a single unit. When operating in parallel with other units this
under voltage fault will be detected as loss of field. Transient system under voltages can be caused by
excessive VAR demand during a system fault or during large motor starting or by a fault in the generator
excitation system. The under voltage protection will trip the respective generator following a time delay to
allow for transient voltage dips.
Over Voltage Protection. (59)
The overvoltage element will be used for protection of the generator in the event of prolonged overvoltage
conditions. A transient overvoltage may occur after a severe system fault is cleared or at the end of a large
motor run up period however a prolonged overvoltage is normally caused by an AVR or voltage sensing
circuit failure. As system overvoltages will cause increased stress in insulation and can cause saturation of
the iron cores of wound components for example transformers then to protect electrical equipment the
overvoltage protection will trip the generator breaker and suppress the field. A typical overvoltage setting
of 120% of nominal voltage for a period of 10 seconds is used.

Loss of Field Protection. (40)

Loss of excitation of a generator when running in parallel with another source will result in the faulty generator
operating as an induction generator and will absorb reactive power from the system. When a generator
operates as an induction generator it will be less able to absorb the power input from the prime mover as the
electric field between the stator and rotor will be weak and this can result in pole slipping. This is undesirable
as it causes torque pulsations in both the generator and prime mover and excessive voltages in the rotor
winding which may breakdown the rotor insulation. The loss of field protection for a generator never operated
at a leading power factor or load angles in excess of 900 the typical settings are:

Impedance Element Diagram Xb1 = Xd.

Impedance Element Offset Xa1 = X’d/ 2
Rotating Diode Failure Protection. (58)
The Rotating Diode Failure protection relay will monitor the current in the exciter field circuit in order to
detect a diode failure and prevent the ac rippling effect in the exciter field circuit. The relay will be time
delayed in order to prevent any spurious trips and especially with field forcing during a fault.

Rotor Earth Fault. (53)

The generator rotor excitation system is a normally unearthed system. The generator can operate with a
single earth fault but a second earth fault could cause large circulating currents, causing damage due to
heating and vibration from unbalanced forces. There would be a loss of ampere turns from the field
winding and the AVR would attempt to compensate by increasing the rotor current. The rotor earth fault
relay detects a single earth fault and initiates an alarm. The generator can be shutdown at the next
available opportunity and the rotor earth fault investigated.

Out of Step Protection. (78)

A generator may pole slip or fall out of synchronism with a power system for a
number of reasons.
The principal causes are prolonged clearance of a heavy fault on the power system when the generator is
operating at a high load angle close to the stability limit or partial or complete loss of excitation. Pole slipping is
characterized by large and rapid oscillations in active and reactive power and rapid disconnection is required to
prevent serious damage to the generator and its associated prime mover. During pole slipping the active power
flow in both the forward the reverse direction can be used to activate the pole slipping protection relay. Typical
settings for the out of step protection for a generator are:

Forward Reach setting = Xt x 1.5 (Where Xt is the Generator Transformer Reactance)

Offset Reach setting = X’d x 2.
Over Flux Protection (24)
The magnetic flux in an electrical machine, transformer or reactor is proportional to the voltage divided by the
system frequency. The two quantities can vary independently, and a high voltage together with a low frequency
can result in a in an excessive level of magnetic flux. This will increase the iron losses which may cause damage
by over temperature, and may also cause magnetic saturation of the iron core of the equipment. When this
occurs the magnetic flux can leak out of the normal magnetic circuit and cause unwanted heating of the
external parts of the equipment. A protection relay is provided which will trip the generator breaker and
suppress the field if the magnetic flux exceeds a predetermined level for a predetermined time.
Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
Over frequency will cause the generator shaft to run above its design speed which may excite resonances and
cause vibrations. This relay measures the frequency and will disconnect the generator for excessive frequency
and performs as a backup to the Gas Turbine overspeed devices.
The system frequency falls when the electrical load exceeds the generator prime mover rating. Under frequency
will cause the generator shaft to run below its design speed which may excite resonances and cause vibrations
also damage to electrical equipment due to increase in magnetizing currents. (Volts/cycle). The under and over
frequency relays are normally set in the region of ± 5% of nominal frequency with a 10 second time delay
to allow for transient load swings.

Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD’s (49T)

The generator windings shall be protected against over temperature normally caused by over loading the machine
or failure of the cooling system with dedicated RTD’s embedded within the windings. The RTD’s will be
connected to the associated generator protection relays to initiate warning alarms and associated over temperature
trips as required.

Unit Transformer Differential Protection (87T)

A differential relay will be used to protect the HV and LV windings of a transformer in order to detect internal
phase to phase and phase to earth faults. Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the various
windings of the transformer should sum to zero, taking into account the turns ratio(s) of the windings. The
differential relay monitors these currents and operates if a discrepancy of approximately 5% of full load
current is detected. The relay can be set to take into account CT ratios.
The bias differential scheme is to cover for current transformer mismatch and tap changing. By analysis of the
harmonic content of the current waveform, the relay is insensitive to the transformer magnetising current
(including inrush) and over fluxing. It is important that the differential current transformers are sized in
accordance with the relay manufacturer’s recommendations to provide an accurate representation of the fault
current, taking into account into account the effects of CT saturation particularly for high asymmetrical DC
content. This is required to ensure that the differential protection is stable during through fault conditions. The
transformer primary and secondary cables shall be included within the protected zone.

Unit Transformer Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64)

Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for the generator unit transformer secondary 132kV star connected
windings. For parallel connected transformers the restricted earth fault relay will provide rapid fault clearance in
the event of a transformer earth fault where discriminating earth fault protection is required with down stream
devices.
The restricted earth fault relay’s shall be of the high impedance, instantaneous, low set type incorporating a
stabilising resistor to provide through fault stability. The current transformer connections shall compare the
resultant current from the three phases with the current flowing in the star winding neutral which for normal
operation should sum to zero.

System Backup Earth Fault. (51G)

The 132 kV generator transformers shall each be provided with an IDMT backup earth fault protection
relay. The earth fault relay shall be time delayed to operate in the event that should a 132kV system earth
fault occur and the system down stream earth fault relays fail to operate. The current transformer for the
backup earth fault protection shall be located in the transformer neutral-earth connection between the
unit transformer star point and the neutral earthing resistor.

Transformer Over Temperature Protection. (26)

An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm when the transformer
oil temperature reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further increase
in oil temperature occur.
Transformer Low Oil Level Switch. (71)
The generator unit transformers shall each be equipped with a low oil level switch
located in the transformer conservator tanks to alarm and trip on low oil level.
Transformer Buchholz. (80)
The generator unit transformers shall each be provided with a Buchholz overpressure relay with contacts
which will be arranged to alarm in the event of a slow gas overpressure and trip for a rapid liquid surge in
the event of a winding fault. This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping relay located
within the associated 132kV switchgear.

Generator Mechanical Protection

The generator mechanical protection devices for example vibration and lube oil pressure, excitation
system protection, stator winding temperature trips and other such devices shall be connected into the
generator protection scheme to provide an alarm or trip as appropriate.

Essential Generator Protection

The 3.125MVA (2.5MW) 6kV essential diesel driven generators shall utilize numerical multifunction protection
relays (IED’S) to provide the following protection functions.

 Generator Differential Protection. (87G) (Unbiased)

 Reverse Power Protection. (32)
 Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)
 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Protection. (51V)
 Generator Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (64).
 Under Voltage Protection. (27)
 Over Voltage Protection. (59)
 Loss of Field Protection. (40)
 Rotor Earth Fault (53)
 System Earth Fault (51G)
 Over/Under Frequency Protection. (81)
 Generator Winding Over Temperature RTD (49T) .

The protection devices 27, 32, 40, 46, 49T, 51V, 53, 59, 64, 81 and 87G which are
applied for the protection of
the essential generators have the same functionality as the protection devices applied for the main
generators as described in section 6.2. above.

A description of the essential generator earth fault protection device 51G is

presented below.
System Earth Fault (51G)
The essential generators are individually earthed through high impedance earthing transformers and in the event
of a generator earth fault with the respective generator circuit breaker open a neutral displacement relay will
detect the fault and trip the diesel generator after a short time delay.
The essential power 6kV distribution system is earthed via a dedicated bus connected earthing
transformer to limit the earth fault current to a maximum of 400 amps. In the event of a 6kV system earth
 fault not detected by the individual circuit earth fault protection devices then a back up time delayed earth
fault relay 51G connected in the earthing transformer neutral will operate and trip all the associated
feeders and out going circuits.

Distribution Transformer Protection

Power Distribution Transformers supplied at 6.6kV and above shall be equipped with numerical multifunction
protection relays (IED’S) connected to suitably rated current transformers to provide the following protection
functions.

Transformer Primary Winding

 Differential Protection. (87T)
 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
Transformer Secondary Winding
 IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)
 IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G )
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)
 Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)
 Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)
 Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection (80)
 Transformer Over Pressure ((63)
Transformer Differential Protection (87T)
Differential relay’s will be used to protect both the HV and LV windings of a transformer’s in order to
detect internal phase to phase and phase to earth faults.

Under normal conditions the current flowing into and out of the various transformer
windings should sum to zero, taking into account
the turns ratio(s) of the windings.

The differential relay monitors these currents and operates if a discrepancy of

approximately 5% of full load current is detected.
By analysis of the harmonic content of the current waveform, the relay is insensitive to the transformer
magnetizing current (including inrush)
and over fluxing.
The differential relays will be of the percentage biased type with second harmonic compensation and shall be
provided with Class X CT’s dedicated for this scheme only.

This is required to ensure that the transformer differential protection is stable during
through fault conditions.
The transformer primary and secondary cables shall be included within the protected
zone.
Transformer Primary Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection. (50)
All distribution transformers and the associated primary cables which are supplied via
Circuit breakers shall be protected against both three phase and two phase short
circuits using instantaneous overcurrent relay
elements connected to suitably rated CT’s installed in each phase.

The transformer instantaneous relay elements shall be set not to trip under the
transformer magnetizing current inrush conditions
And be set approximately 1.3 times above the system maximum through fault
currents and
therefore only operate on transformer internal faults and thus provide rapid disconnection.

Transformer Primary IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)

The distribution transformers and the associated cables shall be protected against
system overload currents using
three IDMT overcurrent relay elements located in each phase.

The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit.
The relay elements shall be set close to the full load current of the transformer with a
suitable grading margin .
Transformer Primary Instantaneous Earth Fault Protection. (50G or 50N)
Transformer primary side earth fault protection shall be provided with an instantaneous earth fault
current element to provide rapid disconnection
in the event of a transformer primary earth fault.

The earth fault relay element be set to approximately 5% to 10% of the system earth
fault current and
will be supplied using three residually connected CTs or from a dedicated core balance CT.

Transformer Secondary IDMT Overcurrent Protection. (51)

IDMT overcurrent protection shall be provided on all the distribution transformer
secondary side circuit breakers to
protect against switchboard busbar phase to phase and three phase faults also to provide back up
protection for the switchboard outgoing feeders.

The transformer IDMT relay elements shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit.
The relay elements shall be set close to the full load current of the transformer with a suitable grading
margin with the outgoing feeders as described in Section 5.4.

Transformer Secondary IDMT Earth Fault Protection. (51G )

Transformer secondary side IDMT earth fault protection relay element shall be
connected to a suitably rated CT located in the transformer secondary winding neutral star point
connection.

The IDMT earth fault element will detect all earth faults located on the transformer
secondary side
 including the transformer secondary winding, associated switchboard busbar and outgoing feeder earth
faults.

The IDMT earth fault relay element shall be set to discriminate with the largest
secondary outgoing feeder circuit earth fault protect
and act as backup protection to the transformer restricted earth fault protection.

The IDMT relay elements shall be set at approximately 10% of the maximum
earth fault current with a suitable grading margin with the outgoing feeder earth fault protection relays as
described in Section 5.4.

Transformer Secondary Restricted Earth Fault Protection (64)

Restricted earth fault relays will be provided for distribution transformer secondary
star connected windings.

The restricted earth fault relay protection will provide rapid fault
clearance in the event of a transformer winding earth fault where
discriminating earth fault protection is required with down stream
devices.

The restricted earth fault relays shall be of the high impedance,

instantaneous, low set type incorporating a stabilizing resistor to provide
through fault stability.
The current transformer connections shall compare the resultant current
from the three phases with the current flowing in the star winding neutral
which for normal operation should sum to zero.

Transformer Liquid Temperature Device (26)

An over temperature switch shall be provided to raise an alarm when the transformer
oil temperature
reaches a preset level and to initiate a trip should a further increase in oil
temperature occur.

Transformer Oil Level Switch (71)

The distribution transformers shall be equipped with oil level switches measure the oil
level in the transformer conservator tank and alarm and trip should the oil level fall.
Transformer Over Pressure (63)
For oil filled sealed distribution transformers, 3.125MVA and below a
pressure relief device will be fitted to prevent the transformer tank
reaching excessive over pressure in the event of a winding or internal
fault.

A contact is fitted which provides a trip when the overpressure device operates.

Transformer Buchholz Surge and Gas Overpressure Protection. (80)

All distribution transformers above 3.125MVA and above shall

each be provided with a Buchholz overpressure relay with contacts
arranged to alarm in the event of a slow gas overpressure and trip
for a rapid liquid surge in the event of a winding fault.
This device shall include its own dedicated hand reset tripping relay
located within the associated switchgear.

Open Delta VT Earth Fault Detection

The secondary windings of the 33/6.9kV feeder transformers to the

essential switchboard will be unearthed during energisation until
the secondary breaker is closed on to the 6.6kV bus and the system
is earthed via the earthing transformers.
To detect transformer secondary winding earth faults during this
energisation period until the circuit breaker an open delta voltage
transformer shall be provided.
When the system is healthy the voltage measured at the open delta
winding will be zero but should an earth fault occur on the 6.6kV system
the voltage at the open delta connection can be as high as three
times the VT secondary phase voltage.
 This voltage can be measured by a dedicated protection relay and
the transformer primary breaker can be tripped.
Switchboard Auto Transfer Schemes

AUTOMATIC TRANSFER SYSTEM LOGIC SCHEDULE.

Protectio P Te Preve T Tr
n Device e mp nt/ r ip
Number r ora Inhibit i S
m ry Transf p e
i Blo er c
t ck P o
Tra r n
T nsf i d
r er m ar
a a y
n r B
s y re
f a
e B
r k
r er
e
a
k
e
r
50 - X
Instantan X X
eous
Overcurr
ent
(Transfor
mer
Primary)
51 - X
IDMT X X
Overcurr
ent
(Transfor
mer
Primary)
50G -
Instantan X X X
eous
Earth
Fault
(Transfor
mer
Primary)
87 –
Transfor X X X
mer
Differenti
al
Protection
64 –
Restricted X X X
Earth
Fault
(Transfor
mer
Secondar
y)
50 -
Instantan X
eous
Overcurre
nt
(Transfor
mer
Secondar
y)
51 - IDMT X
Overcurre X X
nt
(Transfor
mer
Secondar
y)
51N - X
IDMT X X
Earth
Fault
(Transfor
mer
Primary)
26 -
Transfor X X X
mer
Liquid
Over
Temperat
ure
63 -
Transfor X X X
mer Over
Pressure
26 -
Transfor X X X
mer Oil
Low Level

The 11kV, 6.6kV and LV switchboards with 2 or 3 bus sections are provided with an
Automatic Transfer System (ATS). The ATS is a configuration using a of numerical
multifunction protection relays (IED’S) with a number of inputs and outputs. The
function of the Automatic Transfer System is loss of voltage for 2 seconds on either of
the switchboard incoming circuits will automatically transfer power from a healthy bus
 section to the adjacent bus section that has lost its supply by automatically closing the
bus section breaker providing that the failed bus is fault free. A schedule showing the
relative protection functions and the ATS operation is presented below.

Temporary Block Transfer is an unrestricted instantaneous overcurrent device to

block an auto-transfer sensed by undervoltage should a downstream fault occur of
sufficient magnitude to pull the system voltage down. This block transfer signal is
provided to ensure that the downstream overcurrent protection on outgoing feeders
has time to operate and clear the fault before the auto-transfer takes place.
Bus Zone Protection
The 132kV, 33kV, 11kV and the 6.6kV Essential Switchboard shall be equipped with a low impedance Bus Zone
Protection scheme. The bus zone protection scheme measures the current entering and leaving a bus bar on each
circuit. If these values of current do not sum to zero the bus zone protection relay opens all breakers connected to
the bus bar. Low impedance bus zone protection schemes were selected when compared to a high impedance
schemes for the following reasons.

 None identical CT’s can be employed.

 No CT secondary switching is required
 Sensitivity Less effected by the number of CTs in the circuit.
 Operating time more consistent even with CT saturation.
 Easy to expand for future circuits.
 Minimal external wiring.
 Low impedance relays are inherently more stable than high impedance
schemes.

Based on vendor information a typical setting for a low impedance relay scheme would be roughly 20% of the
rated current. This is made up of the following factors.

 5% Line CT errors.
 5% Interposing CT errors.
 5% Relay errors.
 5% Safety margin.
Settings lower than 20% of the relay rated current are not advisable unless high
accuracy matched CT’s are employed.
Induction Motor Protection
The induction motors will be controlled and protected in accordance with the project protection drawings listed in
section of this philosophy.

Motor Protection Schemes

The following protection schemes will be applied to induction motors depending upon their rating.
 Thermal overload protection. (49)
 Short circuit protection. (50)
 Earth fault protection. (64)
 Under voltage protection. (27)
 Stall protection. (48)
 Negative phase sequence protection. (46)
 Differential Protection (87)
 Miscellaneous protection.
Thermal Overload Protection. (49)
Thermal overload protection will be provided in order to in order to restrict excess current flow in the motor
while the motor is running at the normal operating speed. This protection element shall be provided in all phases
and shall include protection against single phasing and be at least trip class 20 in accordance with IEC 60947-4-1.
The overload relays shall be of the temperature compensated type and shall be equipped with manual reset
facilities.
Limitation to the number of successive starts shall be applied to the motors, especially to those motors that are
associated with a long run up time.
In addition all MV motors above (1850kW) will be provided with resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s)
embedded in the stator winding. The RTD’s shall be PT-100 type in accordance with IEC60751 and be connected
to the associated motor protection relays to initiate alarms and associated over temperature trips as required.

Short Circuit Protection. (50)

All MV induction motors and the associated feeder cables which are supplied via circuit breakers shall be
protected against both three phase and two phase short circuits using instantaneous overcurrent relay
elements connected to suitably rated CT’s installed in each phase. The motor instantaneous overcurrent
relay elements shall be set above the motor starting current to prevent tripping during motor starting
conditions.
Medium voltage motors switched by vacuum contactors and all the 690 volt motors shall be protected against
short circuit currents by suitably rated HRC fuses. Coordination between the contactor and protective devices
shall be Type 2 as per AS/NZS 61459.

Earth Fault Protection. (64)

All motors rated 30kW and above including all MV motors shall be provided with instantaneous earth
fault protection. The earth fault protection shall be of the core balance type, otherwise be connected
residually in the CT circuitry provided for overload/phase fault protection.
Where earth fault protection is installed as part of a fuse contactor arrangement on a solidly earthed
system, for example the 690 motors, the earth fault relays shall be coordinated with the circuit fuses to
prevent to the contactor switching a current greater than the contactor rating.

Undervoltage Protection. (27)

MV motors controlled by circuit breakers shall be protected by time delayed under voltage relays to
prevent block starting of motors to prevent block restarting of a group of motors in the event of loss of
incoming supply.

Motors controlled by ac contactors provides its own inherent under voltage tripping
as the contactor drops out in less than 50 milliseconds if the voltage drops below
approximately 70% of nominal voltage.
The system shall provide for instantaneous re-closure of pre-selected motor
contactors following voltage dips of duration up to 200 milliseconds, and for an
adjustable time delayed re-closure following outages of duration up to 4 seconds.
Special restarting arrangements shall be made through the PCS for any drives that
have to be supplied from the essential services system since the supply from the
essential generators will not be available for at least ten seconds.
Stall Protection. (48)
Locked rotor current protection shall be applied to all motors to afford protection against stalling. This
shall include motor stall protection during the start condition as well as from a running condition. If the
stalling time is less than the corresponding motor run up time then the motor shall be protected via speed
switch relays and timer relays.

Negative Phase Sequence Protection. (46)

MV motors rated 6.6kV and above shall be provided with negative phase sequence
relays to protect against unbalanced currents. This protection element shall form an
integral part of the motor protection relay.
Differential Protection. (87)
For motors above 1850kW differential protection will be used to detect motor internal winding faults
which may develop between phase windings or between the phase windings and the stator core. The
differential protection relay will be of the biased type and requires to be stabilised to prevent the motor
starting current causing nuisance trips. For these motors, the star point connections shall be brought out
to a star point terminal box.

Where motors are supplied via dedicated unit transformers the motor and associated
transformer shall each have separate differential protection.
Miscellaneous protection.
All MV motors will be provided with bearing resistance temperature detectors (RTD’s) embedded in the
motor bearings to trip the motor in the event of high bearing temperatures. The bearing RTDs shall be
connected to the PCS system to initiate alarms and associated bearing over temperature trips as required.

The MV motors shall be equipped with vibration monitoring facilities where vibration
may cause significant damage to driven or associated equipment.
Variable Speed Drive Protection
Medium voltage Variable Speed Drive units will each consist of either one or two unit transformers, one or two
frequency converters plus a synchronous motor. For the Gorgon project the VSD drives use the LCI technology
for the drives above 14MW and the VSI technology for the smaller units. The following protection elements for
the VSD drives will be provide as a minimum.

Frequency Converter Protection

Protection of the frequency converter shall include but not be limited to:

 Overcurrent. (51)
 Incorrect thyristor firing.
 Short-circuit internal to the converter. (50)
 Thyristor failure (short circuit).
 Loss of control voltage. (27)
 Earth fault in the power circuit. (64)
 Loss of cooling medium flow. (56)
 Over-temperature cooling medium. (23)
 High conductivity cooling medium. (56)
 High temperature inside enclosure. (49)
Converter Unit Transformer
The various protection elements applied for the protection of the converter unit transformers are the same as
those described in section 6.4.

Variable Speed Drive Motor

The protection of the main drive motor and supply cables shall include but not be limited to:

 Overcurrent. (51)
 Overvoltage. (59)
 Short-circuit. (50)
 Loss of field. (40)
 Earth fault in motor stator or supply cables. (64)
 Overspeed. (12)
 Winding over temperature. (49)
 Over-temperature or loss of cooling medium. (12)
 Rotor diode failure. (58)
 High bearing temperature. (38)
 Low lube oil pressure. (38)
 High vibration. (38)
Harmonic Filter Protection
It is anticipated that, there is no need for harmonic filters for this project. However, where installed, the
protection of the feeder to the harmonic filter shall be afforded by means of IDMT overcurrent and earth
fault relays. These are necessary in order to achieve effective discrimination with the protective devices,
which form an integral part of the harmonic filter package.
Within the harmonic filter package the individual harmonic filter circuits will be protected against short circuit
currents with an inverse time characteristic also detection of unbalanced currents within the star connections of
the capacitor banks.
The protection device settings will be chosen to meet the following criteria.

 The protection device must not switch off the filters during energisation.
 The overload protection must trip in the event of a single phase or three
phase capacitor short circuit.
 Steady state overloads will be detected to trip the individual filter circuit in
order to protect the resistors, reactors and capacitors from damage.
Tan-Delta Test-
In a pure capacitor current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. When a resistor is
introduced in between the current leads an angle less than 90 degrees.

Similarly in a Dielectric material when a cavity or deterioration starts , the life of the
material starts deteriorating , as there is a resistance getting added and hence
leakage current increases In tan Delta we find the difference in the angle and
periodically note down the pace at which deterioration takes place.
 
Electrical properties of the insulating system change due to age and continuous
electrical street. The principal contributor to the unexpected breakdown of the high
voltage equipment is the insulation failure. As compared to the magnetic, conducting
& insulating materials which form the basics of any electrical equipment, the
insulating material is more prone to service stresses like thermal stress, electrical
stress, mechanicals stress, environment stress etc.

By measuring the electrical properties such as capacitance and Tan-Delta regularly

on periodical basis, it is possible to ensure the operational unexpected breakdown.
Dissipation factor (Tan-Delta) is one of the most powerful off-line nondestructive
diagnostic tool to monitor the condition of solid insulation of various high voltage
equipment.

Capacitance and Tan-Delta values obtained on new insulation are treated as

benchmark readings. Then by measuring and comparing the periodical readings of
the capacitance and Tan-Delta of the insulating material with the benchmark
readings, one can know the rate of deterioration of the health of the insulation.

Knowing the rate of deterioration, we can be able to Predict the future unexpected
breakdown of the insulation of HV equipment. Plan the maintenance schedule.
Repair the insulation before actual flashover, saving high cost of replacement of
material which will reduce the inventory well as delay in procurement at the last
minute.
After repair, quality of insulation can be checked before returning the equipment to
service.

When to check capacitance & Tan-Delta

During manufacturing process preferably at each stage.
In service & will be depend on rate of change of Tan-Delta Vs Voltage Vs Time
(Month/Year).
Frequency of testing depends on history of past failures on same machine.
Frequency of testing depends on environmental conditions. More humidity,
temperature, pollution would require frequency measurement of Tan-Delta.

How we can try to change the System Voltage and Generator Voltage?
When you try to change the Generator voltage, the set point will change and the
voltage will be increased.  But it has a  limit that it can’t go up to 105% of the system
voltage(Normally AVRs set at 105% ceiling) which is not normal as the machine to be
operated at 100% of its terminal voltage.
Further tap changer can be controlled, which in turn will reduce the reactive power by
increasing the system voltage.  It has got its own limitations based on the number of
taps.

List Of IEC Standards-

21. IEC- 60034 -1 - Rotating electrical machines.

Part 1: Rating and performance.

22. IEC 60034 -3 - Rotating electrical machines –

Part 3: Specific requirements for synchronous generators driven by steam -
Turbines or combustion gas turbines.

23. IEC60034-1 section 9- Other performance and tests –

9.1 Routine tests ....................................................................................................... 103
9.2 Withstand voltage test ......................................................................................... 105
9.3 Occasional excess current................................................................................... 109
9.4 Momentary excess torque for motors................................................................... 111
9.5 Pull-up torque...................................................................................................... 113
9.6 Safe operating speed of cage induction motors ................................................... 113
9.7 Overspeed .......................................................................................................... 115
9.8 Short-circuit current for synchronous machines ...................................................
117
9.9 Short-circuit withstand test for synchronous machines.........................................
117
 9.10 Commutation test for commutator machines ........................................................
117
9.11 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) for synchronous machines ................................
117.

24. IEC 62271-1- High-voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 1: Common
specifications.

25. IEC 61439-1- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part
1: General rules,
IEC 61439-2- Low-voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies –Part
2: Power switchgear and control gear assemblies.

26. IEC 60092 standards- OFFSHORE Cables will be low smoke, zero
halogen, (LSZH) oil resistant
27. Oversheath and flame retardant to IEC 60332-1-2 and IEC 60332-3-22
(Category A).

Partial discharge
In electrical engineering, a partial discharge (PD) is a localized dielectric breakdown of a small
portion of a solid or fluid electrical insulation system under high voltage stress, which does not
bridge the space between two conductors.

While a corona discharge is usually revealed by a relatively steady glow or brush discharge in
air, partial discharges within solid insulation system are not visible. PD can occur in a gaseous,
liquid or solid insulating medium. It often starts within gas voids, such as voids in solid epoxy
insulation or bubbles in transformer oil. Protracted partial discharge can erode solid insulation
and eventually lead to breakdown of insulation.

Discharge detection and measuring systems

A number of discharge detection schemes have been invented since the importance of PD was
realized early in the last century. Partial discharge currents tend to be of short duration and
have rise times in the nanosecond regime.

On an oscilloscope, the discharges look like randomly occurring 'spikes' or pulses. The usual
way of quantifying partial discharge magnitude is in Pico-coulombs.
Calibration setup
The actual charge change that occurs due to a PD event is not directly measurable. Apparent charge is used
instead. The apparent charge (q) of a PD event is the charge that, if injected between the terminals of the
device under test, would change the voltage across the terminals by an amount equivalent to the PD event.
This can be modeled by the equation:

q = CbΔ (Vc)
The apparent charge is not equal to the actual amount of changing charge at the PD site, but can be directly
measured and calibrated. 'Apparent charge' is usually expressed in Pico coulombs.

This is measured by calibrating the voltage of the spikes against the voltages obtained from a calibration unit
discharged into the measuring instrument. The calibration unit is quite simple in operation and merely
comprises a square wave generator in series with a capacitor connected across the sample.

Usually these are triggered optically to enable calibration without entering a dangerous high no voltage area.
Calibrators are usually disconnected during the discharge testing.

Protection and Metering Requirement (as per Quad -204)- Things to Remember.

Switchgear – Motor & Transformer Feeders.

1. ROGOWSKI COIL - For Partial Discharge Measurement.

Note - ROGOWSKI COIL is normally provided by the Generator Vendor / by Motor

vendor, as applicable.

2. SIS will Give 24 V DC to ESD and ESD Relays housed within ASD /
MCC panels.
3. ESD will provide INHIBIT signal to PMS for Breaker Operation.
4. ESD will give direct Trip Signals to Trip Coil – ST (Shunt Trip Coil).
5. Master Trip 86 (Latching Relay with HS – Hand Reset) will be connected
to ST (Shunt Trip Coil).
In a turn 86 will be connected to each of The Protection Elements in a
Multifunction Protection Relays.
6. Motor RTD- shall go to UCP (switchgear) for Alarm / Trip / ICSS.
7. Differential Class X – CTs shall be Across the Motors and Transformer
Feeders.
 8. TCS (Trip Circuit Supervision) will be connected to Trip Coil - (Actually
TCS will monitor the Trip Circuit during the period while Breaker is closed
and also as well as during the period while Breaker is opened).

Generator Package-

1. ROGOWSKI COIL is normally provided by the Generator Vendor.

2. Multifunction Protection Relay will be connected via all elements.
3. Earth Fault (Unrestricted) - Line Side Earth Fault CT will be Separate
in the Incomer Circuit.
4. Overcurrent - CT will be Separate in The Incomer Circuit.
5. Differential - CT will be Separate in The Incomer Circuit.
6. One CT will be connected for Analog Signals to PMS.
7. One Three Core Potential Transformer with Primary Fuses and
Secondary (VS) and Voltmeter
And a separate core to MULTIFUNCTION METERS.

Note- Common PT (13.8 kV / 0.110 kV) SIGNAL- BUS ….. to SYNCH & GPR –
Gen-1.

8. Generator Incomer Breakers - 13.8 kV switchgear Incomer Breakers

and GCP.

 Primary Protection Elements (27, 32, 40, 46, 50, 51V, 59, 64G,
67G, 74, 81, 87) will be connected to 86-1.
 BUR (Back-up Relays) ------- (51, 51 G, 74) shall be connected
to 86-2.
 86-1 will be shown for sending Excitation Trip Signal to AVR.
 GCB will be shown as Inter-trip to TCP (Turbine Control Panel)- For all
Types of Machine Earth Faults ( i.e. 51 G Earth Fault, 64 G Stator Earth
Fault , 67 G Directional Earth Fault ).
 Diode Fault Alarm / Diode Fault Trip – will be connected both to
AVR and TCP.
  ONE PT signal needs to be shown to be connected to AVR for
Voltage Feedback.
Same PT signal needs to be fed as well as to SYNCH.
 SYNCH needs to be configured for permissive for connection in
to CC for any Breaker Manual Closing and also Auto Closing.
 TCP for TURBINE TRIP thru’ 86-2, which is in turn
interconnected to MULTIFUNCTION RELAY.
 TCP- will be interconnected to (i) TCP Inter-trip to open GCB
(ii) Provision of One Soft option to Open GCB for Inter-Trip. (iii)
TURBINE TRIP thru’ 86-2.
 SYNCH will be interconnected to (i) Manual Close to open GCB
thru. Some Option of Soft Closing Command (ii) Provision of
AUTOCLOSING permissive to GCB.
 In total PMS will be connected with TCP and GCB and others.

Note- Common PT (13.8 kV / 0.110 kV) SIGNAL- BUS ….. to SYNCH

& GPR – Gen-1.

9. 13.8 kV Switchgear Bus-coupler Breakers.

 CT and Common PT SIGNAL- BUS to FPR (Feeder Protection
Relay- 27 A, 27 B, 50, 51, 51G, 74).
 PMS (for Remote Tripping) ------- ST ------ TCS.
 FPR (Feeder Protection Relay) ------ Permissive Close ………
CC.
 CC ……. Permissive Close ……. Bus coupler Breaker.
 PMS ----- CC.
 TCS ….. ST ….. PMS.

Note - Common PT (13.8 kV / 0.110 kV) SIGNAL- BUS ….. to SYNCH & GPR –
to Outgoing Feeders Bus- A and also to Outgoing Feeders Bus- B.

10. 13.8 kV Switchgear Motor VSD Feeders- For all 13.8 kV & 6.6 kV
Motors .
  Typical Feeder Protection Relay (A, KW, 50, 51, 51G, 74).
 Motor RTD to be connected to ………….. UCP / ICSS for Temp.
Monitoring Alarm / Trip?
 VSD unit …… Permissive … to ….. CC.
 VSD Units ……. Pre trip Alarm …… FPR.
 TCS ………. ST …… Trip- VSD …….. EM. Stop Push Button for Motor
……. VSD units.
 EM. Stop Push Button for Motor ……… INHIBIT …….. To …….. CC.
 OPEN command ….. …….. ST
 EARTH FAULT --- ONE CBCT (5 VA, 5P20, 100: 1) …. … For Earth
Fault.
 OVER CURRENT ------ One 3-Phase CT (5 VA, 5P20, 100: 1) ….. For
OVER CURRENT.
 ESD will INHIBIT……….. PMS Operation for Closing & Opening of all
related breakers.
 PMS ……….. CC and ST.
 24 V DC (from SIS) to be fed to ….. ESD.
 FPR (A, KW, 50, 51, 51G, 74, 27)……….86 ….. ST.
 FPR (A, KW, 50, 51, 51G, 74, 27)………. EMN – Electrical Maintenance
Network.

Note-
 In case of VSD units, SIS will provide ………… 24 V DC to ……. ESD Relays
located in VSD Units.
 In case of Starter feeders, SIS will provide… …. 24 V DC to …….. ESD
Relays located in Starter Units.
 ST means - SHUNT TRIP, CC - CLOSING COIL, BUR- Backup Protection
Relay, SIS - Safety Instrumented System, SYNCH- SYNCHRONISING
FUNCTION, TCP- TURBINE CONTROL PANEL, TCS - TRIP CIRCUIT
SUPERVISION RELAY, etc.

Note- There is two Separate Specific Emergency Conditions, while ESD relays
are operated:-

 1). One is Emergency Conditions due to Gas Leakage / Fire Hazards. Fire
and GAS (F&G) detection system should actuate the ESD relays.
 2). Another one is Emergency Conditions due to unsafe Process Conditions
(process parameters going beyond safe limits).
 Key Services (Essential)

We have following Key Services Switchboards-

5. Topsides - Key Services Switchboards - Main Generator Auxiliary

Switchboards - needs to be supplied from this switchboard.

6. Forward Key Services Switchboard.

7. Accommodation Key Services Switchboard.

8. Emergency Switchboards - Process Shutdown & Start-up Loads.

Essential Loads to Cater to The following –

11. Generator (GTG) Auxiliary Loads.

12. PORTABLE WATER pumps.
13. Crane Loads.
14. Few Loads on Accommodation.
15. HULL Statutory Loads.
16. Emergency Lighting (400 kVA).
17. Instrument Air Purging System.
18. Process Shutdown and Start-up Loads.
19. Thruster Loads.

Sometimes, Sewage System needs to be fed from two duplicate feeders’

services?
Essential loads (BP SPECIFICATION).

These are loads which are important to the safety of the

installation or the operational staff, and which require power to
permit a controlled shutdown of process plant and facilities in an
emergency. They should have a second independent power
source and be generally associated with no break supplies.

In certain cases, a short supply break of say 15 minutes may

be acceptable if this
does not represent a hazard to safety.

a). Included in the concept of essential loads would be such

devices as emergency
Shutdown systems lube oil pumps for gas turbines and
large compressors, Ventilation systems, helipad lighting,
emergency lighting, some floodlighting
Systems, navigational aids, radio systems etc.

b). Some loads, which are essential by this definition, may

require the provision of emergency power supply facilities in
order to meet legislative requirements such as NFPA 70
(guidance is available in IEEE Std 446).
Bonding techniques can substantially
reduce the magnitude of current flowing
through a sheath:
Methods for increasing current carrying capability 
To increase the current carrying capability of a power cable, it is possible to use one
or more methods: 
• Reduce losses (conductor, dielectric, armour and sheath) 
• Decrease thermal resistances 
• Place cable in an area with a lower ambient temperature.

Conductor losses can be reduced by using a conductor with a larger cross-sectional

area 
And / or a lower resistivity.

Dielectric losses can be reduced by using dielectric materials with a low loss angle
and /or a low permittivity. As dielectric losses are usually low in Comparison to
conductor and sheath losses, these can often be neglected.  

Reducing power cable sheath losses can obviously be achieved by the use of higher
cross-sectional area sheaths and/or sheaths of lower resistivity. In addition, various
special bonding techniques can substantially reduce the magnitude of current flowing
through a sheath: 

• End point bonded systems: In this type of system, the sheaths of power
cables are earthed at one end only. The other end of the sheaths is insulated from
the ground.
A voltage will appear between the end of the sheath and the ground. This voltage
will be proportional to the current flowing through the power cable. Care must be
taken to ensure that the voltage appearing between the sheath and the earth does
not exceed a specific level. In reality, this is accomplished by limiting the cable length
to which end point bonding is applied.

A separate path for earth fault current must be provided if the cable sheaths are not
bonded for power system protection purposes.

As the voltage between the cable sheath and earth will rise to a high level under fault
conditions, sheath voltage limiters (a type of surge arrester) are normally fitted
between the end of the sheath and the earth. No current circulates through the
sheath when this type of bonding is used.

• Mid point bonded systems: If the cable length is so long that the use of
end point bonding will result in standing voltages above the safe limit , mid point
bonding can be used. The cable sheaths are bonded to earth at the mid point of the
power cable. At the end of the power cable, sheath voltage limiters are fitted to the
sheath which is otherwise insulated from earth. A standing voltage is developed at
each end of the power cable. By using mid point bonding as opposed to end point
bonding, twice the length of cable can be installed. No current circulates through the
sheath when this type of bonding is used.

Sheath voltage limiter is an arrester that is used to clamp the voltage

induced on the sheath of an underground high or medium voltage cable during a
fault on the system.  It is common practice when applying underground cable to only
ground the cable sheath at one end of the cable, and leave the other end open.  
Leaving one ungrounded reduces circulating currents and losses during steady
state operations.  IEEE standard 575-1988 indicates that typically distribution arresters
can be used for this function.  IEC Application guide 60099-5 soon to be published
offers a formula to use to determine the voltage rating of the arrester, but does not
offer any guidance regarding the energy handling rating.

The photo below is an SVL on a 69kV underground system in Lakeland Florida.  A

standard distribution arrester is being used. This is the first ever SVL I have seen on a
transmission line riser pole.
What is the purpose of using Sheath Voltage Limiter in Single point
bonding?

Sheath Voltage Limiter

A sheath voltage limiter (SVL) is the common name
which is used to describe a metal oxide surge arrestor
which is used to protect any part of the sheath
insulation from transient over voltages.

Discussion: What is of knee point voltage of a CT & what is its

significance
According to IEC 60044, Knee point is the point on excitation
characteristic of CT at which 10% increase in the secondary
voltage requires a 50% increase in excitation current. It is
regarded as a practical limit above which specified current ratio
may not be maintained (i.e. saturation). In this case the wave
form of CT secondary will not be sinusoidal. 

Knee Point is the point on the magnetizing curve at which the Characteristic of CT
switched from linear mode to Non Linear Mode and later it enters the saturation
region. The application of this term is very important in case of Electrical Protection;
when commissioning of a grid station takes place, it is necessary to perform CT
sufficiency calculations and these calculations refer to calculating different
parameters including Stability Voltage. This stability voltage must be ½ times as
compare to knee point voltage. This stability voltage refers to the point which lies
below knee point on the magnetizing curve and thus it ensures that it never reaches
the knee-point and hence, Saturation will be avoided.

STABILITY VOLTAGE is the voltage which is calculated

for full rated secondary current and total connected load
of the CT.
Difference between GTG and STG Operation –
1. STG- Steam flow is working as a COOLANT to the Steam-Turbine Blades. If Generator is running with load, then only
STEAM FLOW will be adequately sufficient to cool down the Steam-Turbine Blades. Hence, STG is not advisable to run
on FSNL (FULL SPEED NO LOAD).

NO load means that there will be no adequate Steam Flow.

Similarly, if Steam Turbine is not running, but Generator is running in the REVERSE POWER Mode, then also STEAM
FLOW will not be there to cool down the Steam-Turbine Blades, which is dangerous.

Hence, REVERSE POWER Mode is dangerous for Steam Turbine operation, which can damage STG blades.

2. However, GTG – GTG can run on FSNL (FULL SPEED NO LOAD). Gas Flow does not act as a Coolant.

Hence, In case of STG tripping, we should trip Steam Turbines also.

Generator specification:-

1. Insulation Class and Temperature Rise -

2. Minimum site Ambient and Maximum Site Ambient :-
3. IP Rating :-
4. Cooling Code :-
5. Bearing Type :-
6. Vibration :-
7. Nose Level-
8. Type of Excitation – Brushless, Excitation Power thru’ Shaft Mounted PMG.
9. AVR Mode- Droop Control, Power Factor Control, Voltage Control,.
10. Droop setting- 4 %.
11. Testing:-Load Acceptance – Largest motor can be started.
a. Load Rejection Test - 100 % load Throw-off , Turbine over speeding, but
then Turbine STEADY SPPED CONTROL , Turbine should not Trip .
12. Control and Main Protection-
13. Electrical Parameters – XD” (Sub-Transient Reactance), XD’ (Transient
Reactance), Xs (synchronous Reactance).

14. Type of Generator – Salient Pole up to 1500 RPM (4 Pole), Cylindrical

( due to uniform air-gap ) can generate more centrifugal force ) for speed
above 1500 rpm.
 15. SCR ( Short Circuit Ratio) – Lower this SCR, higher the Stability.
16. Documentation to be submitted :-

TRANSFORMER OIL TESTING VALUES

A. MOISTURE CONTENT
 
New Transformer at the time of Charging:
 
420kV - 20ppm
220kV - 20 ppm
132 kV - 40 ppm
33/11/6.6 kV - 50 ppm
 
Note-Values will be different when transformer is old and under maintenance.
 
B. Acid index: 0.3 -0.35 (For all levels).
 
C. BDV (2.5 mm contact gap)

Minimum 30 – 40 kV (MV & LV)

 
Minimum 50 kV (132, 220, 420KV).

8.1 Monitoring and Alarm Systems

(a) Sufficient information shall be

provided either remotely or local to
the power supply equipment to
enable rapid identification of fault
conditions or confirmation of healthy
status.
(b) Alarms shall be provided to indicate
at a manned control point any fault
condition on a major unit in a power
supply system. This may take the
form of a common alarm requiring
examination of the local indication to
diagnose a fault condition.
 (c) Remote signaling of alarm conditions
shall be classified into the
categories :
 Emergency Trip
 Urgent Alarm
 Information

9. Operations & Maintenance

All control and recording of variables pertinent to safe, economic and reliable
operation shall be located in the Central Control Room. An extensive radio
and paging facility shall be provided for operator to operator and inter control
room communications, particularly for outside operators, who will perform
local outside operations tasks.
Where an outside operator’s attention to equipment and systems is required
on more than a periodic basis, or required for local take over during start-up,
shut-down or gross upsets, local instrumentation shall be provided to the
extent necessary to accomplish his job safely and reliably.
The overall operations start up sequence shall be determined early enough in
the Front End Engineering, to ensure that the design, and Process Hazard
Analysis (HAZOP) studies, recognise this sequence. In addition, this
knowledge will aid construction planning, ensuring the most efficient
commissioning and start up of the completed facilities.
Care shall be exercised in piping design to ensure that frequently operated
valves, control valves, orifice plates, D/P cells, and other items which require
regular maintenance are accessible from grade where possible.
Special attention shall be given to standardization and interchangeability of
equipment and spares.

How to reduce harmonics by structural

modifications in the AC drive system
The cause The effect

1. The larger the motor… the higher the current harmonics

 2. The larger the DC or AC inductance… the lower the current harmonics
3. The higher the number of pulses in The rectifier… the lower the current
harmonics
4. The larger the transformer… the lower the voltage harmonics
5. The lower the transformer impedance… the lower the voltage
harmonics

6. The higher the motor load… the higher the current harmonics
7. The higher the short circuit capacity of supply… the lower the voltage
harmonics

UNITERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY (UPS) – Break down Minimization.

1. In the Input, there are two phase-shifted Transformers, which are two numbers of Phase-
Shifted Transformers, which in turn reduce the HARMONICS generated in the Supply
system due to non-linear loads.
2. In the output also, there are LC FILTERS to minimize the HARMONICS.
3. There are one STATIC SWITCH in the Normal Power Supply and another STATIC SWITCH in
the MANUAL BY PASS SYSTEM (MBS).
4. In the MANUAL BY PASS SYSTEM (MBS), GUTOR provides SERVO TRANSFOMER (Motor
operated TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER) in lieu of STATIC SWITCH in the MANUAL BY
PASS SYSTEM.
5. Lot of consultants including EIL does not allow SERVO TRANSFOMER (Motor operated TAP
CHANGING TRANSFORMER) in lieu of STATIC SWITCH in the MANUAL BY PASS SYSTEM.
6. SERVO TRANSFOMER (Motor operated TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER) is vulnerable to
Break down problems.
7. STATIC SWITCHES are consisting of two anti-parallel Thyristors operated via Control Cards .

Note- Sources of Fault Analysis for UPS -

 Control Cards in case of Static Switches – STATIC SWITCHES are

consisting of two anti-parallel Thyristors operated via Control Cards.
 SERVO TRANSFOMER (Motor operated TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER) in lieu of STATIC SWITCH in the MANUAL BY-PASS
SYSTEM.
 Battery Fuse /MCCB power supply.

TRANSFORMER OIL TESTING VALUES

A. MOISTURE CONTENT
 
New Transformer at the time of Charging:
 
420kV - 20ppm
220kV - 20 ppm
132 kV - 40 ppm
33/11/6.6 kV - 50 ppm
 
Note-Values will be different when transformer is old and under maintenance.
 
B. Acid index: 0.3 -0.35 (For all levels).
 
C. BDV (2.5 mm contact gap)

Minimum 30 – 40 kV (MV & LV)

 
Minimum 50 kV (132, 220, 420KV).

 Introduction of Predictive Maintenance techniques-Equipments Identified,

Schedule Prepared, Data Base Developed, Training Given to Operator, Predictive
maintenance Implemented, as per below details-

1. THERMOGRAPHY

 MV Switchgear Cable Jointing Termination- INFRA RED CAMERA WAS put in the Cable Jointing
Termination, Circuit breaker Jaw contacts, where maximum heat generation is possible.
 High Voltage Switchyard.

2. TRANSFORMER OIL ANALYSIS

 Moisture Content.
 Break Down Voltage.
 Acid Index.
 Dissolved Gas Analysis.

3. MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS (MCSA)

BLACK START HAZOP-System Restoration situation- EDG- Bypass mode, ESD will
be bypassed .

1. Due to Gas leakage, ESD has operated thru’ Fire and Gas System.

2. We need to bypass the ESD to restore all breakers in to Breaker Closed Position (i.e. change from Tripped
condition).

3. Operators have to carry one PORTABLE BATTERY (complete with charger) set and then need to START THE
EMERGENCY DISEL GENERATOR SET (EDG) in EDG- Bypass mode.

4. In EDG- Bypass mode, ESD activation to Trip Coils will be deactivated (bypassed) and then power supply
to all trip coils will be deactivated and then we can start EDG for supplying Power to all Essential Loads.

5. Battery MCCB will be tripped also, hence we need to close the Battery MCCB, by means of bypassing ESD
and then sourcing all of the essential switchgear-closing coil by means of portable battery and then only
all breakers in Essential Switchboards (including Battery MCCB) will now be closed.

Detailed philosophy needs to be looked for.

Sequence of Events -Black Start is as below:-

1. There is no Power Generation in operation and complete Black Out condition.
2. ESD (safety and shut down systems) has operated due to Gas leakage.
3. All personnel have to evacuate the platform.
4. Fuel available in day tanks
My query is after two days (say) while you return to the plant, System Restoration situation.

How we will start the Diesel Generator, as its FUEL TRANSFER PUMP is not running and NO POWER is there.
MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS
AND INTERPRETATION:-

A motor current signature analysis (MCSA) should be considered for the factory acceptance testing of critical
and large high voltage motors.
MCSA should provide data for motor operated at rated speed and the following:
 Full Load (Rated kW).
 No Load (Uncoupled from driven equipment.)
 Design Load (Driving the designated load.)
MCSA data should be obtained under controlled initial conditions in order to obtain accurate "signatures" which
will aid later evaluations.

An MCSA test gives indication of a range of problems and incipient

problems such as:
 Broken rotor bars,
 Alignment,
 Eccentricity.

It can be used as a footprint for later evaluation of motor health. Installation of

couplings, gearboxes, and driven equipment affect motor current signature and
therefore it is important to measure motor current with the motor uncoupled as well
as in the actual drive configuration.

Note- Motor current should be continuously monitored or periodically measured and compared against
the MCSA data to gauge health of the motor.
Motor current comparisons against the "signature" should be documented and retained for establishing
trends and future analysis.

Technical Notes on ‘Recombination Type Battery’

3.0 Introduction

This Technical Note is intended to highlight some of the major merits and demerits of
specific two types of battery system i.e. Lead Acid and NI-CAD (specifically
Recombination Type Cells). This document is mainly targeted to its aspects of design,
maintenance, including cost and space requirement.
 The battery capacity is expressed as Charge, which equals to Current (I) X Time (T)
(i.e. Ampere–Hour); hence battery can supply a large current for short time or, a small
current for a large time. Therefore, for battery sizing, we need to determine the nature
of load current as a dependent function of time over a typical operating period. For
example, a switchgear battery can be rated to cater the power supply to protection
relay supplies and Instrument Lamps supplies on a continuous basis. And on an
occasional basis, it can be rated to cater the power supply to spring-charging current
and also to trip / release coil operation during the battery autonomy period.
Batteries are used to store DC energy which is later used to cater supply to a block of
energy to a load; often in the form of high current for a short time e.g. rewinding
mechanism springs in switchgear, emergency power to lighting, starter motors on
engines and gas turbines, etc. This High Current discharge for a short duration is
known as DEEP DISCHARGE. On the other hand, Low current discharge for longer
duration is termed as SHALLOW DISCHARGE.

Note- Battery AH nominal ratings are based on 10 Hour discharge time. For all other
discharge time, AH is not proportional linearly. Example- 100 AH means only 10 Amp
for 10 Hour Discharge duty (but, not the 12 AH for 8 Hours Discharge Duty, similarly
not 20 Ah for 05 hour Discharge, etc. etc.),
4.0 Purpose

This document addresses broad guidelines to the designers, purchasers and installers
on the selection of the battery type. We need to use our judgment based priorities in
terms of its typical application, service life expectancy, plant operability and
maintenance, CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) and OPEX (Operation Expenditure).
5.0 Design

Battery sizing is determined by cell end of discharge voltage and the maximum
system voltage. Cell-End-of-Discharge voltages are determined by adding the voltage
drop, between battery and load equipment under maximum load conditions, to the
lowest voltage acceptable to the load equipment. The maximum system charge
voltage is determined by the maximum voltage the load can tolerate. The combination
of these two limits is used to determine the number of cells to be used on the system
in an optimized fashion. However, it is recommended that cell size should be at least
1.25 X the design load to allow ageing alone.
Batteries used for industrial application are primarily of two types –
1. Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd).
2. Lead-ACID (Pb).
Note- In the applications considered in this technical note, only Gas Recombination Valve
Regulated type cells are considered.

3.1 Principles of Recombination Cycle

In a conventional flooded NICD cells, water is lost from the battery on Overcharge due the
following reactions-
At the Positive Plate-

4 OH─ → 2 H2O + O2 + 4e─

(Oxygen Evolution).

At the Negative Plate-

4 H2O + 4 e─ → 2 H2 + 4 OH─

(Hydrogen Evolution).
Above corresponds to a theoretical loss of 36 g of Water for 107 Ah of Overcharge i.e.
0.355 cm3 per Ah.
Hence, a conventional cell requires periodic addition of water. The frequency of this
water topping up depends upon the cumulative amount of Charging received and the
operating temperature.
The Oxygen produced at the positive plate surface is collected in the special porous
separator and thus not allowed to escape from the region between the plates. As soon
as oxygen reaches the negative plate it reacts either chemically:
The rate at which recombination take place on Overcharge, depends upon the charge
current once the positive plate has reached a full state of charge. The charge current
in turn is controlled by the charging voltage level set on the charging equipment and
the ambient temperature. By controlling the charge Voltage high efficiencies can be
achieved and in this way the rate of water loss can be reduced to a fraction of that
from conventional batteries.
3.2 Recombination NICD cells

Recombination NICD cells have very similar characteristics to conventional wet NICD cells
except the gas produced within the cell is held under pressure of about 2 to 3 psi; an absorbent
mat material between the plates enables the gas to recombine, resulting in a very low loss of
water. Operational advantage of the cell is that with a float voltage of 1.45 V/ cell, a topping -up
maintenance should only be required every 12 years. At 1.42 V/cell, this interval can be
increased to 20 to 25 years (and for commensuratingly longer periods wrt. Lower float charge
levels). The long-term OPEX (operational expenditure) for this type of battery is very
appreciably low; where as CAPEX (CAPITAL EXPENDITURE) is relatively high due to its high
initial cost.
Note- In offshore, we normally state that after a 12 hour recharge period, the battery shall be
sized to perform a full repeat discharge cycle (i.e. Discharge up to ECV – the Recharge – again
Discharge up to ECV). One example offered by the vendor for a specific duty was a FAST
RECHARGE voltage of 1.35 V/ Cell for a valve regulated Ni Cad and float charge of 1.25 Volt /
Cell.
The performance curves of these NICD cells are quoted as 20 DEG. C. The performance and
hence capacity drops with a reduction in temperature by approximately 1.5 % per DEG.C. The
optimum range is between 20 and 30 Deg. C. At higher temperatures it will be necessary to
undertake the maintenance service at an earlier period due to loss of electrolyte. Unlike the
recombination lead-acid cells, these cells are not sealed and can be topped up. They exhibit the
same characteristic as conventional wet NiCd cells and as with these cells, they can be used in
ambient temperature range of -400 to + 500 C, but it should be appreciated that the
recombination feature would be seriously impaired at temperatures below 00 C.
The modernized NICD recombination batteries are fitted with a low pressure vent on each cell.
On overcharge the cells have an internal pressure above atmospheric pressure . The vent
provides an outlet for the release of small quantities of hydrogen and non-recombined oxygen
and thus controls the internal pressure. When pressure falls below the release pressure either
on open circuit or on discharge the vent reseals to prevent ingress of air and minimize self-
discharge reactions.
The only disadvantage of the recombination NiCd cell is relatively HIGH COST, in all other
aspects it appears to offer substantial advantages in comparison with the recombination lead-
acid type.

(Note- FOR LIGHTFITTINGS- NICD DRY CELLS suffer from what’s known as “memory effect”.
If on regular basis , a battery is discharged only partially ( say, 50 % ) before recharging it full,
the battery “forgets from the memory” that it has the balance capacity to further discharge all the
way down. If we discharge battery repeatedly to only 50% of its capacity before the next
recharge, eventually the battery will become unaware of its extra 50% capacity which has
remained unused. However, the battery will remain-functional. Normally it does not happen for
WET CELLS and only happens for Electrolyte Starved cells. The way to avoid the dreaded
“memory effect” is to fully cycle (fully charge and then fully discharge) the battery at least once
every two to three weeks.).
3.3 Recombination Lead Acid cells

Few key features of a recombination type cells need to be taken as below-

 The cells are sensitive to temperature and operation at high temperature will drastically
effect the life expectancy , as shown in the below LIFE EXPECTANCY DATA -

Design Life in Years

Temperatur
e 0C 10+ years 8 years 5 years
20 10 8 5
30 5 4 2.5
40 2.5 2 1.25

 Under no circumstances should recombination lead-acid cells be housed in an

unventilated cubicle as, although the amount of gas emission is small, the cell would emit
gas like a conventional cell, if it is over-charged for any reason.
 Recombination Lead Acid cells can not be subjected to normal BOOST CHARGING
without damage. For this reason, it can take several months for unequally charged cells to
equalize. Once equalized, cells should remain that way. Due to absence of a boost
charger capability, the battery will take will take approximately 12 hours to reach 80 %
charge and it can take several months for the battery to achieve 90 % charge . For this
reason, to meet the load requirements under all eventualities, it is usually necessary to
oversize the batteries such that 80 % of the battery capacity matches the load
requirement.
 Recombination Lead Acid cells require high quality chargers with good voltage
regulations of say 1 % or better over a load range of 5 to 100 %.
 Recombination Lead Acid cells can be easily damaged by excessive current ripple. It is
recommended that a maximum voltage ripple of 1 % and peak–to peak current ripple of
about 7% of the C10Ah rating.
 Cells are rated as at new as opposed to the end of their expected life. Over a ten years
life, we can expect 20 % reduction in capacity. Therefore, if a particular battery is to be
designed for a ten year use, the cell size should be at least 1.25 X the design load to
allow ageing Alone.
 The performance of the cell drops by approximately 1.5 % per deg.C down to O deg. C.
 The cell reaches its end of life automatically with no / little early warning.
 Cells can not be held in storage for extended periods without regular replenishing of
charges.

3.4 BATTERY HOUSING in ONSHORE and OFFSHORE installation

Battery room should be dry, well ventilated. For effective ventilation, extract ducts should be
placed as high as possible in the room. Where forced ventilation damper (with necessary Air-
Changers) is installed the ventilation rate needs to be based on a). Maintenance of correct
ambient temperature conditions to ensure satisfactory operation of the battery and b) to ensure
no hazardous concentrations of hydrogen is allowed to build up in the room. This specific issue
can be achieved by placing Hydrogen Sensor in the extract duct. If required, ventilation louvers
shall be provided to the lower half of the room to prevent negative air-pressure build-up. The
source of any air provided to the room must come from a non-hazardous area.

(Note- Ventilation calculation should be carried out to ensure that no potential gas accumulation
is possible).
Boost Charging causes high Voltage and high current presumably with more rapid rate of
electrolytic reactions, which causes more hydrogen to be evolved. Hence, loss of forced
ventilation should automatically inhibit boost charging and necessary circuit interlocking needs
to be achieved.
(Note- Boost Charging can not be used with LEAD ACID and is not usual for NICAD unless to
acquire rapid recharge time).
In order to maximize the battery capacity, room temperature must be maintained between 15 0 C
and 35 0 C although occasional fluctuations outside these limits will have no serious long term
detrimental effects.
An alkali resistant floor must be specified i.e. surfaced with quarry tiles or alkali resistant plastic
resin, asphalt or rubber flooring to allow for accidental spillage.
Weight of the large battery installations and its stand needs to be considered to avoid the stand
legs forming electrolyte trapping depressions in the floor. The use of square quarry tiles under
each stand leg is recommended.
OFFSHORE INSTALLATIONS - Ventilation louvers open to the external salt-laden atmosphere
must not be provided, as salt deposits would contribute to conductive tracking on battery casing
surfaces and cause corrosion of terminals / conducting parts. Battery room ventilation systems
shall therefore include a salt-removing filtration system similar to those for other electrical
equipment rooms. *
Hydrogen emissions must also be extracted and vented to a suitable safe area. A hydrogen gas
detector is normally located in the extract duct which will indicate signals to the fire and gas
system in the event of abnormal quantities of hydrogen is being evolved.
*(Note - In OFFSHORE installations, ventilation system for a battery room normally include
extract fans with air being supplied from the surrounding rooms (i.e. switchgear rooms) air
supply system, which includes AIR FILTRATION SYSTEM).
6.0 Summary on Battery Comparison
Following is the broad outline for selection of Recombination type of battery depending upon its
peripheral ambient condition-
4.8 APPLICATION ON DUTY CYCLE OF OPERATION
NICAD type of battery can accept DEEP DISCHRGES. This is used for EMERGENCY
GENRATOR, UPS where, SHORT DURATION HIGH CURRENT requirement is there for Motor
Starting for Rolling the Main Starter Motors for Emergency Generator. On the other hand, LEAD
ACID battery is mainly suitable for SHALLOW DISCHARGES.
4.9 ULTRA LOW-MAINTENANCE AND GAS GENERATION

GAS GENERATION AND MAINTENANCE is very low / negligible for both of the types.
For NICAD Negligible Topping–UP can be required after 12 to 20 Years of Installation
(dependent on the level of charge voltage).
( Note – Gas generation may be sufficient if NI CD cells are boost charged, but charge limits
should be selected to provide an optimization between GAS GENERATION and Required
BOOST charging time ).
Where as in case Lead Acid Batteries No Topping UP possible.
4.10 LIFE EXPECTANCY
Life Expectancy of NICAD is approx. 25 Years; where as Life Expectancy of LEAD ACID is
approx. 10-15 years. This shows that NICD has exceptional long life. NICD cells do not suffer
from sudden death failure due to internal corrosion, normally associated with VRLA Type
batteries.
( Note – Experience has shown that VRLA life expectancies can be considerably less if they are
not handled / stored / maintained /charged correctly. All of these issues are a risk during
construction commissioning phases of the projects).

4.11 IDEAL OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGE

Ideal operating temperature for NICAD is 5 DEG.C to 35 DEG.C, where as ideal operating
temperature range for Lead Acid is 15 DEG.C to 20 DEG.C. This shows that NICD has much
more wider operating Temperature Range.
4.12 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE

Maximum temperature tolerance is up to 50 deg.c for NICAD (recombination type).

Where for LEAD ACID, the maximum temperature tolerance is up to 30-35 DEG.C and its life
expectancy gets dramatically to the tune of 6-10 years reduced if temperature is raised to
above 30 DEG.C. Recharge during storage is quite critical for these cells, which are
temperature dependant.
4.13 RELATIVE SPACE REQUIREMENT

Relative Space Requirement for NiCd is 1.5-1.8 times more than for LEAD ACID. Relative
volume and weight indicator of NiCd battery is always higher than those figures of LEAD ACID.
Hence, we always need more space in case of NiCd compared to same rating of Lead Acid type
of batteries.
4.14 RELATIVE COST

NICAD is very expensive (normally 2.3 Times- 3.00 Times) compared to same Rating of Lead
Acid Recombination Types.
However, in any life-cycle cost comparison, the cost of change–out ( REPLACEMENT) of cells
should be taken in to account, with VRLA cells needing replacing at least 2-3 times over the
normal course of a project lifespan (15 Years). Particularly in offshore environment, the
replacement cost can be significantly high.
7.0 CONCLUSION

Based on the relative advantages of the different types of batteries, it can be recommended
that, for OFFSHORE installations, no single type of battery is best suited to all applications and
circumstances.
Two types of batteries, either NICD, or, Lead Acid may be used based depending upon the
applications / Owner’s requirement / LOW CAPEX / LOW OPEX / Space minimisation, etc.
NICD batteries shall be used for following critical applications wherever higher reliability is the
main criteria to ensure the trouble free plant operation and to minimize the production
downtime-
7. DC power supply to all Switchgear Breaker Tripping and Closing Control Circuits,
8. Engine Starting for Vital Equipment (Diesel Engine Driven Fire Water Pumps, Emergency
Loads of Blackstart Generators). - To be excluded from this note.
9. FIRE and GAS systems
10. Public Address (PA) System Power Supply.
11. Process Control application.
12. Starting Motors of Essential Diesel Generators. - To be excluded from this note.

As overall guidelines, NiCd batteries, due to their higher reliability, longer life time but
higher initial cost, are economically justifiable in more critical applications, as
explained above.
On the other hand, Lead acid cells are better suited to less critical application as
stated below, wherever their shorter life time and lower reliability are acceptable
features –

3. Engine Starting (for relatively noncritical machine loads.) However, there is no non-critical
engine start application for offshore.
4. TURBINE AUXILIARIES. (NOTE- Normally, Turbine Auxiliaries are fed from engine gas,
sometimes a DC requirement for RUNDOWN PUMPS).

SUGGESTION - REMARK WITH CORRECTION NOTE - I would limit the application section to
the system we normally design in detail for the below system- i.e.
4. UPS systems– Instrument, Telecom, Fire and Gas System, Process Control Application
System – with 30 minutes battery back-up time.
5. DC supply Units – Switchgear Systems normally with 02 hour battery back-up time,
6. Navigation Aids Supply Units- For Navigation Lights.

ENGINE SUPPLY SYSTEM IS PART OF THE PACKAGE DESIGN. SUGGEST A SEPARATE

DESCRIPTIVE SECTION AND SEPARATE CONCLUSION FOR ENGINE START
APPLICATION.