2/11/2014

R. BHATTACHARYA
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

Introduction

Major industrial accidents- Flixborough, Bhopal,
Texas, Gramercy Alumina, Mexico, HPCL-Vizag
refinery, IOCL Jaipur fire

Events- Fire, Explosions, Toxic releases

Consequences- Injuries, Fatalities, Loss of
property, Environmental degradation, Socio-
economic problems

Measures- State of the art Technology,
Management Practices to prevent any disasters,
Command and Control approach
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Flixborough Explosion, 1974

28 killed
and
36 seriously
injured

Bhopal UC Plant, 1984

2,500 immediate
fatalities;

Many other offsite

injuries

Contaminated debris
HAZARD:
Highly Toxic
Methyl Isocyanate

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Texas Pasadena,1989
Death of 23 persons
& destruction of $750
Million property.
Release of extremely
flammable process
gases that occurred
during regular
maintenance on
piping system led to
fire and explosion.

Gramercy Alumina Refinery, United

States,1999

Before accident After accident

29 persons injured & cause of explosion due

to excessive build up of pressure 6

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Mexico City–Explosion, 1984

300 killed
(mostly
offsite)
$20M
damage

HAZARD: Flammable LPG in tank

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HPCL-Vizag refinery explosion,1997

Fire broke out at 6:15 am, following a suspected leak in
the LPG pipeline from the Vizag port to the storage
farm.

It caused a series of explosions, and soon spread to at
least six other naphtha and petrol tanks.

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IOCL JAIPUR FIRE ,2009

12 people killed and injuring over 200

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BP Refinery in Texas City, 2005

15 killed in massive explosion and 180 injured

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HPCL, VIZAG refinery Fire ,2013

28 people killed
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Why is Safety Needed?

Port Kembla Ethanol Tank Fire, NSW, Australia, 28th January 2004

Quote from the Coroner…“not a lack of adequate safety procedures but

rather the failure to adhere to them”.
(Welding was carried out in an unsuitable area without a ‘hot work’
permit)
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Hazard Identification & Risk

Relative Frequency of Occurrence

Increasing risk

Breakdowns
Public criticism
Safety Report Influence
High technology and high
Staff Protest pickets
complaints hazard system failures
Personal injury Class actions
Industrial Market collapse
stoppage Fatality (fatalities)
Fire &
Maintenance OH&S Catastrophic
Explosion

Consequence Severity
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Type of Risk assessment

Hazard Qualitative
Identification Assessment

Detailed Studies
Quantitative Risk Assessment Asset Integrity Studies
Likelihood Analysis Consequence Analysis

Plant Condition Analysis Human Factors Studies

Technology Studies

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Consequences

Most accident scenarios
will involve at least one of
the following outcomes:
– Loss of containment
– Loss of property
– Injury/illness to
personnel
– Damage to
environment

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Major Hazard and their Consequence

Major Hazard
o The storage and use of flammable, explosive or toxic
chemicals having potential to cause death or serious
injury to a large number of people, or cause extensive
damage to property or environment

Consequences of major hazards could be
formation of flammable vapour cloud, drifting of
cloud to a source of ignition, leading to a fire or
an explosion or formation of toxic vapour cloud
and drifting of the cloud to populated areas. This
can result in an Toxic releases or Fire & Explosion

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Toxicity

Refers to an affect on living organisms

It is a measure of injury i.e damage to life or
disturbance of biological function that follows
exposure at some concentration.

Acute Toxic

Chronic Toxic

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Toxic Release

The effects of toxic chemicals when considering
major hazards are concerned with acute exposures

Depending on exposure concentration and duration,
toxic effects can be irreversible, impair the ability to
take protective action or be life threatening

Toxicity Indicators

TLV- TWA

TLV-C

STEL

IDLH

LC50

LCLO

LD50
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Fire

The effect of fire on people is due to exposure to
thermal radiation

The severity of burns depends on heat intensity and
exposure time

The secondary effects of fire can be depletion of
oxygen or generation of toxic fumes.

Types of fire:
o Flash fire
o Pool fire
o Jet fire
o Vapour Cloud Explosion (VCE)
o Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE)

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Explosion
Explosions are characterised by a shock wave or
pressure wave
Cause damage to buildings, breaking of windows
and ejecting missiles that can travel over large
distances.
Effects of over pressure can directly result in
fatality but only in close vicinity
Most of the fatalities and serious injuries in
explosions are indirect effects of collapse of
buildings, flying glass fragments and debris.
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Identification of Hazardous chemicals

that can cause major accidents

Based on the list of chemicals (684) and
associated threshold quantities specified in the
MSIHC Rules, 1989

Based on the toxic, flammable or explosive
properties and their threshold quantities
specified in the MSIHC Rules

Type of industries based on common experience

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Major Accident Hazard (MAH)

installation
As per the Manufacture, Storage & Import of
Hazardous Chemical Rules (MSIHC), 1989 “Major
Accident Hazard (MAH) installation” means –
isolated storage and industrial activities at a site
handling (including transport through carrier or
pipeline) hazardous chemicals equal to or, in
excess of threshold quantities specified in the
relevant schedules of the rules.

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Typical MAH Installations

Petrochemical works and refineries

Chemical works and chemical production plants

LPG storage and terminals

Stores and distribution centers for chemicals

Large fertilizer stores

Explosive factories

Works in which chlorine is used in bulk quantities

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Methods of Hazard Identification

Classification of Hazard Identification methods
 Comparative Methods: This method compares
deviation from standard documents. These methods
identify deviations from codes of practice or standards
and the deviations are potential hazards.
 Fundamental Methods: Fundamental methods are a
structured way of stimulating a group of people to
apply foresight in conjugation with their knowledge to
the task of identifying the hazards mainly by raising a
series of questions.
 Logic Diagram Methods: In these methods only
logic is used to identify potential hazards

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Methods of Hazard Identification

Check lists

What If Analysis

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Studies

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis

Dow Chemical Exposure Index

Dow Fire and Explosion Index

Fault and Event Tree Analysis

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Methods of Hazard Identification

Check List
It is a systematic survey of topics important for plant
safety. They represent systematized experience and
therefore provide guidance for improving the safety
of the plant

What If? Analysis

o The method involves asking a series of questions
beginning with this phrase for identifying hazards.
o This is the “oldest” method of hazard identification.
o The method is to ask questions such as
• what if pump fails?
• what if temperature sensor fails?

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Methods of Hazard Identification

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
o A multidisciplinary team makes a systematic survey of
a process.
o For every part of the plant possible deviations from the
design values, their causes, and their potential
consequences are examined
o Thus the overview of possible accident-initiating
events and weaknesses of the plant is obtained

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis

o The important components considered, their failures
are postulated, and the expected consequences are
assessed
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Methods of Hazard Identification

Dow’s Chemical Exposure Index (CEI)

The CEI is a measure of the relative acute toxicity risk. It is
used for initial process hazard analysis (PHA)
Dow Fire and Explosion Index

To evaluate the risk from fires and explosions caused by the
storage, handling , and processing of flammable,
combustible, and reactive substances.
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

Graphical technique that provides a systematic
description of the combinations of possible occurrences
in a system, which can result in an undesirable outcome.

This method can combine hardware failures and human
failures

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Typical causes of Major Accidents

Equipment / Component failure

Human & Organizational errors

Deviations from normal operating conditions

External events
o Natural &
o Human-induced

Malevolent acts
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Scenario Selection
The scenario selection for emergency preparedness
can be made based on the available national and
international guidance.

Sudden and complete rupture of pressure vessel,

Guillotine breakage of pipe work connected to
vessels,

Small holes or cracks in piping and vessels,

Failure of flange joints, and

Failure of the glands and seals of pumps.

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Consequence Analysis

Estimate the source term based on the type of
release* (gas, liquid, 2-phase), rupture (leak, pipe
rupture, catastrophic failure etc) postulated

Estimate the transport of material in the
environment

Pool formation, its size, location and evaporation

Gas dispersion from release, pool evaporation or
flashing of liquid

Release as fine solid particles leading to dust
explosion should also be considered for the powders
capable of causing dust explosion
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Consequence Analysis

Calculate the consequences of the hazardous chemical
release at the point of interest in terms of
o Concentration with respect to time at the point of interest for
toxic, asphyxiate or corrosive releases
o Incident heat flux and duration of fire for fires
o Peak overpressures for explosions

In case of a physical explosion, the stored energy in the

vessel gives direct input for the calculation of effects (over
pressure / shock wave)

In case of a BLEVE and subsequent fire ball, the incident

thermal flux are directly determined by estimation of mass
involved in the fire ball

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Estimation of consequences

Pool fire

Vapor cloud explosion

TNT equivalence method

TNO multi-energy method

Baker – Strehlow method

Physical explosion

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)

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Explosion
Risk from fragments at a particular location is related
to the number of fragments that may fall on or fly
through that location and their potential to do
damage, i.e. their mass and velocity
No accurate methods to predict the number of
fragments and their probable mass
Rough estimate by using pragmatic approach, based
on analysis of accidental explosions.

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Determination of effect zones

General Levels of concern for toxic chemicals

IDLH, LC50, LD50 , ERPG

General Levels of concern for effects of fire

1st degree burn (125 KJ/m2), 2nd degree burn ( 250 KJ/m2)
& 3rd degree burn ( 350 KJ/m2)

General Levels of concern for Explosion

The possible consequences of explosion depends on
the over pressure caused by it.
 Unrepairable damage- 0.3 bar ( Heavy structure damage) is
considered for effect distance

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Hazard Control

Plant component design

Static & Dynamic Loads, Corrosion, external events

Safe Operation & Control systems

Automatic control, Interlocks, Alarms

Safety Systems for protection from accidents

Pressure relief, Safe shutdown systems, Flare

Maintenance and Monitoring of equipment

ISI, Ageing Management, Qualification of personnel

Periodic inspection and repair

Supervision, procedures

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Measures to prevent accidents

Management Support

Training

Follow of Standard Operating Procedures

Implementation not just documentation

Poorly laid out site increases risk of an accident

especially in MAH group of Industries

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Emergency Preparedness

Pre-impact activities that establish a state of readiness
to respond to extreme events that could affect the
plant, personnel, property, general public and the
environment

Emergency Preparedness ensures that arrangements
are in place for a timely, managed, controlled,
coordinated and effective response at the scene and at
the local, regional, national and international level

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Emergency Preparedness
Actions taken in case of an emergency

Evacuation - Removal from further Exposure

Sheltering through Breathing air shelters

Administering of antidotes

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Emergency Management

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Mitigation Measures
 In a major accident hazard installation, even if hazard
assessment is carried out and appropriate measures taken, the
possibility of an accident cannot be completely ruled out.
 For this reason it is apt to provide the measures, which can
mitigate the consequences of an accident. Some of the protective
measures that can be taken to limit consequences are

Water jets & water spray systems (to cool tanks or to extinguish
fires)

Collecting tanks, bunds, dikes etc (to prevent spread )
 Mitigation measures that can be administrative / procedural are

Set up and train fire brigade / incident response teams

Provide alarm system with direct communication to incident
response team

Provide antidotes in event of release of toxic substances

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Summary
 The major hazards in the facility shall be identified based on the
hazardous properties and quantities of hazardous chemical
handled in the facility

 The possible scenarios for emergency preparedness shall be

determined based on various hazard identification techniques
and scenarios selection guidance

 consequence analysis of the selected scenarios shall be done to

determine the effect zones and sheltering requirements for
emergency planning

 The reduction in impact due to major accidents should be

achieved by provision of proper Hazard Control and Mitigation
Measures.
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Conclusion
In order to control a major hazard
successfully, Management must have
answers to the following:

Do toxic, explosive or flammable
substances in the facility constitute a
major hazard?

Which failures or errors can cause
abnormal conditions leading to a major
accident?
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If a major accident occurs, what are the

consequences of a fire, an explosion or a toxic
release for the employees, people living outside
the facility or the environment?

What can management do to prevent these
accidents happening?

What can be done to mitigate the
consequences of an accident?

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