2014 Annual Report Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena
The Influence of Dielectric Dissipation Factor on
Transformer Frequency Response Analysis
Mehdi Bagheri, B. T. Phung, and Trevor Blackburn
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
m.bagheri@unsw.edu.au
Abstract— Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) is regarded as
a robust technique to recognize transformer winding deformation.
It has been implemented and used since the last decade. However,
its interpretation and measurement sensitivity are still under
development. Recent studies reveal that apart from winding
deformation, FRA data can also be influenced by moisture
variation in transformer paper insulation. Technically speaking,
moisture variation will certainly influence the Dielectric
Dissipation Factor (DDF) in transformer. Therefore, it is of interest
to investigate the correlation between DDF value and FRA
spectrum. A model transformer was fabricated for this study and
the experiment was concentrated on the temperature changes and
paper moisture variation and eventually DDF alteration on the
FRA spectrum deviation. DDF was measured for the “wet” and
“dry” model transformer at different temperatures. In parallel, the
FRA spectrum was also recorded. The correlation between the
transformer DDF value and FRA spectrum is highlighted and
discussed.
Keywords: Frequency Response Analysis, Dielectric Dissipation
Factor, Moisture Variation, Transformer, Winding Deformation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) has been used as
diagnostic method for transformer winding deformation
recognition since the last decade [1]-[3]. Researchers now
recognize FRA for different abilities in transformer defect
recognition due to its good sensitivity on any changes in
transformer active parts or even insulation system [4]-[5].
Transformer temperature variation and moisture migration from
the paper insulation and their impacts on frequency response
spectrum are under investigation. Indeed, each and every
insulation parameter seems to be able to change the FRA
spectrum [6]. However, this influence may be insignificant in
some cases.
One of these insulation parameters indicating the insulation
quality is the Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF). For
impregnated paper insulation, the DDF can be influenced by
moisture, temperature and degree of polymerization (DP)
variation, while for oil insulation only its contamination also
affects the DDF value [7]-[8]. In fact, any changes in real and
imaginary parts of the complex permittivity will significantly
impact DDF value. Having this information, the current study
has specifically focused on the influence of DDF changes on
frequency response data. To this end, a model transformer with
concentric continuous disc type HV and LV windings was
fabricated and used as the test object. The test object tank was
manufactured with plexiglass; hence its interior compartment
was quite visible. In order to examine the DDF impacts on
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frequency response spectrum, the HV/LV windings frequency
response spectra for “wet” and “dry” type test objects for
various temperatures are measured. In the meantime, DDF
measurement is performed for each and every stage and the
results are recorded. Deviations in FRA resonance frequencies
under different DDF values are discussed. For DDF
measurements, to have precise understanding about the
moisture migration between the oil and paper insulation, the
moisture content of the oil is measured and paper humidity can
be obtained. Indeed, for each DDF value the deviation in FRA
resonant frequencies and moisture contents in paper and oil
insulations are highlighted and discussed in detail. This study
shows that the changes in dielectric dissipation factor in turn
can influence the FRA resonance points in the mid- and high-
frequency bands.
II. DIELECTRIC DISSIPATION FACTOR (DDF)
A. Single Frequency
Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) provides an indication of
the quality of insulation. The purpose of the measurement is to
determine the capacitances and the tanδ between the windings
and the earthed parts and between the different windings of the
transformer. Insulations between windings usually can be
represented with parallel or series resistances and capacitances.
The DDF can be measured by applying a voltage across this
capacitance and measuring the ampere and watts of loss and
then calculating tanδ. The capacitance values are required while
planning transformer overvoltage protection and calculating the
over-voltages affecting the transformer. The tanδ is essentially
the power factor (for small δ) and is thus representative of the
power loss and hence the insulation quality. The tanδ value is
useful for evaluation the dryness of the insulation or aging and
any oil contamination. Other method to recognize the insulation
humidity in transformer is the transformer oil titration process
which is known as Karl-Fischer Titration (KFT). Recognition of
paper humidity using oil humidity will be taken into account in
the KFT.
B. Sweep Frequency
In order to facilitate the measuring of humidity in the paper
without using oil samples, three electrical methods are
commonly considered worldwide. They are the Polarization and
Depolarization Current (PDC), Frequency Domain
Spectroscopy (FDS), and Recovery Voltage Measurement
(RVM) [9]. Among all, FDS is commonly used in industry over
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the past few years. In fact, instead of studying the polarization
process in time domain, the study of dielectric response can be
conducted in frequency domain when an AC sinusoidal voltage
U(ω) is applied [10]. The complex impedance and dielectric
dissipation factor (tanδ) are measured. In this method, the
imaginary and real parts of the capacity of an insulation system
are estimated over a frequency range and humidity amount
corresponding to this capacity is determined using diagram
comparison method. Indeed, this is in turn the tanδ
measurement as a function of swept frequency.
III. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
In order to study the impacts of DDF on the FRA spectrum, a
model transformer with concentric continuous disc type
windings was fabricated and used as the test object. The tank
was manufactured using plexiglass material. Line and neutral
leads of the windings were brought out from the tank through
appropriate HV and LV bushings. The test object is shown in
Figure 1. The FRA setup was then prepared based on test
object HV and LV winding terminals as illustrated in Figure 2
(end-to-end measurement [11]).
Figure 1. Manufactured glassy model transformer.
Figure 2. Implemented FRA measurement setup on glassy model transformer.
A. Study on “Wet” Model Test Object
The test object was placed inside the oven and wiring
connections for FRA measurement were brought out through a
bushing mounted on a small opening on the oven top. The oven
was equipped with a sensitive thermostat and a digitally
controlled heater to govern the internal temperature. The FRA
test setup was then kept unchanged for the entire experiment.
FRA measurement was performed on a winding by injecting a
swept sinusoidal signal Vin of 20 volts (peak-peak) at the line-
lead, and detecting the response Vout at the neutral-lead. The
measurement was conducted for the frequency band 20 Hz- 20
MHz. The reason to extend the upper frequency band limit
throughout measurement from the typically used 2 MHz to 20
MHz is the absence of an iron core in the model transformer
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which generally causes the FRA spectrum oscillations to appear
more at very high frequencies.
To run the experiment, initially the transformer drain valve
was opened and the test object was deliberately left exposed to
the laboratory ambient for two weeks so that the paper
insulation was saturated with moisture. The average readings of
ambient temperature and relative humidity were 23 ºC and 26
%, respectively. Hence, the initial moisture content for paper
insulations was 4.1 %, calculated using air relative humidity
method. Afterwards, the glassy tank was filled with dry
transformer oil (< 5ppm, at 70 ºC) then left until the paper is
fully impregnated by oil, and eventually both of them reached
equilibrium.
The moisture content of the oil was measured using KFT
method at 23 ºC and moisture content of the paper insulation
was derived through MIT oil-paper equilibrium curves [12],
accordingly. These values were 11 ppm and 4 %, respectively.
Derived moisture contents of the paper insulation through air
relative humidity and KFT methods led to similar results (4.1 %
and 4 %). Next, the test object was heated up to 30 ºC to be
ready for the initial stage of FRA measurement. FRA
measurements were performed over the range of 30 to 90 ºC in
10 ºC increments but the spectra were recorded for HV winding
at 30, 50, 70 and 90 ºC. The frequency response trace for HV
winding was recorded over the range 20 Hz – 20 MHz while its
terminals were left open circuit (end-to-end measurement). FRA
spectra of HV windings for 30 ºC and 90 ºC (the lowest and
highest temperatures) are shown in Figure 3 over the frequency
range of 5 kHz – 20 MHz. The frequency response magnitude
over the frequency range 20 Hz – 5 kHz was constant at 0 dB
and thus is not shown in Figure 3.
Discussion
According to Figure 3, when examining from low
frequencies to 800 kHz all of the traces are perfectly matched.
Moving from 800 kHz to higher frequencies, the discrepancy
between the spectra becomes obvious.
As the test object temperature changed from 30 to 90 ºC, the
local resonances in FRA spectra have slightly shifted to lower
frequencies. Detailed analysis of Figure 3 shows that the
oscillations trend of the spectra seems to be similar, while the
local resonant frequencies are shifted toward lower frequencies
as the temperature increased and equilibrium was reached. In
the meantime, some of the resonant magnitudes are reduced.
This deviation comes certainly through changes in the
windings’ inductance, total capacitance, and resistance or
insulation conductance.
From a mathematical point of view, local resonances and
anti-resonances in FRA spectra can be generated due to the
interaction between inductive and capacitive reactances.
Obviously each and every local resonance (ith resonance) can
take its own inductance and capacitance values (Li and Ci). The
resonant frequencies in FRA spectrum would be changed if the
inductance or total capacitance is changed. Measurement results
on inductance and resistance variations for low, mid and high
frequencies show that these parameters are not altered
significantly due to temperature changes and moisture
migration; therefore, deviation of resonant points in FRA
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spectrum seems to be coming through changes in the total
capacitance. In fact, increasing the temperature will cause the 0.25
oil insulation showing a tendency to absorb the water. Hence,
the moisture migrates from paper into the oil insulation. 0.2
Decreasing the humidity in paper and its increase in the oil
causes the winding capacitance to change.

DDF
0.15
0
Deviated Frequency Band
-10 0.1

-20
0.05
-30
Magnitude [dB]

-40 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature ºC
-50
Figure 4. DDF variation spectra for HV-LV windings, “wet” model test object.
-60

-70 Frequency Band: 5 kHz - 20 MHz In fact, moving to the left hand side on Bode diagram for
-80
HV winding spectrum (at 30 °C )
HV winding spectrum (at 90 °C ) FRA data potentially determines higher value for DDF. These
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7 resonant frequencies will take opposite side (higher frequencies)
Frequency [Hz]
when DDF takes lower values. This investigation was further
studied through the “dry” model transformer in the next
subsection.
B. Study on “Dry” Model Test Object
To study the impact of the DDF on FRA trace for dry
transformer winding, the oil was drained and the model
transformer was heated up to 90 °C in the electric oven and then
vacuumed (less than 750 mTorr) to remove the moisture content
from the paper insulation. Figure 5 shows the vacuum process.
After that, the vacuum was broken through a three-way valve
and then dry transformer oil was injected into the container once
more. The moisture content of the oil was measured after 11
Figure 3. FRA spectra for HV winding due to moisture migration from paper
into the oil insulation at 30°C and 90°C, “wet” model test object.
days through KFT method and gave a result of 3 ppm at 23 °C.
The test object was heated up to 30 °C same as before to
Study on frequency response spectra when the temperature prepare for frequency response measurement. The FRA spectra
decreases from 90 to 30 ºC led to similar results. Although for HV and LV windings were then measured at 30 and 90 °C
moisture absorption for paper insulation is different with over the frequency range of 20 Hz – 20 MHz (end-to-end
desorption, the equilibria should be the same and hence similar measurement), similar to the last experiment. Also, DDF
spectra were observed in the reverse procedure. measurement at power frequency (50 Hz) was performed as in
To have precise investigation about the DDF and its relation the last experiment. Figure 6 shows the frequency response
to FRA spectra deviation, this parameter was measured for each spectra just for 30 and 90 °C.
and every temperature on the “wet” model transformer and the
results are provided in Table I and plotted in Figure 4. Table I
also shows the moisture content in oil and paper insulations at
different temperatures for the “wet” model transformer. The
maximum applied voltage for DDF measurement was 5 kV to
avoid any kind of undesirable flash-over in the test object. On
examining DDF measurement results, it is obvious that for the
“wet” model transformer as the DDF experiences higher values,
the local resonances in FRA spectrum shift to lower
Figure 5. Vacuum process of the model transformer.
frequencies.
According to Table II, DDF values for the model transformer
Table I. DDF at 5 kV, moisture content in oil and paper insulations for “wet”
type test object. are significantly reduced due to the transformer dry-out process.
In addition as far as the temperature increases, the FRA
Temp. 30 °C 40 °C 50 °C 60 °C 70 °C 80 °C 90 °C
resonant points in Figure 6 have shifted to lower frequencies. In
DDF 0.0203 0.0319 0.0484 0.0721 0.1119 0.1858 0.2849
Paper the meantime, the DDF value has increased as provided in
3.6 3.0 2.6 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 Table II and Figure 7. This is the same as the previous case for
MC%
Oil
18 21 25 35 52 63 95 the “wet” model transformer. Indeed, a similar relationship
MC[ppm] between the FRA resonant points and DDF in the “wet” model

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transformer has occurred for the “dry” one. However, the IV. CONCLUSION
deviation values are quite different in both FRA spectrum and The study presented in this article explored the relation between
DDF data. It should be also highlighted that for both Tables I DDF and FRA spectrum. It was shown that increasing the DDF
and II, the DDF values have increased significantly after 70 °C. value in a model transformer will cause the local resonant
0 frequencies in FRA spectrum move slightly to lower
-10
Deviated Frequency Band
frequencies, while deacreasing in DDF value will tend to shift
-20
these resonant points to higher frequencies. Furthermore, the
humidity contents in oil and paper insulations for each and
-30
every temperature were measured and moisture migration trends
Magnitude [dB]

-40 were illustrated. This in turn reveals that FRA resonant point is
-50 potentially initiated by winding capacitance, and of course the
latter is a function of paper humidity or even oil humidity. It is
-60
worth noting that the measurement of the DDF was performed
-70
at a single frequency (50 Hz). On the other hand, the Frequency
-80
Frequency Band:9 kHz- 20 MHz

HV winding spectrum (at 30 ºC), After dry-out

y-o
Domain Spectroscopy (FDS) can provide measurement of DDF
-90 4
HV winding spectrum (at 90 ºC), After dry-out
dr
5 6 7
value over a range of frequencies. Since this study revealed a
10 10
Frequency [Hz]
10 10
trend in FRA spectrum deviation due to DDF value alteration, it
0 appears that FRA and FDS data can be expected to be quite
-10 correlated and thus will be investigated in future work.
-20
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-30
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