Chaper 7

Voltage Regulation
Presentation #1

Dr. Weidong Xiao

School of Electrical and Information Engineering

University of Sydney, Australia

2017
c

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Outline

1 Introduction

2 Structure of voltage regulation in grid-tied PV systems

3 Affine parameterization

4 PID type controllers

5 Desired performance in closed loop

6 Relative stability

7 Feedback and Feedforward control approaches

8 Summary

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Introduction

Voltage regulation is important in PV power systems to recognize the

maximum power point tracking and balance the power flow between the
generation and the grid injection.
By studying the I-V characteristics of the PV cell output, both the photovoltaic
voltage and the current at the MPP can represent the MPP.
Thus, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) can be achieved by
regulating either the optimal operating voltage or current for the highest power
output.
The location of MPP always changed from time to time, which is affected by
the level of solar irradiance and cell temperature.
One study shows that the regulation of the PV terminal voltage is more
advantageous than the current regulation.
The changing of irradiance can be dramatically fast since it is sometimes
caused by broken clouds or many unpredictable conditions.
This results in the PV output current to follow a wide operating range in order
to track the MPP.
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Introduction

Changing radiation slightly affects the voltage to represent the MPP. Even
though the variation of cell temperature shifts the voltage at MPP significantly,
it generally shows slow and predictable dynamics in comparison with the
change of irradiance.
Under the variation of solar irradiance, the PV output voltage at the MPP,
which is commonly bounded by 70% − 82% of the open circuit voltage, is
more predictable than the output current, which varies in a significant range.
This simply shows another advantage using the voltage to represent the MPP
in PV power systems.
The optimal operating point becomes predictable and constraint when the PV
output voltage is regulated.
The power balance between the PV power generation and the active power
extraction varies the DC link voltage, vdc .
Regulation of DC link voltage is important to coordinate the power flow and
conversion from DC to AC.
Therefore, the voltage regulation at the PV link and DC link should be studied
in grid-tied PV systems.
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Control diagrams of two-stage interfacing topology for grid interconnection

In the two-stage interfacing topology, two voltage regulation loops are present.
The first control loop regulates the PV terminal voltage to follow the maximum
power point (MPP) that can be determined by the MPPT algorithm.
The MPP can be represented by the voltage at the PV link, Vmpp .
The second control loop regulates the DC link voltage (vdc ) and determines
the amount of active power to be injected into the grid.

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Control diagrams of single-stage conversion system for grid interconnection

In the single-stage interface, the DC link is merged with the PV link, of which
the voltage should be regulated to follow the MPP.

The symbols of ’FB’ and ’FF’ in the control diagrams symbolize the terms of
feedback and feedforward, respectively.
The FB controller is fundamental to form the feedback control loop with the
error correction function.
The feedforward controller is commonly considered as the additional function,
optional for implementation.
The two-degree-of-freedom (2DOF) approach with the feedforward path
provides flexibility in coordinating more variables into the system action and
therefore improves control performance.
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Affine parameterization

Affine parameterization is an approach to design linear controllers, which is

called as Q-parameterization or Youla parameterization.
The design starts with the open loop analysis that targets for the proper
balance of internal stability and control performance.
A transformation is applied to derive the controller for closed-loop
implementation.

Advantages:
easy to understand
easy to use
straightforward analysis of
stability and performance

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Affine parameterization

The stability is defined as the bounded input bounded output (BIBO) in control
systems.
The transfer function, G0 represents the nominal model of the controlled plant.
In the series form, a transfer function of Q(s) is introduced.
The open-loop configuration shows a series form, which is straightforward for
stability analysis. If both Q(s) and G0 (s) is BIBO, the overall system is
internally stable.
Y (s)
= Q(s)G0 (s)
R(s)
The method is sometimes referred to the Q-parameterization.
However, the series form shows no correction if the output is deviated from
the reference signal, R.
Deviation can be caused by many factors, such as model uncertainty and
disturbance etc.

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Affine parameterization

The closed-loop implementation indicates the correction formation that the

error between the reference, R, and the plant output, Y, can be reduced or
eliminated.
The transfer function of the closed loop system demonstrates a rational form,
of which the stability analysis is not as straightforward as the series form.
The affine parameterization generally takes advantages of both
representations.
The system is specified by the open-loop transfer functions using Q(s).
The implementation is based on the closed-loop, which provides the
correction against the output deviation.

Y (s) C(s)G0 (s)

=
R(s) 1 + C(s)G0 (s)

Q(s)
C(s) =
1 − Q(s)G0 (s)

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Recommended procedure for Affine parameterization

1 An closed-loop transfer function of FQ (s), is defined for the expected

performance with consideration of the dynamic characteristics of G0 (s).
2 The function of Q(s) can be derived by Q(s) = FQ (s)G0 (s)−1 .
3 The function of C(s) is derived. The format of C(s) does not follow any fixed
structure, but can be constructed by the design of FQ (s) and the plant model
of G0 (s). The feasibility of the derived C(s) should be studied and verified
before the practical implementation.
4 The function of C(s)G0 (s) can be analyzed by Bode or Nyquist plots to
illustrate the relative stability in terms of phase margin, gain margin, and the
sensitivity peak. Since the nominal model, G0 (s). The model uncertainty and
non-ideal factors, such as predictable time delay, can be taken into account in
this step.
5 If the system robustness and relative stability are sufficient, the controller
function, C(s), is confirmed and ready for the closed-loop implementation. If
not, the design should go back to the first step to revise the expected
closed-loop function.
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Constraints of Affine parameterization

The nominal transfer function of G0 (s) should be stable and invertable. If it

includes the non-minimal phase zero, it is not invertable. A pre-process
should be applied to separate the non-minimal phase section from the
minimal phase sector.
The order of FQ (s) should be specified so that the function of Q(s) is always
proper by applying the transformation, Q(s) = FQ (s)G0 (s)−1 .
Feasibility study should be performed to evaluate if the C(s) can be physically
implemented.
If either the system performance is not satisfied, the controller should be
re-tuned to guarantee robustness and stability. Model uncertainty should be
always concerned for practical system design. It should be noted that all the
small-signal model represents only a specific operating condition. The system
operation is generally wide than the specified condition.
If the system performance cannot be satisfied by the controller tuning, the
process should start from the beginning step.

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PID controller

The majority of control systems in industry is based on the PID-type

controllers.
The name of P.I.D refers to the fixed controller structure that is formed by the
terms of proportional, integral, and derivative, respectively.
A standard PID controller can be written in the parallel form,

U(s) KI KD s
CPID (s) = = KP + +
E(s) s τd s + 1
where U(s) and E(s) are the output and input of the PID controller.
The gains of the proportional term, integral term, and derivative term are
symbolized as KP , KI , and KD respectively.
A 1st order filter is usually applied to the derivative term with the parameter of
τd since the derivation is very sensitive to high frequency noise.

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Illustration of the actions of P, I, D terms in time domain

The proportional term The D term acts only the transient time of e(t).
always outputs in Based on the direction of the error, it produces instant
proportional to the instant control action to reduce the error.
error signal.
1
e(t)
The contribution from the 0 P term output
integral term is proportional −1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
to both the magnitude of the
1
error and the duration of the 0.5
I term output

error. The accumulation of 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
the instant error continues
10
until the residual
0
steady-state error is D term output
−10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
eliminated.
10
Therefore, the integral term
0
is important to eliminate the −10
PID output
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
steady-state error in a Time (ms)
control loop.
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Variation of PID type controllers

⇒ The variation of the PID-type controllers including P, I, PI, and PD types.

Type Equation Description
P type CP = KP P-type controller is simple and effective for
design and implementation. High gain of
KP can minimize but cannot eliminate steady
state errors.
KI
I type CI = I-type controller introduces 90-degree phase
s
lag, which causes slow process. It might be
used in noisy environment.
KI
PI CPI = KP + PI controller is very popular in industry since
s
it can completely eliminate steady stae er-
rors and satisfy most design requirements.
KD s
PD CPD = KP + PD controllers provide phase lead that can
τd s + 1
be used to improve damping. It cannot elim-
inate steady state error.

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Discussion about PID types

Among all PID types, PI is widely utilized since it follows a relatively simple
format and the steady state error can be removed by the integral term.
The P type is occasionally selected to utilize its simplicity.
It should be noted that PD controller is also capable for practical applications.
The PD controlle is commonly coupled with a 1st order low pass filter for
practical implementation.
The transfer function can be derived to the new format, as expressed

(τd + KD /KP )s + 1
CPD = KP
τd s + 1

Since the signs of KP and KD are the same, the value of (τd + KD /KP ) is
higher than that of τd , which is positive.
Therefore, the PD controller is equivalent to a lead compensator, which
always shows positive phase angle.

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Bode diagram of typical PD controller

When a PD controller is applied in closed loop, the phase lead feature can be
utilized to improve the phase margin within a certain frequency region.

30
Magnitude (dB)

20 Damping can be improved

10
when the PD controller is
adopted.
0

However, same as the P

−10
90 type controller, the drawback
lies in the steady-state error,
Phase (deg)

45
which cannot be completely
rejected.

0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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Desired performance in closed loop

The desired closed-loop transfer function of FQ (s) should be specified

according to the Affine parameterization.
For most control systems, the function of FQ (s) can be expected to be either
1st-order or 2nd-order form, as expressed in
1 ωcl2
FQ (s) = FQ (s) = 2
αs + 1 s + 2ξcl ωcl s + ωcl2
In the 1st-order transfer function, one parameter represents the system
dynamics, which is the time constant, α. The setting time of the step response
can be estimated to be 4α.
The 2nd order system can be identified by both the damping rate and
response speed.
The damping factor in the expected closed-loop function is shown as ξcl ,
which is considered as the measurement of the oscillation scale in a step
response in term of the percentage of overshoot (P.O.).
Damping factor ξcl 0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
P.O. (%) 100 72.9 37.2 25.4 16.3 9.5 4.6 1.5 0.2 0.0
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Desired performance in closed loop

The damping factor, , ξcl , is usually specified from 0.6 to 1 for the closed-loop
performance since the value balances the performance between the P.O. and
response speed.
The undamped natural frequency in the expected closed-loop function is
shown as ωcl , which is the measurement of the oscillation frequency and the
indicator of the response speed.
The setting time of the step response can be estimated for the 2nd-order
transfer function.
4
TS ≈
ξcl ωcl
Therefore, the closed-loop performance can be specified by its percentage of
overshoot and setting time. The information can be referred to the values of
ξcl and ωcl .

2ξcl
The closed-loop transfer α1 = (1a)
1 ωcl
function can be expressed in FQ (s) =
α2 s2 + α1 s + 1 1
another equivalent form: α2 = 2 (1b)
ωcl
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Desired performance in closed loop

In Affine parameterization, the selection of the first order or second order

should be based on the relative model degree in the plant transfer function,
G0 (s), in order to make Q(s) proper.
The relative order is evaluated by the difference between the number of poles
and zeros.
When the relative model degree of G0 (s) is 2, the closed loop transfer
function is selected as the second order in the format.

ωcl2 and then 1

FQ (s) = FQ (s) =
s2 + 2ξcl ωcl s + ωcl2 α2 s2 + α1 s + 1
The value of the damping factor, ξcl , and the undamped natural frequency, ωcl ,
should be specified for the desired closed-loop performance.
When the relative model degree of G0 (s) is 1, the closed loop transfer
function is selected as the first order in the format:
1 There is only one parameter, α should be specified
FQ (s) = for the desired closed-loop performance.
αs + 1
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Demonstration of gain margin and phase margin by Bode diagram

Important to evaluate the relative stability in terms of phase margin and gain
margin.
The criteria measure how much the closed-loop system is away from either
instability or self oscillation.

0 Gm−dB
Magnitude (dB)

−40

−80
Gain margin
−90
phase margin
Phase (deg)

−135 φm

−180

−225 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

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Demonstration of gain margin and phase margin by Nyquist plot

Nyquist plot is another useful tool to evaluate the relative stability.

G(jωcg) Critical point and Unit circuit

0 Gain margin and phase margin
φm Indicator of the sensitivity peak,
1/|S0(max)|
S0 (max) = max[S0 (jω)].
−0.5 The sensitivity function is plotted
Im

as a circle tangent to the polar

plot.
−1 The radian that is measured as
0.62 indicates the reciprocal of
C(s)G(s)
Critical point
the nominal sensitivity peak of
origin 1.6.
−1 −0.5 0
Re
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Robustness and sensitivity peak

The sensitivity function S0 (s) is the transfer functions for input and output
disturbance.It is also the transfer function to represent the impact on the
closed loop transfer function from the model uncertainty of G0 (s).
The low magnitude of S0 (s) is desirable to minimize the impact from
disturbance and model uncertainty.

5
S0(max) The sensitivity function is
0
illustrated by bode diagram.
−5
Sensitivity function shows high
Magnitude (dB)

−10 pass features that the magnitude

−15 is low in the low frequency band,
−20
but is high in high frequency
band.
−25
It is important to limit the
−30
magnitude peak of S0 (s) to
−35 1
10 10
2 3
10 10
4 achieve robust system control.
Frequency (rad/sec)

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Feedback and Feedforward control approaches

Feedforward can be effectively deployed to improve the system performance

when the system model and the behavior of the controlled variable are well
acknowledged.
The feedforward implementation is considered as additional formation that
aims for either improved command following or disturbance rejection.
Feedback implementation is based on Feedforward implementation is based
closed loop structure. on open loop structure in a direct form.
Feedback system can be designed without The stability evaluation is simple due
sufficient knowledge of the plant model. to the direct form and sufficient system
Self correction is always available in closed knowledge.
loop systems to minimize the error between Due to lack of the self correction, the
command signals and controlled variables. feedforward is seldom used as an
Closed-loop stability and robustness should independent manner.
be always evaluated in the system design System design requires system model
and synthesis. and good knowledge of the system.

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Summary

This presentation focuses on the model-based approaches for controller

synthesis in PV power systems.
The fundamental knowledge of control systems is introduced at the beginning.
It is based on the linear control theory including the subjects of the Affine
parameterization, PID type controllers, stability margin and robustness
performance.
The control system in the grid-connected systems is divided into two parts:
voltage regulation for PV link and DC link.
The Affine parameterization is introduced to develop linear controllers mainly
for regulating the PV link voltage.
The implementation of feedforward control is briefly introduced

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