ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
Mechatronics Assignment 1 (DESIGN STREAM)
NAME: GETISH YEHUALAWERK
ID NO.: ETR/0561/08

Submitted to: Mukesh Kumar

Submission date: September 16-2020

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#1 Discuss the various type of D.C Motors and control of D.C. motors. Write the
application in domestic use.
A DC motor (direct current motor)

A Motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. There is no
difference between a DC motor and DC generator from a construction point of view. The only
difference is that the generators are usually operated in more protected locations and, therefore,
their construction is generally of the open type. On the other hand, motors are generally used in
locations where they are exposed to dust, moisture, fumes and mechanical damage. Thus, the
motor requires protective enclosures.

The types of DC motor include:

a) Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

b) Separately Excited DC Motor
c) Self-Excited DC Motor
d) Shunt Wound DC Motor
e) Series Wound DC Motor
f) Compound Wound DC Motor
g) Short shunt DC Motor
h) Long shunt DC Motor
i) Differential Compound DC Motor
a) Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC motor) consists of an armature
winding as in case of a usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The
construction of these types of DC motor are such that radially magnetized permanent magnets
are mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce the field flux.
b) Separately Excited DC Motor
As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.

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 c) Self-Excited DC Motor

In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC Motors can be
classified as:

i. Shunt wound DC motor

ii. Series wound DC motor
iii. Compound wound DC motor
d) Shunt Wound DC Motor

In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self-excited DC motor,
the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage

e) Series wound DC Motor

Series Wound DC Motor In case of a series wound self-excited DC motor or simply series
wound DC motor, the entire armature current flows through the field winding as its connected
in series to the armature winding.

f) Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the

operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound
self-excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding

g) Short shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field
winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound
wound DC motor.

h) Long shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding
then it’s known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC
motor.

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 i) Differential Compound DC Motor

In case of a differentially compounded self-excited DC motor i.e. differential compound DC

motor, the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the
shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.
Applications of DC Motors
The main applications of the three types of direct current motors are given below.
Series Motors
The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required and variations in speed are
possible. For example – the series motors are used in the traction system, cranes, air
compressors, Vaccum Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.
Shunt Motors
The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not
severe. The various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps,
Fans, Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.
Compound Motors

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is
required. The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors,
Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.

The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control
device such in techno generators for speed sensing and in servo motors for positioning and
tracking.

 CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
Control of DC motor is any device that can manipulate the position, speed, or torque of a
DC-powered motor. There are controllers for brushed DC motors, brushless DC motors, as
well as universal motors, and they all allow operators to set desired motor behavior even
though their mechanisms for doing so differ

Control of DC motor is there are two types those are:

 Armature Control Methods

 Field Control Methods

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Armature Controlled Dc Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:

1. Armature Resistance Control Method

2. Shunted Armature Control Method
3. Armature Terminal Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control Method
The power loss in the control resistance of DC series motor can be neglected because this control
method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load condition.
This method of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This method of speed
control is employed for DC series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.
Shunted Armature Control

The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is
involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by
varying series rheostat R1. The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting
resistance R2. This method of speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses
in speed controlling resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below
normal speed.
Armature Terminal Voltage Control
The speed control of DC series m-otor can be accomplished by supplying the power to the motor
from a separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
Field Controlled Dc Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a dc series motor by field control may be done by:

1. Field diverter method

2. Tapped field control
Field Diverter Method
This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of motor
current around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance less is the field current, less flux
therefore more speed. This method gives speed above normal and the method is used in electric
drives in which speed should rise sharply as soon as load is decreased.
Tapped Field Control

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This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is done by lowering
number of turns of field winding through which current flows. In this method a number of
tapping from field winding are brought outside. This method is employed in electric traction.

Application of control of dc motor in domestic use

 Air Conditioner
Conventional air conditioning units use either 1-θ induction motor or universal motor for
compressor, swing and blower fans. They are fed with 220V AC and also carry some AC-DC
conversion for low voltage applications as shown in Fig.

Fig.1. CURRENT AIR CONDITIONER CIRCUIT

DC operated air conditioning units are available for automobiles that use DC compressors, DC
blower fan motor and DC swing motor. In the proposed system these DC motors are replaced
with BLDC motors and the AC-DC converter is replaced by the DC-DC converter. The outdoor
unit takes 48V input for itself and the indoor unit’s swing BLDC motor, blower fan BLDC motor
and control unit. The use of BLDC motors for indoor and outdoor units reduces the noise level
and energy consumption. Solar 48V AC is available by green energy innovations and hotspot
energy [16,17] which can be operated on the proposed DC distribution system with the
incorporation of a DC-DC converter. The proposed BLDC motor based DC operated air
conditioner is depicted in Fig

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 Fig.2. FLOW DIAGRAM OF DC AIR CONDITIONER CIRCUIT

 Microwave Oven

Microwave oven consists of two sections with separate independent circuits and power supplies.
HVS ( High Voltage Section) and LVS (Low Voltage Section). HVS contains magnetron whose
power supply consists of a high voltage transformer followed by a voltage doubler.While LVS
contains turntable motor, magnetron fan motor (1-θ induction motor) and switching device. In
AC operated microwave oven 220V from input AC source is supplied to the turntable and
magnetron fan motor as shown in Fig. In some modified ones, the 220V is stepped down to
operate a 21V turntable AC motor that reduces manufacturing cost and power consumption.

In proposed DC microwave oven input is taken directly from a DC distribution line which in low
voltage section drives the BLDC turntable motor, BLDC magnetron fan motor, DC lamp and a
switching device. In HVS it is boosted by using a flyback converter and supplied to the
magnetron as In this method conversion losses, mechanical losses and noise are greatly reduced
and a high efficiency is achieved

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 Fig.3. PROPOSED DC MICROWAVE OVEN

 DC Fans

Current ceiling, table and bracket fans use 1-θ induction motors which are heavy and inefficient
with 50% efficiency. Fans with DC motors take DC power after transformation and rectification
of the commercially available 220V AC. These DC motors bear friction losses and brushes
maintenance cost making it inefficient. Future DC fans will be popular with BLDC motors
taking DC input directly from the proposed DC distribution line. Fans with BLDC motors use
50% less power which can further be reduced by improving the aerodynamics of the blades.
Desroches and Garbesi estimated an efficiency of 90% with 75W BLDC fan and 75% efficiency
with 75W AC induction motor. These fans would be highly efficient with minimum conversion
losses.

 Cloth Washer

Most of the cloth washers available in markets incorporate 1-θ induction motors. They use
transformer and rectification process to obtain a DC lowlevel voltage to operate the control
circuit. Fisher and Paykel have some models that use BLDC motors but incorporate a rectifier. In
lieu of using AC power followed by transformer and rectifier, DC input from a DC distributed
line is proposed to operate BLDC motor and control circuit of the washing machine and dryer.

 Water Pump

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Current home water pumps use a 1-θ induction motor operated on 220V AC. In solar DC water
pumps for flood irrigation an inverter is used to run 1-θ induction motor.

This water pump can be modified into an efficient one by replacing induction motor with BLDC
motor operated on 48V from DC distribution line. Some 12V BLDC pumps with low flow rate
are available in the market for drip irrigation, system. Rajan et. al. [24] has proposed an MPPT
based DC-DC buck-boost converter to operate a BLDC water pump from solar PV.

 Refrigerator

Current home refrigerators use 1-θ induction motor compressor. In market 12 and 24V BLDC
compressors by Zhejiang Boyard are available for mobile freezers and car/ truck air conditioners.
They can be used in home refrigerators and 48V BLDC compressor is also available for heavy
applications. Such refrigerators can be operated at 48V from DC distribution line proposed here.
The universal motor used for condenser fan motor is also replaced with BLDC fan motor. The
replacement of AC motors with BLDC terminates most of the conversion stages improving
system efficiency.

 Air Cooler

In air cooler 3 motors are used. 1-θ induction pump motor, 1-θ induction fan motor and a swing
motor. In proposed air cooler all these motors are replaced with BLDC motor. In solar air cooler
DC power is inverted to AC which is eliminated in the proposed system.

Various appliances like automatic door system, dish washer and mixer grinder running with DC
motors are available in the market that need only the replacement of universal motor with BLDC
motor and AC/DC converter with DC/DC. In a DC operated BLDC mixer grinder is proposed
with the efficiency of >80%. While the current universal motor grinder has an efficiency of 43%
only.

 Electronics Appliances

Laptop computer, TVs, lights, security cameras and data centers are the major electronics load
which can be made efficient or even energy star just by replacing input AC/DC converter with
the buck-boost converter.

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#2 Describe the different logic functions and their performance.

Logic AND Function

Logic functions and their performance: logical functions are used in spreadsheet to test whether the
situation is true or false .Depending the result of that test, you can then elect to do one thing or another.
This decision can be used to display information, perform different calculation, or to perform further test.
The Logic AND Function output is only true when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output is false
The Logic AND Function function states that two or more events must occur together and at the same
time for an output action to occur. The order in which these actions occur is unimportant as it does not
affect the final result. For example, A & B = B & A. In Boolean algebra the Logic AND Function follows
the Commutative Law which allows a change in position of either variable.
Switch Representation of the AND Function

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Logic OR Function
The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if either one ―OR‖ more
events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does not affect the final result.
For example, A + B = B + A. In Boolean algebra the Logic OR Function follows the Commutative Law
the same as for the logic AND function, allowing a change in position of either variable.
Switch Representation of the OR Function

Logic NOT Function

The Logic NOT Function output is true when its single input is false, and false when its single input is
true

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The ―logic NOT function‖ is so called because its output state is NOT the same as its input state with its
Boolean Expression generally denoted by a bar or overline ( ¯ ) over its input symbol which denotes the
inversion operation, (hence its name as an inverter).
As NOT gates perform the logic INVERT or COMPLEMENTATION function they are more commonly
known as Inverters because they invert the signal. In logic circuits this negation can be represented by a
normally closed switch.
Switch Representation of the NOT Function

If A means that the switch is closed, then NOT A or simply A says that the switch is NOT closed or in
other words, it is open. The logic NOT function has a single input and a single output as shown.

Logic NAND Function

The Logic NAND Function output is only false when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output is
always true
The NAND or ―Not AND‖ function is a combination of the two separate logical functions, the AND
function and the NOT function in series. The logic NAND function can be expressed by the Boolean
expression of, A.B

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The Logic NAND Function will not produce an output when ―ALL‖ of its inputs are present and in
Boolean Algebra terms the output will be FALSE only when all of its inputs are TRUE.
Switch Representation of the NAND Function

The truth table for the NAND function is the opposite of that for the previous AND function because the
NAND gate performs the reverse operation of the AND gate. In other words, the NAND gate is the
complement of the basic AND gate.
NAND Function Truth Table

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Logic NOR Function
The Logic NOR Function output is only true when all of its inputs are false, otherwise the output
is always false
he NOR or ―Not OR‖ gate is also a combination of two separate logic functions, Not and OR
connected together to form a single logic function which is the same as the OR function except
that the output is inverted.
To create a NOR gate, the OR function and the NOT function are connected together in series
with its operation given by the Boolean expression as, A + B

The Logic NOR Function only produces and output when ―ALL‖ of its inputs are not present and
in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be TRUE only when all of its inputs are FALSE.
Switch Representation of the NOR Function

NOR Function Truth Table

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The NOR Function is sometimes known as the Pierce Function and is denoted by a downwards
arrow operator as shown, A NOR B = A↓B.
#3 Explain the architecture of a PLC with a suitable block diagram. Mention three
industrial application.

PLC Based on architecture:

The term PLC architecture refers to the design specification of the various PLC hardware and
software components and the how they interact with one another to form the overall PLC system.
The architecture of a PLC is based on the same principles of that used in standard computer
architecture. However, PLC architecture does differ because the design is based around
providing high reliability, immunity to harsh industrial environment, ease of maintenance and
access to large amounts of peripheral inputs and outputs.
An open architecture design allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs
made by other manufactures. A closed architecture or proprietary system is one whose design
makes it more difficult to connect devices and programs made by other manufacturers. The
programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable

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memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic words to control machines and processes.‖
The block diagram below explains the basic architecture of a PLC….

Fig.4, PLC Architecture Block Diagram

Data flow is from the input devices, through the CPU processor and then to the output devices.
The CPU processor also exchanges data with the program and data memory. Once all the data is
gathered the program, (e.g. ladder logic) is processed in a cyclic fashion. The resulting data
flows to the output interface for conditioning and execution of the output devices.

The CPU also controls and exchanges data with the communication interface and devices.

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 An addressing system is used for data organization that is shared between the various hardware
components.

A programming terminal is used to formulate the PLC program (eg ladder logic), load the
program into the controller and monitor/control the PLC and its program.

The power supply is responsible for supplying and managing the power requirements of the
various PLC hardware components.
Applications: PLCs are used in various applications in industries such as the steel industry,
automobile industry, chemical industry and the energy sector. The scope of PLCs dramatically
increases based on the development of all the various technologies where it is applied.
However, let see three industrial applications

i. Glass industry
PRCs controllers have been in use in the glass industry for decades. They are used largely to
control the material ratio as well as to process flat glasses. The technology has been advancing
over the years and this has created an increased demand for the PLC control mode for use in the
glass industry. The production of glass is an elaborate and sophisticated process so the
companies involved often use PLCs with the bus technology in its control mode.
ii. Paper industry

In the paper industry, PLCs are used in various processes. These include controlling the
machines that produce paper products at high speeds.

iii. Cement manufacturing

Manufacturing cement involves mixing various raw materials in a kiln. The quality of these raw
materials and their proportions significantly impact the quality of the final product. To ensure the
use of the right quality and quantities of raw materials, the accuracy of data regarding such
process variables is of the essence. A distributed control system comprised of PLC in its user
mode and a configuration software are used in the industry’s production and management
processes. The PLC in particular, controls ball milling, coal kiln and shaft kiln.

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#4 With a help of block diagram, explain digital, logic control.
 Digital control
A digital control model can be viewed from different perspectives including control algorithm,
computer program, conversion between analog and digital domains, system performance etc.
One of the most important aspects is the sampling process level.
In continuous time control systems, all the system variables are continuous signals. Whether the
system is linear or nonlinear, all variables are continuously present and therefore known
(available) at all times. A typical continuous time control system is shown In a digital control
system, the control algorithm is implemented in a digital computer. The error signal is
discretized and fed to the computer by using an analog to digital converter.
The controller output is again a discrete signal which is applied to the plant after using a digital
to analog converter.. In the context of control and communication, sampling is a process by
which a continuous time signal is converted into a sequence of numbers at discrete time
intervals. It is a fundamental property of digital control systems because of the discrete nature of
operation of digital computer.

Block diagram of digital control

In the early development, an analog system, not containing a digital device like computer, in
which some of the signals sampled was referred to as a sampled data system. With the advent of
digital computer, the term discrete-time system denoted a system in which all its signals are in a
digital coded form. Most practical systems today are of hybrid nature, i.e., contains both analog
and digital components. Before proceeding to any depth of the subject, we should first
understand the reason behind going for a digital control system. Using computers to implement
controllers has a number of advantages. Many of the difficulties involved in analog
implementation can be avoided. Few of them enumerated below.
a. Probability of accuracy or drift can be removed.

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 b. Easy to implement sophisticated algorithms.
c. Easy to include logic and nonlinear functions.
d. Re configurability of the controllers.
 Logic control

#5 Enumerate the difference between a PLC and a personal computer (PC).

programmable logic controller (PLC)

PLC stands for programmable logic control. It is computer designed to be used in industry. It
controls the different process and is programmed According to the operational requirement of
that process. And also PLC is a microprocessor based programming technique, which is used to
perform many functions in industrial process. Programmable logic controller operates similar to
the ordinary controller. But in this system different operation are performed by software. If we
want to change program it is only needed to change the program in the software. PLC takes input
instructions in the form of ladder diagram or computer software instructions. These instructions
are decoded in CPU and CPU provides differed signals to control or to operate many devices of
system.
PLCs are generally used for incorporating automation in open loop systems where processes are
to be performed in a sequential manner. PLCs are used for automation of assembly lines in
industries. They are generally designed for multiple input multiple output (MIMO) systems. In
PLCs, instructions are saved in nonvolatile memory.
Personal computer (PC)
PCs eventually developed features that put them in line with PLCs in terms of functionality. In
addition, they retained their robustness as well as customization due to the availability of card
slots and ports. The processing power of PCs was often greater than PLCs as they contained real-
time kernel, enabling it to perform time-critical tasks and implement control algorithms. PC has a
superior ability to perform monitoring/ supervising functions such as report generation, historical
trending, calculations and storage of data. Whatever may be the size and nature of the
applications, PC can play an important role. For small pilot projects, where the control is usually
undefined, the PC with its flexibility and true programmability is the proper tool real time
multitasking environment tailored for PC based control systems ensures that the information path

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between field input/output modules and the host is always open or strictly speaking never closed
long enough to interfere with the process under control.
PC has increasingly being used for product testing and are expected to replace PLC. The
expected to being in plants with automated test systems installed as part of total quality
processes requiring full functional performance testing and detailed management reporting.
#6 What are the benefits of Mechatronics in industry? Mention application defense.
Mechatronic systems are used in different fields of application, e.g. industrial goods. Consumer
products and automotive equipment.
Benefits of mechatronics in industry

 It is cost effective and it can produce high quality products.

 Production of parts and products of international standards gives better reputation and
return.
 It serves effectively for high dimensional accuracy requirements.
 It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the systems.
 It provides excellent performance characteristics.
 It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.
 Mechatronic systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing organization.
 Reconfiguration feature by pre-supplied programs facilitate the low volume production.
 It provides higher level of flexibility required for small product cycles.
 It provides the possibility of remote controlling as well as centralized monitoring and
control. .
 It has greater extend of machine utilization.
 Higher life is expected by proper maintenance and timely diagnosis of the fault.
 Mechatronic system have made it very easy to design process and products.
MECHATRONICS APPLICATIONS:
 Smart consumer products: home security, camera, microwave oven, toaster,
dishwasher, laundry washer-dryer, climate control units, etc.
 Medical: implant-devices, assisted surgery, haptic, etc.
 Defense: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles, smart munitions, jet engines,
etc.
 Manufacturing: robotics, machines, processes, etc.

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  Automotive: climate control, antilock brake, active suspension, cruise control, air bags,
engine management, safety, etc.
 Network-centric, distributed systems: distributed robotics, tele robotics,
 Intelligent highways, etc.

#7 What are position sensors? Explain the working of Hall Effect sensors and
mention the advantages of it.
POSITION SENSORS
A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical position. Position
sensors play an increasing role in our daily lives. As their name implies, position sensors provide
position feedback. They are able to perform precise motion control, encoding and counting
functions by determining the presence or absence of a target or by detecting its motion, speed,
direction or distance. Position sensors detect a target object, a person, a substance or the
disturbance of a magnetic or an electrical field and convert that physical parameter to an
electrical output to indicate the target's position. A position sensor may indicate absolute position
(location) or relative position (displacement), in terms of linear travel, rotational angle, or three-
dimensional space.

Common types of position sensors include:

 Capacitive displacement sensor

 Eddy-current sensor
 Hall effect sensor
 Inductive sensor
 Laser Doppler vibrometer (optical)
 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
 Photodiode array
 Piezo-electric transducer (piezo-electric)
 Position encoders: Absolute encoder, Incremental encoder, Rotary encoder
 Potentiometer
 Proximity sensor (optical)
 String potentiometer (also known as string pot., string encoder, cable position transducer)
 Ultrasonic sensor
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Hall Effect sensors

Working principle of Hall Effect sensor

In a Hall Effect sensor, a thin strip of metal has a current applied along it. In the presence of a
magnetic field, the electrons in the metal strip are deflected toward one edge, producing a
voltage gradient across the short side of the strip (perpendicular to the feed current). Hall effect
sensors have an advantage over inductive sensors in that, while inductive sensors respond to a
changing magnetic field which induces current in a coil of wire and produces voltage at its
output, Hall effect sensors can detect static (non-changing) magnetic fields.

In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage.
With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of
sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced.
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from a straight path. The flow of electrons through a conductor form a
beam of charged carriers. When an conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of the electrons, they will be deflected from a straight path. As a consequence, one
plane of the conductor will become negatively charged and the opposite side will become
positively charged. The voltage between these planes is called the Hall voltage.
Advantage of Hall Effect sensors
 These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position
of an object and need necessary signal conditioning circuit.
 They can be operated at 100 kHz.
 Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and
ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.
 They can be used for multiple sensor function like position sensing, speed sensing as well
as for sensing the direction of movement too.
 As they are solid state devices there are absolutely no wear and tear due to absence of
moving parts
 They are almost maintenance free
 They are robust

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  They are immune to vibration dust and water
#8 Explain static and dynamic characteristic of sensors.
Static Characteristics of Sensors

The static characteristic of the sensor refers to the relationship between the output and the input
of the sensor for the static input signal. Because both input and output are independent of time at
this time, the relationship between them is that the static characteristics of the sensor can be
described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by using input as abscissa and
output as longitudinal coordinates. The main parameters that characterize the static
characteristics of the sensor are linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift and so on.

a) Linearity: refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor
output and input deviates from the fitting line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum
deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitting straight line in the full
range to the output value of the full range.
b) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of static characteristics of sensors. It is
defined as the ratio of the increment of output to the corresponding increment of input
that causes the increment.
c) Hysteresis: The phenomenon that the input-output characteristic curve does not coincide
with the output characteristic curve becomes hysteresis when the input of the sensor
changes from small to large (positive stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For
the input signal of the same size, the positive and negative stroke output signals of the
sensor are different in size.
d) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic
curve of the sensor when the input varies continuously and repeatedly over the whole
range in the same direction.
e) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the change of sensor output over time when the input is
constant. This phenomenon is called drift. There are two reasons for the drift: one is the
sensor’s own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as
temperature, humidity, etc.).

Dynamic characteristics of sensors

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Dynamic characteristics refer to the output characteristics of the sensor when the input changes.
the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are often expressed by its response to some standard
input signals. This is because the response of the sensor to the standard input signal can be easily
obtained by experimental method, and there is a certain relationship between the response of the
sensor to the standard input signal and its response to any input signal. The most commonly used
standard input signals are step signal and sinusoidal signal, so the dynamic characteristics of the
sensor are often expressed by step response and frequency response.

a) Sensor linearity

Usually, the actual static characteristic output of the sensor is a curve rather than a straight line. a
fitting straight line is often used to approximate the actual characteristic curve. Linearity (non-
linear error) is a performance.

There are many ways to select the fitting line. If the theoretical straight line connected with zero
input and full range output points is used as the fitting line, or the theoretical straight line with
the least square deviation of each point on the characteristic curve is used as the fitting line, the
fitting line is called the least square fitting line.

b) Sensitivity of Sensors

Sensitivity refers to the ratio of output change (y) to input change (x) of the sensor under steady-
state operation. It is the slope of the output-input characteristic curve. If there is a linear
relationship between the output and input of the sensor, the sensitivity S is a constant. Otherwise,
it will vary with the input.

The dimension of sensitivity is the dimension ratio of output to input. For example, if the output
voltage of a displacement sensor changes to 200 mV when the displacement changes 1 mm, its
sensitivity should be expressed as 200 mV/mm.

c) Resolution of sensor

Resolution refers to the ability of the sensor to sense the smallest change in the measured value.
That is, if the input changes slowly from a non-zero value. When the input change value does not
exceed a certain value, the output of the sensor will not change, that is, the sensor can not
distinguish the change of the input. Only when the change of input exceeds the resolution will

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the output change. Generally, the resolution of the sensor varies from point to point in the full
range, so the maximum change value of the input which can make the output step change in the
full range is often used as the index to measure the resolution.
#9 What are buses? Explain types of buses.
A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components. And A bus is a large wheeled vehicle meant to
carry many passengers along with the driver. It is larger than a car. The name is a shortened
version of omnibus, which means "for everyone" in Latin. Buses used to be called omnibuses,
but people now simply call them "buses".
 There are three types of buses.
A. Address data
It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only. Address bus is unidirectional
because data flow in one direction, from microprocessor to memory or from microprocessor to
Input/output devices.
Length of Address Bus of 8085 microprocessor is 16 Bit (That is, Four Hexadecimal Digits),
ranging from 0000 H to FFFF H, (H denotes Hexadecimal). The microprocessor 8085 can
transfer maximum 16 bit address which means it can address 65, 536 different memory location.
The Length of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. Such as a
system with a 32-bit address bus can address two^32 memory locations. If each memory location
holds one byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB. However, the actual amount of memory
that can be accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due to chipset and
motherboard limitations.
B. Data bus
It is a group of conducting wires which carries Data only. Data bus is bidirectional because data
flow in both directions, from microprocessor to memory or Input/ Output devices and from
memory or Input/ Output devices to microprocessor.
Length of Data Bus of 8085 microprocessor is 8 Bit (That is, two Hexadecimal Digits), ranging
from 00 H to FF H. (H denotes Hexadecimal).
When it is write operation, the processor will put the data (to be written) on the data bus, when it
is read operation, the memory controller will get the data from specific memory block and put it
into the data bus.

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The width of the data bus is directly related to the largest number that the bus can carry, such as
an 8 bit bus can represent 2 to the power of 8 unique values, this equates to the number 0 to
255.A 16 bit bus can carry 0 to 65535.
C. Control bus
It is a group of conducting wires, which is used to generate timing and control signals to control
all the associated peripherals, microprocessor uses control bus to process data, that is what to do
with selected memory location. Some control signals are:
 Memory read
 Memory write
 Input read
 Input write
 Opcode fetch
#10 Distinguish between a transducer and sensor.
Transducer
Transducer converts the physical quantity or nonelectrical into another signal or electrical signal
or is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-electrical signal into an electrical
signal which is easily measurable. The process of energy conversion in the transducer is known
as the transduction.
The transduction completed into two steps. First by sensing the signal and then strengthening it
for further processing. It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude of the physical forces
like temperature, pressure, etc. However, if the physical force converted into an electrical signal,
then their value is easily measured with the help of the meter. The transducers convert the
physical forces into an electrical signal, which can easily be handled and transmitted for
measurement.
Sensor
 Sensor will give an out put in the same format and transducer will convert the
measurement into an electrical signal.
 The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (example heat, light, sound
etc.) in to an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.)
 the sensor senses the physical changes occur in the surrounding
 The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light, sound, etc.)
into an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.). It gives accurate readings after
calibration.

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  Examples – The mercury used in the thermometer converts the measurand temperature
into an expansion and contraction of the liquid, which is easily measured, with the help of
a calibrated glass tube. The thermocouple also converts the temperature to an output
voltage which is measured by the thermometer
 Basis for comparison between sensor and transducer

Basis For Sensor Transducer

Comparison
Definition Senses the physical changes
occurs in the surrounding and
converting it into a readable
quantity.
Components Sensor it self
Function Detects the changes and
induces the corresponding
electrical signals
Examples Proximity sensor, Magnetic
sensor, Accelerometer sensor,
Light sensor etc.
The transducer is a device
which, when actuates
transforms the energy from one
form to another.
Sensor and signal conditioning
Conversion of one form of
energy into another.
Thermistor, Potentiometer,
Thermocouple, etc.

 And another key differences between the sensor and transducer

i. The sensor senses the physical change across the surrounding whereas the transducer
transforms the one form of energy into another.
ii. The sensor itself is the major component of the sensor, whereas the sensor and signal
conditioning are the major elements of the sensor.
iii. The primary function of the sensor is to sense the physical changes, whereas the
transducer converts the physical quantities into an electrical signal.
iv. The accelerometer, barometer, gyroscope are the examples of the sensor whereas
thermistor, and thermocouple is the examples of the transducer

#11 Explain with neat sketches the functioning of following sensors:

(i) Pyroelectric sensor (ii) Thermo diodes
(i) Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensors are generally used to detect weak infrared irradiation due to their high
sensitivities at room temperature. However, they require the use of metallic packages to insulate
the sensitive element from thermal disturbances and electromagnetic noise, making their
miniaturization difficult. Moreover, it is difficult for the pyroelectric sensors to detect a

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stationary human body because the surface charge generated on the pyroelectric element
disappears gradually when the human body is stationed. Thermopile infrared sensors, which are
used in remote thermometry, are also available, but they require the same thermal isolation
technique and are unable to respond to fast signals. As the sensitivity of thermopiles is one order
of magnitude lower than pyroelectric infrared sensors, the application of thermopiles is thus
limited to proximity sensing.

Fig.5. Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film
electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure 2.4.4. Initially the electrodes are in electrical
equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra red, the material heats up and
reduces its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes.
To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is calibrated
against the detection of an object or its movement.
(ii) Thermo diodes

Thermo-diode and thermo-transistor

Thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are used in temperature sensors operating in the range from -
80 to + 150 °C. the Upper limit of the temperature range is limited by the thermal breakdown of the
p-n transition and for certain types of germanium sensors reaches 200 °C, and for silicon sensors -
even 500 ° C. The lower limit of the temperature range of thermal diodes and thermal transistors is
determined by a decrease in the concentration of the main carriers and can reach for germanium
sensors — (240 - 260) °C, for silicon -200 °C.

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The main advantages of thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are small size, the possibility of
interchangeability and, most importantly, low cost, allowing them to be used in single-use sensors.

The relationship between the current I through p-n-transition (diode or transistor) and the voltage
drop V on it is determined by a certain equation. This equation determines the current through the
transition at both forward and reverse displacement of the transition. From the known equations and
formulas one can see that, both direct and reverse currents of the p-n junction are functions of
temperature. Open p-l-transitions are mainly used for temperature measurement. The theory shows
that the voltage drop at the open p-n-transition at the current I through the transition is determined by
an approximate formula, which shows that the voltage drop linearly depends on temperature and
decreases with increasing temperature. Temperature sensitivity of the p-n-perichola voltage is
Sθ ≈ 1.5 mV/K. Comparing the coefficients of temperature sensitivity for voltage drop at the p-l-
transition and thermo-EMF thermocouples operating in the same temperature range (for example,
chromel — Copel), we can say that the sensitivity of the p-l-transition is about 100 times higher than
the sensitivity of thermocouples.

Figure.6. Integrated thermal diode

#12 Explain the principle and application of proximity and light sensors.

Proximity
This is a type of sensor, which can detect the presence of a nearby object within a given distance,
without any physical contact. They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to
another object. They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an
object. Inductance, capacitance, photoelectric, and Hall Effect types are widely used as proximity
sensors.
Working principle of proximity sensor
The working principle of a Proximity sensor is simple. A transmitter transmits an
electromagnetic radiation or creates an electrostatic field and a receiver receives and analyzes the
return signal for interruptions. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional

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life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor
and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in
distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings. A proximity sensor adjusted to a very
short range is often used as a touch switch.
Proximity sensors, used to determine the presence (as opposed to actual range) of nearby objects,
were developed to extend the sensing range beyond that afforded by direct-contact tactile or
haptic sensors. Recent advances in electronic technology have significantly improved
performance and reliability, thereby increasing the number of possible applications. As a result,
many industrial installations that historically have used mechanical limit switches can now
choose from a variety of alternative noncontact devices for their close (between a fraction of an
inch and a few inches) sensing needs. Such proximity sensors are classified into several types in
accordance with the specific properties used to initiate a switching action:
 Magnetic
 Inductive
 Ultrasonic
 Microwave
 Optical
 Capacitive
Application of proximity sensors
Proximity sensors are extensively used for industrial and manufacturing applications. Here are
the applications of various types of proximity sensors:
 Used on automated production lines for object detection, position, inspection and
counting.
 Proximity sensors are used in smartphone to detect if a user is holding their phone near
their face.
 Part detection on industrial conveyor systems
 Collision detection on robots
 Capacitive proximity sensors are used to touch switches on consumer electronics.

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  Diffuse sensors are used in public washrooms to control water flow.
Light sensors
A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/photo resistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications. Photo resistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a
resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high
resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photo
resistor varies inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photo resistor follows the
principle of photo conductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when
photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Light intensity and full field vision are two important measurements used in many control
applications. Phototransistors, photoresistors, and photodiodes are some of the more common
type of light intensity sensors. A common photoresistor is made of cadmium sulphide whose
resistance is maximum when the sensor is in dark. When the photoresistor is exposed to light, its
resistance drops in proportion to the intensity of light.2
 Working principle of light sensor
Light sensor is also called photoresistor. Its working principle is based on internal photoelectric
effect. The light sensor is equipped with a high precision photoelectric tube. There is a small flat
plate in the photoelectric tube which is composed of "needle type two tubes". When a reverse
fixed pressure is applied to both ends of the photoelectric tube, the impact of any light on it will
lead to the release of electrons. As a result, the current of the photoelectric tube will also be
released when the intensity of light is higher. As the current passes through a resistor, the voltage
at both ends of the resistor is converted into a 0-5V voltage that can be accepted by the digital-
analog converter of the collector, and the results are stored in an appropriate form. Simply
speaking, the light sensor transmits the analog signal of the light intensity to the robot host based
on the principle that the resistance of the photosensitive resistor changes due to the influence of
the light intensity.
 Application of light sensors
These are the main applications of the light sensors that are described with the detailed.
A. Brightness Control

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  In our mobile phone and laptops, we increasing and decreasing the resolution of
the screen light is varied by light sensors.
 Ambient sensors are mostly used in electronic devices like mobiles, laptops and
computers.
 These sensors are also used in different street light for the automatic control of
light.
B. Security System
 In different security circuits, light sensors are used. In shipping, these sensors
provide protection for the different products that are moving from one place to
another.
 Light sensors are installed in the cabin where the products are saved when
someone tries to open the door light sensor sense slight and sends a signal to the
alarm connected with it.

C. Agriculture

 The light of the sun plying the significant rule in agriculture for the production of
the different crops.
 Different food seed requires a different quantity of light, so it is important to
know which part of the land is under the sunlight.
 These sensors are used for the sprinkling of water when the sunlight is not
available because most of the water will be converted into the moisture.

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