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Assosa University: Collage of Engineering and Technology Department of Mechanical Mechatronics Assignment 1
Assosa University: Collage of Engineering and Technology Department of Mechanical Mechatronics Assignment 1
A Motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. There is no
difference between a DC motor and DC generator from a construction point of view. The only
difference is that the generators are usually operated in more protected locations and, therefore,
their construction is generally of the open type. On the other hand, motors are generally used in
locations where they are exposed to dust, moisture, fumes and mechanical damage. Thus, the
motor requires protective enclosures.
In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC Motors can be
classified as:
In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self-excited DC motor,
the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field
winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound
wound DC motor.
The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is
required. The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors,
Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.
The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control
device such in techno generators for speed sensing and in servo motors for positioning and
tracking.
CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
Control of DC motor is any device that can manipulate the position, speed, or torque of a
DC-powered motor. There are controllers for brushed DC motors, brushless DC motors, as
well as universal motors, and they all allow operators to set desired motor behavior even
though their mechanisms for doing so differ
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is
involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by
varying series rheostat R1. The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting
resistance R2. This method of speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses
in speed controlling resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below
normal speed.
Armature Terminal Voltage Control
The speed control of DC series m-otor can be accomplished by supplying the power to the motor
from a separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
Field Controlled Dc Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a dc series motor by field control may be done by:
DC operated air conditioning units are available for automobiles that use DC compressors, DC
blower fan motor and DC swing motor. In the proposed system these DC motors are replaced
with BLDC motors and the AC-DC converter is replaced by the DC-DC converter. The outdoor
unit takes 48V input for itself and the indoor unit’s swing BLDC motor, blower fan BLDC motor
and control unit. The use of BLDC motors for indoor and outdoor units reduces the noise level
and energy consumption. Solar 48V AC is available by green energy innovations and hotspot
energy [16,17] which can be operated on the proposed DC distribution system with the
incorporation of a DC-DC converter. The proposed BLDC motor based DC operated air
conditioner is depicted in Fig
Microwave Oven
Microwave oven consists of two sections with separate independent circuits and power supplies.
HVS ( High Voltage Section) and LVS (Low Voltage Section). HVS contains magnetron whose
power supply consists of a high voltage transformer followed by a voltage doubler.While LVS
contains turntable motor, magnetron fan motor (1-θ induction motor) and switching device. In
AC operated microwave oven 220V from input AC source is supplied to the turntable and
magnetron fan motor as shown in Fig. In some modified ones, the 220V is stepped down to
operate a 21V turntable AC motor that reduces manufacturing cost and power consumption.
In proposed DC microwave oven input is taken directly from a DC distribution line which in low
voltage section drives the BLDC turntable motor, BLDC magnetron fan motor, DC lamp and a
switching device. In HVS it is boosted by using a flyback converter and supplied to the
magnetron as In this method conversion losses, mechanical losses and noise are greatly reduced
and a high efficiency is achieved
DC Fans
Current ceiling, table and bracket fans use 1-θ induction motors which are heavy and inefficient
with 50% efficiency. Fans with DC motors take DC power after transformation and rectification
of the commercially available 220V AC. These DC motors bear friction losses and brushes
maintenance cost making it inefficient. Future DC fans will be popular with BLDC motors
taking DC input directly from the proposed DC distribution line. Fans with BLDC motors use
50% less power which can further be reduced by improving the aerodynamics of the blades.
Desroches and Garbesi estimated an efficiency of 90% with 75W BLDC fan and 75% efficiency
with 75W AC induction motor. These fans would be highly efficient with minimum conversion
losses.
Cloth Washer
Most of the cloth washers available in markets incorporate 1-θ induction motors. They use
transformer and rectification process to obtain a DC lowlevel voltage to operate the control
circuit. Fisher and Paykel have some models that use BLDC motors but incorporate a rectifier. In
lieu of using AC power followed by transformer and rectifier, DC input from a DC distributed
line is proposed to operate BLDC motor and control circuit of the washing machine and dryer.
Water Pump
This water pump can be modified into an efficient one by replacing induction motor with BLDC
motor operated on 48V from DC distribution line. Some 12V BLDC pumps with low flow rate
are available in the market for drip irrigation, system. Rajan et. al. [24] has proposed an MPPT
based DC-DC buck-boost converter to operate a BLDC water pump from solar PV.
Refrigerator
Current home refrigerators use 1-θ induction motor compressor. In market 12 and 24V BLDC
compressors by Zhejiang Boyard are available for mobile freezers and car/ truck air conditioners.
They can be used in home refrigerators and 48V BLDC compressor is also available for heavy
applications. Such refrigerators can be operated at 48V from DC distribution line proposed here.
The universal motor used for condenser fan motor is also replaced with BLDC fan motor. The
replacement of AC motors with BLDC terminates most of the conversion stages improving
system efficiency.
Air Cooler
In air cooler 3 motors are used. 1-θ induction pump motor, 1-θ induction fan motor and a swing
motor. In proposed air cooler all these motors are replaced with BLDC motor. In solar air cooler
DC power is inverted to AC which is eliminated in the proposed system.
Various appliances like automatic door system, dish washer and mixer grinder running with DC
motors are available in the market that need only the replacement of universal motor with BLDC
motor and AC/DC converter with DC/DC. In a DC operated BLDC mixer grinder is proposed
with the efficiency of >80%. While the current universal motor grinder has an efficiency of 43%
only.
Electronics Appliances
Laptop computer, TVs, lights, security cameras and data centers are the major electronics load
which can be made efficient or even energy star just by replacing input AC/DC converter with
the buck-boost converter.
If A means that the switch is closed, then NOT A or simply A says that the switch is NOT closed or in
other words, it is open. The logic NOT function has a single input and a single output as shown.
The truth table for the NAND function is the opposite of that for the previous AND function because the
NAND gate performs the reverse operation of the AND gate. In other words, the NAND gate is the
complement of the basic AND gate.
NAND Function Truth Table
The Logic NOR Function only produces and output when ―ALL‖ of its inputs are not present and
in Boolean Algebra terms the output will be TRUE only when all of its inputs are FALSE.
Switch Representation of the NOR Function
The term PLC architecture refers to the design specification of the various PLC hardware and
software components and the how they interact with one another to form the overall PLC system.
The architecture of a PLC is based on the same principles of that used in standard computer
architecture. However, PLC architecture does differ because the design is based around
providing high reliability, immunity to harsh industrial environment, ease of maintenance and
access to large amounts of peripheral inputs and outputs.
An open architecture design allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs
made by other manufactures. A closed architecture or proprietary system is one whose design
makes it more difficult to connect devices and programs made by other manufacturers. The
programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable
Data flow is from the input devices, through the CPU processor and then to the output devices.
The CPU processor also exchanges data with the program and data memory. Once all the data is
gathered the program, (e.g. ladder logic) is processed in a cyclic fashion. The resulting data
flows to the output interface for conditioning and execution of the output devices.
The CPU also controls and exchanges data with the communication interface and devices.
A programming terminal is used to formulate the PLC program (eg ladder logic), load the
program into the controller and monitor/control the PLC and its program.
The power supply is responsible for supplying and managing the power requirements of the
various PLC hardware components.
Applications: PLCs are used in various applications in industries such as the steel industry,
automobile industry, chemical industry and the energy sector. The scope of PLCs dramatically
increases based on the development of all the various technologies where it is applied.
However, let see three industrial applications
i. Glass industry
PRCs controllers have been in use in the glass industry for decades. They are used largely to
control the material ratio as well as to process flat glasses. The technology has been advancing
over the years and this has created an increased demand for the PLC control mode for use in the
glass industry. The production of glass is an elaborate and sophisticated process so the
companies involved often use PLCs with the bus technology in its control mode.
ii. Paper industry
In the paper industry, PLCs are used in various processes. These include controlling the
machines that produce paper products at high speeds.
Manufacturing cement involves mixing various raw materials in a kiln. The quality of these raw
materials and their proportions significantly impact the quality of the final product. To ensure the
use of the right quality and quantities of raw materials, the accuracy of data regarding such
process variables is of the essence. A distributed control system comprised of PLC in its user
mode and a configuration software are used in the industry’s production and management
processes. The PLC in particular, controls ball milling, coal kiln and shaft kiln.
#7 What are position sensors? Explain the working of Hall Effect sensors and
mention the advantages of it.
POSITION SENSORS
A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical position. Position
sensors play an increasing role in our daily lives. As their name implies, position sensors provide
position feedback. They are able to perform precise motion control, encoding and counting
functions by determining the presence or absence of a target or by detecting its motion, speed,
direction or distance. Position sensors detect a target object, a person, a substance or the
disturbance of a magnetic or an electrical field and convert that physical parameter to an
electrical output to indicate the target's position. A position sensor may indicate absolute position
(location) or relative position (displacement), in terms of linear travel, rotational angle, or three-
dimensional space.
In a Hall Effect sensor, a thin strip of metal has a current applied along it. In the presence of a
magnetic field, the electrons in the metal strip are deflected toward one edge, producing a
voltage gradient across the short side of the strip (perpendicular to the feed current). Hall effect
sensors have an advantage over inductive sensors in that, while inductive sensors respond to a
changing magnetic field which induces current in a coil of wire and produces voltage at its
output, Hall effect sensors can detect static (non-changing) magnetic fields.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage.
With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of
sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced.
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from a straight path. The flow of electrons through a conductor form a
beam of charged carriers. When an conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of the electrons, they will be deflected from a straight path. As a consequence, one
plane of the conductor will become negatively charged and the opposite side will become
positively charged. The voltage between these planes is called the Hall voltage.
Advantage of Hall Effect sensors
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of position
of an object and need necessary signal conditioning circuit.
They can be operated at 100 kHz.
Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and
ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.
They can be used for multiple sensor function like position sensing, speed sensing as well
as for sensing the direction of movement too.
As they are solid state devices there are absolutely no wear and tear due to absence of
moving parts
They are almost maintenance free
They are robust
The static characteristic of the sensor refers to the relationship between the output and the input
of the sensor for the static input signal. Because both input and output are independent of time at
this time, the relationship between them is that the static characteristics of the sensor can be
described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by using input as abscissa and
output as longitudinal coordinates. The main parameters that characterize the static
characteristics of the sensor are linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift and so on.
a) Linearity: refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor
output and input deviates from the fitting line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum
deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitting straight line in the full
range to the output value of the full range.
b) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of static characteristics of sensors. It is
defined as the ratio of the increment of output to the corresponding increment of input
that causes the increment.
c) Hysteresis: The phenomenon that the input-output characteristic curve does not coincide
with the output characteristic curve becomes hysteresis when the input of the sensor
changes from small to large (positive stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For
the input signal of the same size, the positive and negative stroke output signals of the
sensor are different in size.
d) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic
curve of the sensor when the input varies continuously and repeatedly over the whole
range in the same direction.
e) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the change of sensor output over time when the input is
constant. This phenomenon is called drift. There are two reasons for the drift: one is the
sensor’s own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as
temperature, humidity, etc.).
a) Sensor linearity
Usually, the actual static characteristic output of the sensor is a curve rather than a straight line. a
fitting straight line is often used to approximate the actual characteristic curve. Linearity (non-
linear error) is a performance.
There are many ways to select the fitting line. If the theoretical straight line connected with zero
input and full range output points is used as the fitting line, or the theoretical straight line with
the least square deviation of each point on the characteristic curve is used as the fitting line, the
fitting line is called the least square fitting line.
b) Sensitivity of Sensors
Sensitivity refers to the ratio of output change (y) to input change (x) of the sensor under steady-
state operation. It is the slope of the output-input characteristic curve. If there is a linear
relationship between the output and input of the sensor, the sensitivity S is a constant. Otherwise,
it will vary with the input.
The dimension of sensitivity is the dimension ratio of output to input. For example, if the output
voltage of a displacement sensor changes to 200 mV when the displacement changes 1 mm, its
sensitivity should be expressed as 200 mV/mm.
c) Resolution of sensor
Resolution refers to the ability of the sensor to sense the smallest change in the measured value.
That is, if the input changes slowly from a non-zero value. When the input change value does not
exceed a certain value, the output of the sensor will not change, that is, the sensor can not
distinguish the change of the input. Only when the change of input exceeds the resolution will
Pyroelectric sensors are generally used to detect weak infrared irradiation due to their high
sensitivities at room temperature. However, they require the use of metallic packages to insulate
the sensitive element from thermal disturbances and electromagnetic noise, making their
miniaturization difficult. Moreover, it is difficult for the pyroelectric sensors to detect a
The relationship between the current I through p-n-transition (diode or transistor) and the voltage
drop V on it is determined by a certain equation. This equation determines the current through the
transition at both forward and reverse displacement of the transition. From the known equations and
formulas one can see that, both direct and reverse currents of the p-n junction are functions of
temperature. Open p-l-transitions are mainly used for temperature measurement. The theory shows
that the voltage drop at the open p-n-transition at the current I through the transition is determined by
an approximate formula, which shows that the voltage drop linearly depends on temperature and
decreases with increasing temperature. Temperature sensitivity of the p-n-perichola voltage is
Sθ ≈ 1.5 mV/K. Comparing the coefficients of temperature sensitivity for voltage drop at the p-l-
transition and thermo-EMF thermocouples operating in the same temperature range (for example,
chromel — Copel), we can say that the sensitivity of the p-l-transition is about 100 times higher than
the sensitivity of thermocouples.
#12 Explain the principle and application of proximity and light sensors.
Proximity
This is a type of sensor, which can detect the presence of a nearby object within a given distance,
without any physical contact. They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to
another object. They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an
object. Inductance, capacitance, photoelectric, and Hall Effect types are widely used as proximity
sensors.
Working principle of proximity sensor
The working principle of a Proximity sensor is simple. A transmitter transmits an
electromagnetic radiation or creates an electrostatic field and a receiver receives and analyzes the
return signal for interruptions. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional
Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in
distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings. A proximity sensor adjusted to a very
short range is often used as a touch switch.
Proximity sensors, used to determine the presence (as opposed to actual range) of nearby objects,
were developed to extend the sensing range beyond that afforded by direct-contact tactile or
haptic sensors. Recent advances in electronic technology have significantly improved
performance and reliability, thereby increasing the number of possible applications. As a result,
many industrial installations that historically have used mechanical limit switches can now
choose from a variety of alternative noncontact devices for their close (between a fraction of an
inch and a few inches) sensing needs. Such proximity sensors are classified into several types in
accordance with the specific properties used to initiate a switching action:
Magnetic
Inductive
Ultrasonic
Microwave
Optical
Capacitive
Application of proximity sensors
Proximity sensors are extensively used for industrial and manufacturing applications. Here are
the applications of various types of proximity sensors:
Used on automated production lines for object detection, position, inspection and
counting.
Proximity sensors are used in smartphone to detect if a user is holding their phone near
their face.
Part detection on industrial conveyor systems
Collision detection on robots
Capacitive proximity sensors are used to touch switches on consumer electronics.
C. Agriculture
The light of the sun plying the significant rule in agriculture for the production of
the different crops.
Different food seed requires a different quantity of light, so it is important to
know which part of the land is under the sunlight.
These sensors are used for the sprinkling of water when the sunlight is not
available because most of the water will be converted into the moisture.