Understanding the Self

The Self from Various Perspectives

Self

• A unified being essentially connected to consciousness and awareness.

• Various theories on the metaphysical nature of the self have been proposed. Among them, the
metaphysical nature of the self has been proposed to be that of an immaterial substance.

Socrates: Know Thyself

• The unexamined life is not worth living.

• Know Thy Self – a motto inscribed on the frontispiece of the Temple of Delphi

• Socratic ignorance – Rather than claiming to have knowledge, he claimed to be wise only in
knowing that he was ignorant.

• The theory of recollection – the soul had perfect knowledge of the “forms” and the divine
before it descended into the body. Thus the best way to obtain knowledge of these things is not
by trusting our senses but by looking inside ourselves to recover these memories of
theknowledge our soul had before we were born.

Plato: Theory of Knowledge

• Each man was originally a soul. He was a spirit living in a world of things-in-themselves; a world
of substantial universal ideals or forms.

• Our intellectual knowledge is not individual; it is universal

• To know is to remember.

St. Augustine: Si fallor, sum

and
Rene Descartes: Cogito, ergo sum

• Si fallor, sum – If am mistaken, I am.

• Cogito, ergo sum – I think, therefore, I am.

John Locke: Tabula rasa

• Tabula rasa – when a person is born, his brain is like a blank slate and only though the
accumulation of experience happens.

• The person or self is a moral and forensic entity.

• “severed finger” – to prove how consciousness is a separate entity tp the physical body.

• Identity of consciousness – is a consciousness itself which defines someones identity and

consciousness alone! It is linked to memoery, not bodily substances, or souls.
David Hume – There is no self

• There is no soul, it is an illusion created by our unfounded trust in cause and effect. Because our
consciousness is constantly changing, there is no “self” which remains the same.

• This thing which we refer to as the self, is nothing more than the perceptions which are available
to our memory.

• “Ship analogy”

• Without memory of previous cause and effect relationships repeatedly happening we would not
have made the conclusion that there is a self. Hence, there is no consistent unchanging self.

THE PERSPECTIVE OF

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

 one of the disciplines in the social sciences which aims to discover the ways by which the social
surrounding/ environment influences people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior.

 be able to be aware of social processes to see themselves better when they realize how the
social world impacts on their existence.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

 Born February 1863 in Massachusetts, USA

 Graduated and taught grade school at the Oberlin College.

 He enrolled at Harvard University where his main interests were Philosophy and Psychology in
1887.

 He wrote many articles and book reviews but with the help of his students, they put together
his numerous writings and edited them for publication.

 He died of heart failure in 1931.

MEAD’S SOCIAL SELF

 SOCIAL BEHAVIORISM is the approach Mead used to describe the power of the environment in
shaping human behavior.

 “Dimension of personality that is made-up of the individual’s self-awareness and self-image”

(Macionis, 2012).

 Also, self cannot be separated from the society. In this, he explained a set of stages which the
person undergoes in the course of his development.

PREPARATORY STAGE

 He believed that a self did not exist at birth.

 Thus, self developed overtime.

 Self-development is dependent on social interaction and social experience.

 Children’s behavior are primarily based on imitation.

PLAY STAGE

 Skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of communication is important for this
constitutes the basis for socialization.

 Through communication, social relationships are formed.

 Children’s behavior begin to role play and pretend to be other people.

 This stage is very significant in the development of the self.

GAME STAGE

 Mead gave a specific age for this stage. Here the child is about 8-9 years of age and now does
more than just role-take.

 The child begins to consider several tasks and various types of relationships simultaneously.

 The term generalized other was what Mead used to explain the behavior of the person when he
sees/considers other people in the course of his actions.

 This is also the Final stage of self-development according to Mead.

MEAD’S THEORY OF SELF

Mead presented his “Theory of Self”: The self is not present at birth but begins as a
central character in a child’s world. Children see themselves alone and they are having a hard time
understanding people around them. As they grow and mature, there is a change in the self. They
begin to see other people concerns and reactions. People around them, particularly their family, has
a major role in the formation of the self. They are the significant others who strongly influence their
development. (Schaefer, 2012).

OTHER SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

CHARLES HORTON COOLEY

(1864-1929)

 American sociologist who made use of the Sociopsychological Approach to understanding how
societies work.

 Cooley stated that people learn who they are through social interaction with other people.

 He called this the looking-glass self or the self that is a product of social interaction.

ERVING GOFFMAN (1922-1982)

  Canadian-American sociologist known for his role in the development of Modern American
Sociology.

 His popular work was the The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life. In this, he wrote how
he observed that people early in their social interactions learned to slant their presentation of
themselves in order to create preferred appearances and satisfy particular people.

 He referred to this process of altering how the person presents himself to others as impression
management.

In summary, the discussions and observations of the sociologists in this discussion

represented a progression on how the self developed through social interaction and how a person
manages self-presentation in order for him to be accepted by others.

LESSON 5: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT

INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF

• Human beings have gone through a lot of challenges since their existence was recorded about
200,000 years ago.

• As a result of his introspection, he decides that since he has only one life to live and death is
inevitable, he should make the most of this life he was given.

• The development of an individualistic self begins after birth and is observed in the child rearing
practices of parents in the west.

• Independence and self-reliance from the development of the self in Western Cultures.

COLLECTIVE SELF

• Needless to say, not all cultures encourage/ practice individualism.

• In the cultures of the East, the development of collective self is ingrained into the individual.

• It is observed that strong bonds of unity are formed and developed in collectivism. In an
extreme sense, all decisions made are group decisions.

• Collectivistic cultures give birth to individuals who develop collective selves.

• In society, collectivism fosters nationalistic attitude as long as this is what the group believes.
 • The individual members are non-entities and there is no sense of self but what is present is a
collective self. This means that the collective self is the group self to which the person belongs
to.

• In the contemporary society, both individualistic and the collective self may exist in a single
individual.

THE SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT

• In the seventeenth century, Descartes emphasized the self through his dictum “I think, therefore
I am.” The person/self in Descartes’ view exists in regardless of his environment. In other words,
for Descartes the cognitive basis of the person’s thoughts is proof for the existence of the self.

• The west introduced the ecological self which sees the self as a process that is undergoing
development.

• The self here is seen as dynamic, unique in each individual and is constantly exposed to an ever
changing world

THE SELF IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

• Confucius was the name for which Kong Zongni of China was known in the west. He was born in
the period of Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in the small state of Lu. Confucius grew up poor even
though he descended from scholarly family.

• Confucius; experiences in politics made him focus on social reforms. His philosophy came to be
known as humanistic social philosophy.

• As such he considers the society and its communities as the main source of values of both
human beings and the society in general.

• The philosophical concept of Confucianism is centered on the ren which can be manifested the li
(propriety), xiao (filiality), and yi (rightness). The ren can be understood as human goodness.

• Confucius further believed that the ren that makes life worth living (Stangroom, 1984)

• Confucius further believed that the ren can only be realized through the li, xiao and yi.

1. Li (propriety)

- In order to human actions, rules of propriety should be followed. Such rules involve adherence
to the rituals of the community

- Li conforms to the norms of humanity.

- Confucius believes that everyone has duties and responsibilities.

• Confucius further believed that the ren can only be realized through the li, xiao and yi.

2. Xia (filiality)

- It is the virtue of reverence and respect for family

 - Parents should be revered for the life they had given

- Children show respect to their parents by exerting efforts to take care of themselves.

• Confucius further believed that the ren can only be realized through the li, xiao and yi.

2. Yi (rightness)

- It is the rightway of behaving

- It conditional and absolute.

- Actions must be performed and carried out because they are the right actions

- Li, Xiao, and Yi are virtues observed in a person whose humanity is developed, morally cultivated
and aware. The cultivation of the ren through li, xiao, and yi will lead to a person of virtue.

Lesson 4. THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY

 Is the field of the social sciences that deals with the description, explanation, prediction and
control of behavior (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006).

WILLIAM JAMES (1842 – 1910)

 Was an American Philosopher and Psychologist. He was a professor of psychology and

philosophy at Harvard University and was known for being one of the great pragmatists.

 Pragmatism is the branch of philosophy in which we assess truth in terms of effect, outcome,
and practicality.

 He is considered as the “Father of American Psychology”.

 He is known for his Theory of the Self.

 He wrote many articles on both philosophy and psychology and published several books, one of
which is The Principles of Psychology in 1890 wherein his theory of self is explained.

5 Characteristics of Thoughts According to William James:

1) All human thoughts are owned by some personal self.

2) All thoughts are constantly changing or are never static.

3) There is a continuity of thoughts as its focus shifts from one object to another.

4) Thoughts deal with objects that are different from and independent of consciousness itself.

5) Consciousness can focus on particular objects and not other.

TWO PARTS OF THE SELF

 THE “ME” self (EMPIRICAL ME)

  Considered as a separate object or individual that the person refers to when discussing
or describing their personal experiences.

Example:

The gifts were sent to ME.

The person is smiling at ME.

 THE “I” self (PURE EGO/ THINKING SELF)

 The self that knows and recognizes who they are and what they have done.

Example:

I borrowed the book from the library.

I won the game.

THREE COMPONENTS OF THE ME SELF

1) The Material Self - Consist of the things or objects that belong to the person or entities that a
person belongs to.

Examples: person’s body, his family, clothes, books and even his money.

2) The Social Self – refers to who the person is in a particular social situation. The person
chooses the self that would smoothly adapt to the social situation in order for him to fit in.

Example: A person changes how he represents himself when he is at home, in school or with his
friends.

2) The Spiritual Self – self that is more concrete or permanent when compared to the material and
social selves. This self is more subjective and intimate part of the self. It includes aspects like the
individual’s personality, values, and morals that are usually stable and constant. The spiritual
self is always engaging in the process of “introspection”.
OTHER SELVES IN PSYCHOLOGY

1) Global Self – represents the overall value that a person places upon himself. It is the product of
all experiences that he had in the society which accounts for the kind of person he presently is.

2) Differentiated Self – This concept came from Murray Bowen an American Psychiatrist and a
Professor of Psychiatry. He was among those who developed Family Therapy and Systemic
Therapy. In his theory, he observed togetherness that there are two forces affecting the person;
the first is and the second is individuality.

Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987), an American psychologists who proposed the personality theory
known as “Person Centered Theory”. He coined the term, “Self- Concept”. According to him,
there are two types of self-concept:

1) Real Self-concept – refers to all information and perception the person has about himself. This is
who he actually is and answers the question, “Who am I?”
2) Ideal Self-concept – model version the person has of himself. This is what the person aims for
himself to be. “Who do I want to be?”

Rogers stated that there should be congruence (sameness, equality) between the real self and ideal
self in order to be happy and satisfied with life. If the real self is very different from ideal self then
the person will experience dissatisfaction and may see himself as a failure or a loser (Feist & Feist,
2008).

 The Self – Discrepancy Theory of Higgins (1987) stated that people use internalized standards to
which they compare themselves are called self-guides which provides directions for how the
person should present himself .

MULTIPLE AND UNIFIED SELVES

 The Multiple Selves Theory suggests that there exists in the individual different aspects of the
self. It makes sense that the self is a whole made up of parts. In this theory, a psychologically
healthy individual, however is a person who is able to make sense of the sometimes confusing
and conflicting aspects of themselves and integrate them into single, unified self.

TRUE AND FALSE SELVES

1) True Self – is one in which the self is seen as creative, spontaneously experiencing each day of
their lives, appreciating being alive, real, integrated and connected to the whole existence.

2) False Self – may be manifested in a form of defense. It lacks spontaneity, is dead and empty. It is
the mask that hides the true person for fear of the pain of rejection and failure.

According to D. W. Winnicott, true and false selves are present in all individuals. For the two to
exist in a healthy individual, they should be functional for the advantage of both the person
himself and his society. A person that struggles to fit in but still experiences the feeling of being
forced to comply rather than adapting gracefully to the situation is a person whose self is
maladjusted and unhealthy.

THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

 Albert Bandura (1925 - present) is the proponent of the personality theory known as the Social
Cognitive Theory.

 In his theory, the person is seen as proactive and agentic which means that he has the capacity
to exercise control over his life.

 Human Agency – essence of being a human.

 He explains further how human beings are affected by the interaction among environmental
events, behavior and personal factors through his concept of Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Paradigm.

FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY

1) Intentionality – actions performed by the person with full awareness of his behavior.
2) Forethought – person’s anticipation of likely outcomes of his behavior. This allow a person to
select from a repertoire of behaviors and determine which one will most likely lead to a positive
outcome.

3) Self – reactiveness – process in which the person is motivated and regulates his behavior as he
observes his progress in achieving his goals.

4) 4) Self- reflectiveness – person looking inward and evaluating his motivations, values, life goals
and other people’s effect on him. An important aspect of self-reflectiveness is self- efficacy
which is his belief that he is capable of behavior that will produce the desired positive results.

SELF – REGULATION

 It is exhibit by a person when he reactively attempts to minimize the discrepancies between

what he has already accomplished and what he still wants to achieve.

 It allows the person to set goals that are better and higher than the former, challenging his
capabilities and making him a wiser and self actualized individual. (Feist and Feist, 2008)

LESSON 3: THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY

 Is a field of the social sciences that focuses on the study of man

 Does not pertain only to one aspect of man but rather on the totality of what it means to be
human

 Physical characteristics

 Social Relationships

 Influence of his culture from the dawn of civilization up to the present

ARCHAEOLOGY

 Archaeologist, a scientist who studies artifacts (tools and objects past people have made) in
order to discover how these people lived their life.

 Archaeologists’ focus is the past and how it may how it may contributed to the present ways of
how people conduct their daily lives.

 Archaeological data suggest that in many places around the world, the species homo sapiens did
not become extinct because of their ability to think, use tools and learn from experience.

 This discoveries of archaeologist made people realize the most important aspect of human
nature, which is survival.

 According to School of Functionalism, human behavior continues to adapt in order to survive.

 In this aspect human beings are similar however the manner they choose to survive differs.
 Some men would use power and strength, declare wars, conquers and even try to
annihilate races,

While others would offer their services, knowledge, resources and even their lives just
to ensure that few deserving human being would survive.

BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

 Study the biological aspect of man.

 Focus primarily on how human body adapts to the different earth environment.

 They look at the probable causes of disease, physical mutation and death.

 They also want to know how human beings might have evolved from their early forms
(based on discovered fossilized remains)

 They also do comparative studies on human beings both dead and living and other
primates (apes and monkeys).

 They discovered that while human beings do vary in their biological make- up and behavior,
there are a lot more similarities among them than there are differences.

 Human beings at present still share the same biological strength and vulnerabilities

 For example, eating the right balance of food and intake of minerals is beneficial to all
to human beings while what may be lethal/poisonous for one person will most likely
have the same effect on others.

 Biological characteristics human being share may earn for them complete dominion over all
earth creatures and at the same time be the cause of their extinction.

LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY

 Human survival is primarily linked to their ability to communicate.

 The brain comes equipped with specialized areas specifically for the purpose of communication.

 Language is an essential part of human communication.

 Language identifies a group of people.

 The words, sounds, symbols, writings and signs that are used are reflection of a group’s
culture.

 Linguistic anthropologists’ interest focuses on using language as a means to discover a group’s

manner of social interaction and his worldview.

 They want to discover how language is used to create and share meanings, to form ideas and
concepts and to promote social change.

 They also study how language and modes of communication change over time.
 In the contemporary society, other form of language s have evolved which represent subculture
of a particular group. (example, the language of the LGBTs)

 Language adapt to the existing condition in the society.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

 Culture is described as a group of people’s way of life

It includes their behavior, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept (usually
unconsciously) that are socially transmitted through communication from generation to
generation.

 Cultural Anthropologist are interested in knowing what makes one group’s manner of living
particular to that group and forms an essential part of members’ personal and social identity

 According to the Theory of Cultural Determinism, human nature is determined by the ideas,
meanings, beliefs and values learned as members of a society

 The positive implication of the theory suggest that human beings can be shaped/formed to
have the kind of life they prefer.

 On the negative, Cultural Determinism may mean that people have no control over what they
learn.

 They blindly accept the learning their cultures expose them to.

 Human beings are seen as helpless and do only what their culture instruct them to do

 Cultural diversities are manifested in different ways and different levels of depth.

The following are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people:

1. Symbols are the words, gestures, pictures or

objects that have a recognized/accepted
meaning in a particular cultures who find them
also fitting for their own culture.

2. Heroes are persons from the past or present

who have characteristics that are important in a
culture. They may be real or fictitious are
models for behavior.

Real Fictitious

 Cultural diversities are manifested in different ways and different levels of depth.

The following are the ways in which culture may manifest itself in people:

1. Symbols are the words, gestures, pictures or

objects that have a recognized/accepted
 meaning in a particular cultures who find them
also fitting for their own culture.

2. Heroes are persons from the past or present

who have characteristics that are important in a
culture. They may be real or fictitious are
models for behavior.

Real Fictitious