NERVOUS ACTIVITY - reflexes

Reflex - is an adaptive reaction of animals and humans, conditioned by

stimulation of receptors and mediated by the central nervous system. It
is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.

The unconditioned reflex is the innate reaction of the organism, which is

the same among the members of the given species. Unconditioned
reflexes are characterized by a permanent and clear connection between
action on the receptor and a certain response, ensuring that organisms
adapt to stable living conditions. Unconditioned reflexes are usually
performed through the spinal cord and lower parts of the brain.
Unconditional reflexes are a substrate for lower nervous activity.
NERVOUS ACTIVITY - reflexes

A conditioned reflex is a reaction that the body acquires during its life
and responds to the stimulation of receptor. In humans and higher
animals, conditioned reflexes are developed through the formation of
temporary connections in the cerebral cortex and serve as mechanisms
for adaption to the complex changing environmental conditions. The
conditioned reflex does not end with action but with perception and
evaluation of its result. Conditioned reflexes are the basic physiological
mechanism for higher nervous activity.
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes - distribution

Unconditioned reflexes

Apetitive reflexes Protective reflexes

- reactions necessary for preservation of live - protection against injuring stimuly
(food input, rerspiration etc.) from external or internal environment
(escape, cough)

Orientation reflexes Sexual reflexes

- reactions for preservation of species
(reproduction)
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes - categories

Categories of the congenital associative and integral CNS ability

Simple unconditioned reflexes

Drive reactions

Motivations

Emotions

Instincts
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Simple unconditioned reflexes

- are congenital somatic and autonomic reflexes with exactly defined reflex arc
- are not conditioned by the previous learning or training
- are reactions with stereotypic character
- higher CNS departments have only inhibitory influence

Examples - spinal reflexes, sucking reflex, salivary reflex

LOWER NERVOVUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Drive reactions
- are nerve processes, which mediate reactions (behavior) for ensuring of needs of
the living organism.
- majority of drive reactions has also physiological antipole, it means the state, which is
comming after satisfaction of these needs – antidrive.
- togheter with motivation have three properties in common:
- they create an increased state of CNS arousal or alertness
- they create goal-oriented behaviour
- they are capable of coordinating disparate behaviors to
achieve that goal

Examples: - hunger – feeling of satiety; preservation of family (sexual drive) -

sexual satisfaction
LOWER NERVOVUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Emotions

They are psychological processes, including subjective experiences of

comfort and discomfort, associated with physiological changes (changes in
heart rhythm, changes in respiratory rate), motor manifestations (facial
expressions, gesticulation), changes in alertness and concentration. They
induce and influence other psychological processes.

The original meaning of emotions is to prepare an individual to respond

adequately to a particular experience. In addition, emotions lead to
fixation an experience. For example, fear should prepare for danger and
put this situation into memory as dangerous. Emotions lead to the
definition and hierarchy of values, the creation of the ability to self-control.
LOWER NERVOVUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes - properties of emotions

Subjectivity - different individuals can respond to the same situations by different

manner and by different intensive emotions (eg. fear or anger).

Spontaneity - they are triggered spontaneously, with little chance of being influenced
by reason.

Objectivity - they relate to a particular experience.

Recency - emotions happen immediately.

Polarity - emotions can be defined as positive and negative. Only sometimes they are
unspecified, ambivalent (eg. pleasant fear)

Impact on memory - emotional states have an impact on memory processes. If any data
is associated with a certain emotion (both positive and negative), the individual can
easily remember it.
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Emotion Emotive feeling as subjective phenomenon (sorrow)

Emotive behavior as objective phenomenon (cry)

The most commonly described emotions, which arise in different parts of the brain
are:
- anger - fear - happiness
- aggresion - pleasure - contentment
- sexual feeling

CNS centers: - majority of emotions is connected with the activation in reticular

formation and in limbic system (amygdala). The highest center of our emotions is on the
level of brain cortex (frontal and temporal lobe)
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Motivation – cause or complex of causes directing our voluntary behavior. The

needs are base of motivation. The need is a state of lack or excess of something
that leads us to the activities by which we satisfy that need.

We divide the needs into:

• biological (primary, congenital) - need to breathe, need to feed
• social (acquired) - cultural (education, cultural life ...)
• psychic (joy, happiness, love ...)

Motivation can come from internal and also from external environment and
depends on mutual cooperation between:
- internal activity of the central nerve structures
- situation in the internal environment of organism
- current influences from external environment
LOWER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - unconditioned
reflexes

Instinct
It is complex of the mobile activity and specific forms of the behavior relate
to the certain animal species. An instinct is an innate disposition to a certain
activity or to a certain goal. They are innate, inherited behaviors that neither
human nor animal need to learn. The instinct is a complex and a chain of
unconditioned reflexes.
The internal need of satisfaction (drive, motivation) is stimulus and the
complex activity is concentrated for this satisfaction.

Characteristic properties of instincts:

- stereotyping
- specificity for given species
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - conditioned
reflexes

Conditioned reflexes

- are the basic physiological mechanism for higher nervous activity

- are made, acquired during ontogenesis

- are made but also inhibited, strenghtened and attenuated in the

dependence on needs of current relations of organism to the external
environment

- have the meaning at the adaptations to the external environment

 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - conditioned
reflexes – what is what?

Conditioned reflex

temporary connection

Orientation reflex

at the first action

Biological (unconditioned)
muscle movement significant stimulus –
at the stimulus producing
repeating
unconditioned reaction.
Habituation

Biological (conditioned) tongue

ear
indifferent stimulus saliva secretion
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – conditioned
reflexes – mechanisms of creation of the temporary
connections

1. step – activation of centers 2. step - generalization (irradiation)

stimulus stimulus stimulus

3. step - concentration
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - conditioned
reflexes – forms of creation of the temporary
connections

To create temporary connections:

The first form of integration - it is creating a connection between neurons of

cortical projection for conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

The second form of integration - is connection of neurons to the neural

chain. Two heterogeneous afferent pulses coming from both receptor regions
(conditioned and unconditional stimulus) meet on the same neurons -
reverberation.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - conditioned
reflexes – phases of creation of the temporary
connections

We have phases:

1. phase: mostly physical processes (change of polarity of the excitative membranes at

reverberations). Convergention of the impulses, at the contemporary action of two
stimuli, activates the certain synaptic field and changes the activity of system
controlling metabolism of the respective neurons.

2. phase: mostly chemical processes (change of trophic events in the neuron

cytoplasm and nucleus). Trophic changes produce conversion of the excitable
apparatus of neuron at participation RNA and DNA and other cell components.

3. phase: mostly structural processes (conversion of regulatory apparatus of

neurons and change of synapse structure). The new organization of the structure
of synaptic field reflects the spatial and temporal characteristics of conditioned
reflex.
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - conditioned
reflexes – levels of the temporary connections

cortex - cortex  horizontal level (intracortical)

cortex – subcortical region  vertical level

thalamus

RAS

sound saliva secretion

RAS - ascendent system of reticular
formation
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - some types of
conditioned reflexes

Operative or instrumental reflex

Center of hearing Hypothalamus or limbic system

award - sanction
pleasant - unpleasant

Center of motility

ear
conditioned stimulus
activity
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - some types of
conditioned reflexes

Complex conditioned reflex

S1

S2
E
S3
S4
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - some types of
conditioned reflexes

Dynamic stereotype

S1 S2 S3 E1 E2 E3
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - inhibition of
conditioned reflexes

Internal inhibition External inhibition

(conditioned, acquired) (unconditioned, congenital)

- inhibition at extinquishing - permanent external inhibition

- delayed inhibition - extinquishing external inhibition
- differential inhibition - overthreshold inhibition
- conditioned inhibition in the narrow word
meaning
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - internal
inhibition of conditioned reflexes

Inhibition at extinguishing

- arises, if conditioned reflex is not supported by application of unconditioned stimulus

Delayed inhibition

- arises at the delayed reflexes

CS US CS E

delayed inhibition
CS US CS E
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - internal
inhibition of conditioned reflexes

Differential inhibition

- is inhibition allowing the distiguishing of stimuly and can accelerate transition from the
phase of generalization to the phase of specialization of conditioned reflex

1. irradiation 2. concentration

secretion
secretion 800 Hz
800 Hz
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - internal
inhibition of conditioned reflexes

Conditioned inhibition in narrow word meaning

- arises, if to the positive conditioned reflex is added indiferent stimulus without application of
unconditioned stimulus

1. A  conditioned saliva secretion

2. A + B stimulus without food

3. B  0

4. A  conditioned saliva secretion remains

5. A + B  0
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – external
inhibition of conditioned reflexes

Permanent external inhibition

- is coming, if other stimulus is very significant (painful stimulus)

unconditioned inhibition

CS E CS E painful
stimulus

Extinquished external inhibition

- at this inhibition, orientation reaction gradually disappears for biological nonsignificant

stimulus
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - types of the higher
nervous activity

Central excitation as well as central inhibition are active processes and they
are closely connected. Mutual long-term interactions of these two basic
physiological processes conditione the complex behavior of the living
organisms. We can characterize them according to 3 basic properties of
excitation and inhibition:

force

mutual relation

functional mobility
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - types of higher
nervous activity

Force, is intensity of the response to the excitation, which is proportionate

to the intensity of stimulus.

Mutual relation (balance) between force of excitation and inhibition.

Functional mobility expresses dynamics of changing of excitation and

inhibition.
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - types of higher
nervous activity

Standardization of the reactivity of the higher nervous activity according to

I.P.Pavlov

strong, non well strong, well balanced,

weak type - balanced - nonmobile type -
melancholic choleric flegmatic
weak non well balanced nonmobile
strong, well
force balance mobility balanced, mobile
force well balanced mobile type - sanquinic
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – types of higher
nervous activity

Melancholic – weak type

- exitation and inhibition in CNS have low intensity, stronger stimulus can relative
easy induce overthreshold inhibition.

Flegmatic – strong, well balanced, nonmobile type

- processes of excitation as well as inhibition are enough intensive and equalized but
they take place slowly. Persons of this type adapt well but slowly to the environment
changes.
Sangvinic – strong, well balanced, mobile type
- nervous processes are intensive, equalized and take place rapidly. Persons are
agile and they adapt well and rapidly to environment.

Choleric – strong, non well balanced type

- processes of excitation have expressive dominance. Persons of this type react
intemperately and often inadequately.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - signal systems
Signal systems
The first signal system
• is the system of the adequate
stimuli acting directly on receptor
areas.
• they are stimuli, which organism
knows to receive, to process, to
attribute them certain biological
meaning and to build in them to
conditioned reflexes.
The second signal system
• is system of cortical mechanisms
ensuring processing and preservation
of the conditioned reflexes for verbal
stimulus.
• the secondary signal can be audible or
readable word as well as idea,
conception or remembrance.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - signal systems

Signal systems

The first signal system The second signal system

word

acustic code semantic code

• auditory, optic or • content of the word

kinestetic signal
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - signal systems

Speech is possible to put

Signals incoming
into category of the
through auditory
operative conditioned
analyser - audible word
Formation of the higher reflexes
nervous activity on the base

Signals incoming of the second signal system

through visual analyser
– visual word

Signals incoming from organs, which are

activated at the motor talked or written speech
(kinestetic stimuli from muscles, from receptors
of the airways and from auditory receptors at
audible own speech as well as from
proprioreceptors during writting or from visual
receptors during reading)
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - signal systems

in most people, both systems are in balance

I. SS II. SS

at dominance of the II. signal system -

scientific, thinker’s type

at dominance of the I. signal system –

artistic type
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - signal systems

Signal systems - relationships between the 1. and 2. signal system

Elective irradiation Reciprocal induction

- when the conditioned reflex change - excitation of one system produces

appears not only under the influence
of the conditioned stimulus, but also
at its verbal designation.
For example, change in blood
pressure, for audible stimulus, will
be at application of the word "bell"
inhibition of the second system.
For example, it is not possible to solve
the mathematic task and to process the
conditioned mobile reflex for some
stimulus simultaneously.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - memory

The nervous system has the ability to store information for different long
time in the encoded image of memory traces and use their to the
formation of temporary connections in the learning process.

Memory is created by changes in the sensitivity of synaptic transmission

between neurons as a result of previous neural activity. These changes
will create new paths or facilitated paths for the development of signal
transmission through the neural circuits in the brain.

These new or facilitated paths are called memory traces (engrams).

The mechanisms of learning and memory are closely related but not
identical.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – classification of memory

According to the time of keeping of information in memory, we distinguish:

immediate ultrashort memory it takes split second

labile short-term memory keep information for several seconds to minutes

it represents a transition between short-term and long-

middle or operative memory
term memory

stable long-term memory it takes some days, months and years

Information may be fixed (period from the creation of memory traces to storage of the
information into long-term memory) in memory in two forms:

in the emotionally-visual form - as in the logically-semantic form - as

sensory memory symbolic memory
it operates more with ideas and sensory it operates more with concepts, words and
experiences numbers
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – classification of memory

Memories are often classified according to the type of information that is stored:

Declarative memory Experiential memory

- memory of many details of the - it is often associated with motor activities
integrated idea of important of the body, such as skill at the stroke of
experiences that include: the tennis ball, including automatical
 memory of neighbourhood remembers of all activities associated with
this stroke.
 memory of temporal relationships
 memory of causes of experience
 memory of importance of experience
 memory of deductions that disappeared from the mind of people

According to way of "remembering" there are three forms of phenotypic memory:

Conditioned reflex memory Visual memory Emocional memory

• is memory of information • consists of fixation of • ability of abstract and

obtained during individual life attractive or inattractive intellectual remembrance
image
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – classification of memory

Other classification memory (by Guyton et al., 10th edition., 2000)

Short-term memory

• it takes split second or a few minutes and is converted into long-term memory

Immediate long-term memory

• it takes from several days to several weeks, but then loses

Long-term memory

• it takes years, sometimes for life end

Short-term memory
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – short-term memory

Possible explanations (theories) of short-term memory:

1. The short-term memory is caused by continuous neural activity resulting from

nerve signals that circle in the temporary memory trace through circuit of
reverberating neurons.

2. The short-term memory is presynaptic facilitation or inhibition. It occurs in the

synapses lying on the presynaptic endings, not on the subsequent neuron. Secreted
neurotransmitters as well as the endings often result in prolonged inhibition or
facilitation lasting from a few seconds to several minutes.

3. The short-term memory is synaptic potentiation, which can enhance the conductivity
of synapses. For example, this can result from the accumulation of large amounts of
calcium ions in the presynaptic terminals. This is when impulses pass through
presynaptic terminals, the amount of calcium ions entering the presynaptic terminals
through presynaptic membrane increases with each subsequent action potential. When
the accumulation of calcium ions is greater than mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum are able to resorb back, the excess of calcium ions prolongs presynaptic
transmitter release in the synaptic cleft.
Immediate long-term
memory
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory

Characteristics:
Immediate long-term memory may take several minutes or even several weeks. They
may be removed until the memory traces become permanent. It was then classified as
long-term memory.

Mechanisms:
The immediate type of long-term memory may result from temporary chemical or
physical changes, or both, either on the presynaptic and the postsynaptic membrane.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory

Chemical changes in the presynaptic or postsynaptic membrane

In the figure, two presynaptic terminals are. One terminal is from the sensory neuron and second
ending is the presynaptic and is located on the surface of sensory terminal and is named as
facilitatory terminal.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory

Chemical changes in the presynaptic or postsynaptic membrane

When the sensory terminal is stimulated repeatedly, but without stimulation by facilitatory
terminal, the transmission of signal is large at the first, but then becomes less and less intensive
following repeated stimulation and finally it losses. This phenomenon is called habituation.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory

Chemical changes in the presynaptic or postsynaptic membrane

Conversely, if a stimulus excites always facilitarory terminal at stimulation of sensory terminal,

the transmission will be stronger and stronger and remains strong during minutes, hours and
days without additional stimulation of facilitatory terminal. Thus, the stimulus creates a
memory circuit through sensory terminal, which is becoming facilitated several days or weeks.
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory

Molecular mechanisms for habituation:

At the molecular level, the effect of habituation in sensory terminals results from a
gradual closing of calcium channels of presynaptic membrane of the terminal. The
cause is still unknown.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – immediate long-term
memory
Molecular mechanisms for facilitation:
1. At the stimulation of facilitatory
terminal, together with stimulation of
sensory terminal, serotonin is
released from the facilitatory
terminal to the surface of the sensory
presynaptic terminal.
2. Serotonin acts on serotonin
receptors on the membrane of
sensory terminal and activates
adenylate cyclase in membrane. The
result is cAMP inside of sensory
4. Loss of conductivity for 5. Prolonged action potential
presynaptic terminal.
potassium causes a causes prolonged activation of
3. cAMP activates protein kinase that prolongation of action Ca channels, permitting the
phosphorylates protein that is part of potential in the presynaptic accumulation of these ions in
the Na channel in sensory terminal terminal, because the flow of sensory terminal. Calcium
and blocks the channels for the K potassium from the terminal ions increase transmitter
conductivity. Blockade can take from is required for the rapid release and thus facilitate the
several minutes up to several weeks. restoration of the membrane synaptic transmission.
potential.
VYŠŠIA NERVOVÁ ČINNOSŤ - bezprostredne dlhodobá
pamäť

Predpokladajú sa ešte ďalšie mechanizmy synaptickej pamäte:

- štúdie ukázali, že podnety z rôznych zdrojov pôsobiacich na jeden neurón, za

vhodných podmienok, môžu spôsobiť dlhodobé zmeny vo vlastnostiach membrány
postsynaptického neurónu namiesto presynaptickej membrány.
Long-term memory
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – long-term memory

Characteristics:
There is not real and usual border between immediate long-term and long-term
memory. However, long-term memory is generally considered as a result of actual
structural changes, instead of chemical changes in the synapses for the strengthening
or suppressing the conductivity of signal.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – long-term memory

Structural changes occurring in synapses during development of

long-term memory:

1. The increase in the number of releasing places of vesicles for secretion

of transmitter - every presynaptic terminal has a special place in the
membrane for the transmitter release into the synaptic cleft

2. The increase in the number of vesicles containing the transmitter

3. The increase in the number of presynaptic terminals

4. Changes in the structure of dendritic spines - dendrite excitation

activates specific proteins in dendritic spines. This then changes the
transmission of ions through the spines into the neuron.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – long-term memory

Changes of modificated synapses at the excessive activation and

during prolonged absence of activation
spinous dendrite spinous
synapse outgrowth

decreasing
of the
enlargement
number of
of synapses
synapses
and their
reduction
branching
of spines

increased normal decreased to

activation activation absent activation

An example of a modificated synapses are excitatory synapses on the dendrites of pyramidal

cells. This is called spinous synapses, because their postsynaptic part is on the spinous
outgrowths of dendrite. At the excessive activation, synapses enlarge or branch, so their
number is growing. On the other hand, long nonactivated synapses are reduced and their
number reduces. (Javorka a spol., 2001)
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – long-term memory

Path of temporary and long-term storage of visual information

Places of memories

signal path induced in the

retina of the eye by 2. projection of
sensory percept nerve signal to the
primary visual
1. receiving of center
picture to retina

visual
stimulus

optic nerve

After stimulation of sensory cell, impulses are

transmited by neural pathways to the brain,
where large part of them is filtered. One part
of the information travels into the brain
cortex, where it remains for several seconds to
minutes (primary memory). Only a small 3. temporary storing of the 4. long-term
percentage, classified as important, is storaged signal in the hippocampus storage of signal
through hippocampus to long-term memory. may take several weeks in the brain cortex
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – process of the memory
formation

Short-term sensory memory

with certain selection of
information

Information proceed
Information from into secondary memory,
sensory organs is which can be fixed
shifted into number of years
primary memory

Part of the information is stored

in the tertiary memory that is
used for carrying out own
profession
VYŠŠIA NERVOVÁ
ČINNOSŤ - pamäť

Ukladanie informácií v mozgu

HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – processes of memory
formation
Model of metabolic processes in the neuron at storage of information in
memory.
PSP NSP
1. By influence of specific excitatory
activity incoming through sensory
pathways to central neurons occurs in
previously "inactive synapses" local
reshaping the postsynaptic membrane
(depolarization or hyperpolarization)
without a subsequent action potential.

2. Duration of this change is up to 10 ms,

allowing the summation with effect of new
impulse ("facilitation" of synapse), may
also allow the summation with changes in
the neighbored "active" synapses PSP – conditioned specific input of
information
(activated by the action of the
unconditioned stimulus), in which changes NSP – unconditioned specific
in the postsynaptic membrane are followed input of information
action potential formation.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – processes of memory
formation
Model of metabolic processes in the neuron at storage of information in
memory.
PSP NSP
3. The arise of the action potential prolong
changes in the neighbored "inactive"
synapse and also causes intracellular
motivations
processes that alter protein synthesis.
Present motivational nonspecific excitatory
activity also helps to this process.

PSP – conditioned specific input of

information

NSP – unconditioned specific

input of information
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – processes of memory
formation

Model of metabolic processes in the neuron at storage of information in

memory.
PSP NSP
4, 5 and 6. The phosphorylated
proteins enter the nucleus of the
neuron and affect gene activity. 3 motivations
Consequently, the quantitative and
qualitative changes in the formation of
polypeptide chains are generated.

PSP – conditioned specific input of

information

NSP – unconditioned specific

input of information
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – processes of memory
formation
Model of metabolic processes in the neuron at storage of information in
memory.
PSP NSP
7 and 8. Emotional streams of
excitatory activity mediated by
aminergic or other carriers condition motivations
formation of glycoproteins, which are
moved to "inactive" but still altered
synapse, integrate into its structure,
and thus change the "inactive" but
"facilitated" synapse to "activate "
synapse.

emotions
PSP – conditioned specific input of
information

NSP – unconditioned specific

input of information
 HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – processes of memory
formation

1. phase: internalization of reticular formation

respectively, encoding of
new information selection of information enabled by
convergence and divergence

2. phase: establishing, sensory and associative

respectively, consolidation areas of brain cortex

3. phase: retrieving,
respectively, reproduction
of memorized Process of memory formation
allows transfer from short-term to
long-term memory

limbic system
Learning
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - learning

In the mechanism of learning are applied complex reactions of 4

interconnected areas:
Specific sensory-motor areas: lateral area of the brain cortex. In this area,
analysis and differentiation realize as well as appropriate specific reactions
begin.
Non-specific subcortical system: therein, orientation reflex arises at the
application of the new stimulus, which is also manifested by changes in EEG.
Orientation reflex ensures focusing of attention on information about
unconditioned and the conditioned stimulus and perception of other signals is
inhibeted by lateral inhibition. It is reinforced through the reticular formation.
Limbic system: supports learning by delivering of motivational content and
emotional colouration.
System of temporal lobe: this system allows to store information and
connect them with pre-encoded messages. Some areas are the "key" that on
the basis of similarity of sensory stimulus "unlock" memory traces, stored
in other parts of the brain and brain stem.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY - learning

Major systems of CNS involved in the learning process and their

functions
1. Creation of a temporary connections
between the centers of reflexes in the
cerebral cortex conditioned by specific
afferentation (SA).

2. Ensuring of a awaking and facilitation

of the learning process by reticular
activating system (RAS) mediated by
non-specific afferentation (NSA).

3. Facilitation of learning by motivation, eye

especially with the participation of the
limbic system (LS). (specific respond)

4. Encoding and decoding of memory by

tongue
temporal lobe (TL).
Speech
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – cortical location of speech

Broca’s motor centre of speech

- it located in the posterior part of the frontal gyrus and closely neighborns with motor
projection area of the brain

Wernicke’s sensory centre of speech

- it lies between the parietal and occipital lobe near the auditory center, nearly
acoustic associative field, closely neighborns with the sensory projection area of the
brain

Diferentiation centre of speech

- it located in the parietal associative area (in circumflex gyrus) and relates with the
recognition of single words, with understanding of hearing speech and with thinking
in advance. This area probably extends to the temporal lobe.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – cortical location of speech

Speaking a heard word

motor cortex
Wernicke’s
area
Broca’s area

hear Auditory
words cortex
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – cortical location of speech

Speaking a written word

motor cortex Wernicke’s
area
Broca’s area

see
Visual
words
cortex
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – cortical location of speech

Speech disorders at maintenance other sensory and motor

functions:

Disorders of understanding of speech – sensory (Wernicke's) aphasia:

- it is a sensory (receptive) failure of speech at the lesions of temporal lobes
(Wernicke's area). Patients say smoothly, quickly and without grammar, with many
phonetic and semantic (eg. the mother instead of women) paraphrases. Any idea is not
expressed. Patients lose the ability to read and does not understand to spoken speech.

Disorders of reproduction of speech – motor (Broca’s) aphasia:

- it is a motor speech failure at lesions of the Broca's area. Patients speak with effort,
but only keywords (telegram style). Articulation and intonation are bad. They
understand to spoken and written speech. They know exactly what they want to say
but can not realize it. In experiments about speech, they mostly keep the grammatical
rules.
Nominal aphasia:
- it is a disorder where the patient says and as well as understood, but he is not
able to find appropriate words, which he needs to expression of ideas.
HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY – cortical location of speech

At the disorders of several areas, global aphasia occures.

A - Disorder of written speech

M - Disorder of spoken speech

S - Reduced ability to
understand to spoken word S
H - Reduced ability to
understand to writing
SLEEP AND AWAKE
SLEEP AND AWAKE – characteristics of awake

Awake
Is the physiological state with the dynamic communication of organism with
environment.

For the maintenance of awake is necessary intact function of:

- reticular formation and its activatory influence for hemispheres

- rostral parts of brain, mesencephalon, diencephalon and limbic system
- hypothalamus

Awake is result of continual processing of informations not only on the level

of the sensory centres in various CNS levels but also in level nonspecific
integrative systems, from all informative systems communicating with
external environment.
SLEEP AND AWAKE – transition between awake and
sleep

Transitory states between awake and sleep differ by various relations

between force of stimulation and response.

Countervailing phase – weak as well as strong stimuli give the same effect.

Paradoxical phase – strong stimulus produces weaker response and weak

stimulus produces stronger response.

Phase of inhibition – it is general inhibition of the reflex reactions.

SLEEP AND AWAKE – characteristics of sleep

Sleep
Is very important physiological state, necessary for regeneration
of organism.
Sleep is definied as antagonism of awake, thus as reversible
attenuation or loss of contact with environment.

is not absolute in sleep intensity

is not absolute in sleep extensity

Sleep is nervous phenomenon characterized by the decrease of cortical

neuron excitability to the sensory stimuli – it is inhibitory state. The deep of
this state can be determined by the intensity of the sensory stimulus, which
disrupts sleep.
SLEEP AND AWAKE – temporal course of the natural
sleep from viewpoint of phase duration and changing

Sleep has dual and

cyclic character, where EEG (Hz)

we can distinguish 2 30

types of sleep:
awake awake
Ortodoxical sleep
- synchronized, slow, 20 REM REM REM REM
NREM sleep with δ-
rhythm
- 80 – 85% of sleep is
this type of sleep 10

NREM NREM NREM NREM NREM

Paradoxical sleep
- desynchronized,
rapid, REM sleep
- 15 – 20% of sleep is
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
this type of sleep
time (min)
SLEEP AND AWAKE – EEG during awake and sleep
alpha beta alpha
awake
eyes closed eyes open eyes closed

alpha theta alpha

1. stage

K complex

sleep spindle

2. and 3. stage

delta

4. stage

REM sleep
SLEEP AND AWAKE – differences between NONREM
and REM sleep
Determinant NONREM sleep REM sleep

EEG δ-rhythm β-rhythm

Frequency of breathing lower and regular increased and irregular
Frequency of systola lower and regular increased and irregular
Tone of skeletal muscles low disappear
Movement of eye bulbs without movements rapid
Deep of sleep larger lesser
Metabolism of brain low increased about 20%
Blood flow non-changed significant increased
Share on the total sleep
duration
- in adults 80% 20%
- in newborn babies 50% 50%
Dreams rare almost regular with the
sensory content
SLEEP AND AWAKE – theories about sleep

Circulatory and historic sleep theory – periodicity of awake and sleep is

conditioned by the changes of the blood flow in the brain or by the change of
the neuron shape, which in consequence of this change, stops to receive
information from environment.

Chemical sleep theory – goes out from conception about the inhibitory effect
of some substances, final products of metabolism (lactate, CO2, cholesterol).

Humoral sleep theory – goes out from conception of existence of substance,

which is present in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Substance has protein
character and produces deep, slow sleep in animals – DSIP (delta sleep
induced peptid). Other substance, which is able produces slow sleep is
factor S. Serotonin released from neurons of the brain stem produces
drowsiness and sleep, adrenaline keeps awake.
SLEEP AND AWAKE – theories about sleep

Cortical sleep theory – sleep is generalized inhibition, which is gradually

spreaded in both hemispheres, but some centres can be stay in the activated
state at the deep sleep. This theory distinguishes 2 types of sleep: active
sleep as consequence of the inhibitory process and pasive sleep as
consequence of the efferent brain deprivation.

Theory of the sleep centres – sleep is possible produced by the stimulation

of the various brain nuclei in subcortical structures (for example, in reticular
formation or hypothalamus).
Theory about the pasive sleep onset – emphasized the meaning of the
reticular modulatory system of the brain stem and nonspecific nuclei of
thalamus.
Electrophysiological sleep theory – slow and rapid sleep are not two phases
of the same functional state, but they are the different states, which change
each other.