dropped.
These terminal velocities are in the order of 12m/s for square, triangular and semi-circular, are calculated using FEA.
the worst case scenarios. DROPS [2] presented impact energies
of various dropped objects based on the data available from
different partner companies. They concluded qualitatively that
the impact energies of the dropped objects greater than 50kJ can
result in significant damage to any subsea equipment and is
likely to release hydrocarbons. Won et. al. [7] used energy
method to determine the impact energy associated with a
cylindrical dropped object and studied the effect of the dropped
object on the seabed strength using a modified bearing resistance
model. They concluded that modified bearing resistance model
can predict the strength of seabed soil for dropped object impact
loads with reasonable accuracy.
Several studies have used finite element analysis (FEA) to
investigate the damage caused by dropped objects on subsea
equipment. For example, Kawsar et. al. [8] used FEA to study
the impact damage caused by dropped objects on corroded
subsea pipelines and plotted results between impact energy and
pipeline indentation. Sun et. al. [9] also used FEA to study the
impact of dropped object on a stiffened metallic plate. They
concluded that damage caused by cylindrical dropped objects is
larger than a rectangular shaped dropped objects.
Impact absorption capacity of the protection cover is the key
parameter to determine vulnerability of the protection cover to
dropped objects. In this regard, very few guidelines are available
in the open literature. NORSOK U-002 [10] has recommended
that subsea protection covers for structures other than multi well
structures should have an impact absorption capacity of 20kJ for
a dropped object of diameter 500mm and 5kJ for a dropped
object of diameter 100mm. Wang et. al. [11] used SACS, a
commercial code based on finite element method (FEM), to
compute the impact absorption capacity of a trapezoidal
pipeline-end-terminal protection cover and predicted the impact
absorption capacity utilization to be 0.88 for a dropped object
impact energy of 47.48kJ.
Through the literature review it has been found that studies have
been carried out to compute the impact energies of the offshore
dropped objects using energy method. In order to apply energy
method, several parameters of the dropped object are required,
for example, drag coefficient and terminal velocity. These
parameters are either obtained from a manufacturer’s data or are
qualitatively predicted. Therefore, in the present study, a
methodology is proposed to determine these parameters in order
to calculate impact energies from the energy method. This
methodology is further used to predict the impact energies of
different offshore dropped objects and the obtained results are
compared with DROPS [2] data.
Additionally, to the authors’ knowledge, no comprehensive study
on the dropped object impact absorption capacities of Glass
Reinforced Plastics (GRP) protection covers, with different cross
sections, have been carried out. Therefore, impact absorption
capacities of three different GRP cover cross-sections, i.e.,
2 Copyright © 2017 by ASME
FEA has been extensively used in the existing literature to
compute impact absorption capacities of different subsea
structures.
The present study shows a numerical method for the calculation
of impact energy carried by the dropped objects in the Section 2
and the calculation of impact absorption capacity of the three
different GRP cover cross-sections using FEA in Section 3.
Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 4.
Out of a large possible list of dropped objects, several dropped
objects are subjectively selected. The offshore industries are
performing quantitative risk assessment (QRA) in official safety
assessments to mitigate risks and upsurge protection in offshore
assets.
2 DROPPED OBJECTS IMPACT ENERGIES
In this section, a method is presented to compute the impact
energies of the offshore dropped objects. The dropped objects are
qualitatively selected from oil and gas and fishing activities. The
results are also compared with the published data and
conclusions are then drawn.
2.1 Mathematical Model and Numerical Procedure
According to the energy method given in NORSOK N-004
[1], Wimpey Laboratories [5], DNV-RP-C204 [6] and Wang et.
al. [11], impact energy (I) carried by a mass falling in the sea
under the influence of gravitational force is equal to its kinetic
energy as following:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐼= (1)
2
where, 𝑚 is the mass and 𝑣 is the velocity of the dropped
object.
𝑣 becomes equal to the terminal velocity (𝑣𝑡 ), when the drag
forces on the dropped object becomes equal to the hydrodynamic
weight of the falling object. Here, 𝑣𝑡 is defined as the maximum
attainable velocity by a body of specific mass and shape, falling
through a fluid of specific density according to Cengel and
Cimbala [12]. To simplify the present model, 𝑣𝑡 is used for the
calculation of impact energies of the dropped objects. This
implies that the present model is only applicable for the water
depths greater than 100m because Wimpey Laboratories [5] have
discovered that dropped objects achieve their terminal velocities
in the water depths with the order of 100m. According to Cengel
and Cimbala [12] the definition of 𝑣𝑡 :
𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑣𝑡 2
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑏 = (2)
2
 1
rearranging Equation (2) gives: Start iteration
with an initial
guess of
2(𝑚𝑔 − 𝑏) 5 terminal
𝑣𝑡 = √ (3) velocity, ivt 2
𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴 Solve
d=|i+1vt - ivt|, Calculate Re
if d approches zero, from Eq. 4 for
where 𝑏 is the buoyancy force, 𝐶𝐷 is the drag coefficient and iv is the terminal
t
the initial
𝐴 is the projected area of the dropped object, 𝜌 is the density velocity, else guess, ivt
continue iteration
of sea water and 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration.

In order to calculate 𝑣𝑡 from the Equation 3, 𝐶𝐷 of the dropped Calculate the

updated terminal Select a CD for the
objects are necessary. The geometries of the offshore dropped calculated Re from 3
4 velocity, i.e., i+1vt
objects are complex in shape and require experiments or from Eq. 3 using the published
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to calculate selected CD literature
drag coefficients. This data is not available in open literature Figure 1. Terminal velocity convergence algorithm.
because of the complexity associated in performing experiments
or CFD simulations of complicated dropped object shapes
subject to very high Reynolds number (Re) flows. Therefore, an 2.2 An Example of Dropped Object Impact Energy
alternate technique is considered applicable to predict these Calculation using Approximation Method
hydrodynamic quantities. The 𝐶𝐷 values of the dropped objects
can be estimated by comparing the geometries of the dropped Consider the subsea tree as a dropped object. It is observed
objects with the standard geometries, i.e., the geometries that that 𝑚 of the subsea tree varies from 40,000 kg to 50,000 kg in
have known values of 𝐶𝐷 . Although the actual 𝐶𝐷 values of the the catalogues from different suppliers, see [14] as an example.
dropped objects may differ marginally from the estimated values, 50,000 kg is the highest 𝑚 and thus used as a reasonable
this technique will help to predict the order of the impact energies approximation for the calculation purpose. Similarly, the 𝑉, 𝐴
associated with different dropped objects. Secondly, the and 𝐿 of the subsea tree are estimated to be 15 m3, 6 m2 and
geometries of the different dropped objects also vary from one 4 m respectively. 𝑉 is estimated based on the swept volume of
supplier to another and it is not feasible to investigate a certain the fully submerged subsea tree, whereas, 𝐴 and 𝐿 are
supplier’s specific geometries of all the dropped objects in estimated by approximating the leading face of the subsea tree
particular. Thus, the shape generalization helps understand the as a rectangular shape. According to Cengel and Cimbala [12],
overall behavior of the dropped objects and eases the complexity 𝑏 is defined as follows:
in determining 𝑚, 𝐴 and swept volume (𝑉). These numbers are
available in the catalogues of the offshore equipment by various 𝑏 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔 (5)
suppliers. A generalization can be established by averaging these
numbers. here, 𝜌 = 1025 kg/m3 and 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s. Therefore, from
Equation 5, 𝑏 = 151 kN. Based on the approach shown in
In the present study, 𝑅𝑒 is defined as following: Figure 1, if 𝑖.𝑣𝑡 = 10.25 m/s, 𝑅𝑒 from Equation 4 becomes
equal to 1.28×107 and the corresponding 𝐶𝐷 = 1.05 from
𝑣𝑡 𝐿 Sadraey [13]. Putting these values in Equation 3 gives:
𝑅𝑒 = (4)
ʋ
2(𝑚𝑔 − 𝑏)
where L is the characteristic length of the dropped object and ʋ 𝑖+1
.𝑣𝑡 =√ = 10.25 m/s
is the kinematic viscosity of the water taken as 1×106 m2/s in the 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴
present study. To calculate Re, 𝑣𝑡 is required; and to and
calculate 𝑣𝑡 , 𝐶𝐷 is required from the published data. However, | 𝑖+1.𝑣𝑡 − 𝑖.𝑣𝑡 | ≈ 0
Re is required to select the corresponding 𝐶𝐷 from the published
data, for example, see Sadraey [13]. Consequently, in order to therefore, 𝑣𝑡 = 10.25 m/s for the subsea tree. 𝑣𝑡 is further used
have a converged solution for 𝑣𝑡 , an iterative approach is needed. to calculate I from Equation 1 as following:
Figure 1 shows the iterative approach that is used in the present
study to estimate the values of 𝑣𝑡 for different dropped objects. 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐼= = 2627 kJ
2

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